Chapter 3

Rice Straw-Based Composting

Nguyen Thanh Nghi, Ryan R. Romasanta, Nguyen Van Hieu,

Le Quang Vinh, Nguyen Xuan Du, Nguyen Vo Chau Ngan,
Pauline Chivenge, and Nguyen Van Hung

Abstract  Current practices in rice production leave a huge amount of wet straw on
the field, which cannot be used as feed or for food production. Compost production
is one way of effectively utilizing rice straw. Spent rice straw from mushroom pro-
duction is also used as compost but this has low nutrient value and is poorly decom-
posed when using it as a soil improver. This wet, low-quality straw, as well as
byproducts from mushroom and cattle feed production, could be used to produce
better-quality compost to return nutrients back to the field. Mechanization in mixing
the materials, i.e., a compost turner, is necessary to have good aeration, increase the
decomposition process, and reduce labor cost. This chapter provides an overview of
composting technology and current practices of rice-straw composting. Updated
information on this topic, resulting under the current BMZ-funded IRRI rice-straw
management project (2016–2019), which has been implemented in Vietnam and the
Philippines, is also included here, particularly in the sections on vermin-composting
and mechanized composting.

Keywords  Rice straw · Compost turner · Organic fertilizer

N. T. Nghi (*) · L. Q. Vinh

Nong Lam University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
R. R. Romasanta · P. Chivenge · N. V. Hung
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]
N. Van Hieu
Tien Giang University, Tien Giang, Vietnam
N. X. Du
Sai Gon University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
N. V. C. Ngan
Can Tho University, Can Tho, Vietnam
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s) 2020 33

M. Gummert et al. (eds.), Sustainable Rice Straw Management,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32373-8_3
34 N. T. Nghi et al.

3.1  Overview of Composting Technology

Composting converts organic mass, such as rice straw, other agricultural by-­
products, digestive, animal wastes, etc., into a more decomposed product, called
compost. Composting is necessary because it can help to increase significantly the
quality of the compost product based on the optimized nutrient factors and the
decomposition process (Diaz et al. 2007). Compost is used as a soil improver or
directly as a planting substrate. Application of compost results in an increase in, not
only crop yield, but also soil fertility (Goyal et al. 2009; Vo-Van-Binh et al. 2014).
Compost quality is strongly affected by the factors happening during the com-
posting process, such as temperature, pH, carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (C/N), etc. These
factors can be controlled through bio-, chemical-, and physical methods or a combi-
nation of these to optimize the composting processes and products. This chapter
provides an overview of the main factors including temperature, pH, C/N ratio,
moisture content, and properties of the feedstock.

3.1.1  Properties of Materials

In composting, waste products are mixed followed by creating conditions to enable

biological decomposition to result in a higher-quality organic resource. The speed
of the composting process and the quality of compost depend on the type, quality,
and chemical and physical properties of the raw materials, conditions, and environ-
ment during the process. Typical physical and chemical properties of different raw
materials for composting are shown in Table 3.1.

3.1.2  Temperature

Temperature effects on the composting process can be divided into the four phases,
(1) mesophilic, (2) thermophilic, (3) cooling, and (4) maturing. During the initial
phase of decomposition and break down of compounds, heat is generated due to the
bio-oxidative microbial degradation (Diaz et al. 2007). This phase is facilitated by
mesophilic bacteria, which become less competitive as temperature increases up to
approximately 40  °C when thermophilic bacteria become predominant. At about
55 °C, destruction of plant pathogens occurs (Shilev et al. 2007) and then complete
hygienization takes place at temperatures of 60 °C and above (Shilev et al. 2007).
However, temperatures exceeding 65 °C should be avoided as they may harm even
useful microbes (Shilev et  al. 2007). According to Haug (1980), the composting
temperature has to be above 55 °C for three consecutive days to kill the pathogens.
The temperature of compost reaches 60  °C after 10  days and lowers to ambient
temperature from 60 to 90  days of composting (Jusoh et  al. 2013). Temperature
3  Rice Straw-Based Composting 35

Table 3.1  Chemical and physical properties of raw materials for composting
Properties
TOC C N C/N MC
Feedstock pH (%) (%) (%) ratio (%) Sources
Rice straw 7.6 39.2 61.3 11.4 Jusoh et al.
(2013)
40.2 0.7 55.1 10.2 Qiu et al.
(2013)
47.0 1.3 35.3 IRRI (2019)
Spent rice straw after mushroom 14.3 0.7 21.9
production
13.3 0.9 14.3
Banana trunk 39.6 90
Sawdust 50.8 0.8 60.4 4.6 Qiu et al.
(2013)
Green waste 6.5 15.3 8.4 79.0 Jusoh et al.
(2013)
Goat manure 7.1 35.6 13.0 58.0
Cow manure 12.9 0.9 14.5 IRRI (2019)
11.4 0.8 14.0
Hog manure 15.3 0.9 16.5 53.6 Qiu et al.
(2013)
TOC total organic carbon, C/N ratio carbon/nitrogen ratio, MC moisture content, N nitrogen, P
phosphorus, K Potassium

could be controlled effectively through aeration and mixing in the cooling-down

stage. The final humus is then produced after the maturing phase.
Temperature patterns during the composting process with effective microorgan-
isms (EMs) and without EMs similarly have been shown to fluctuate over time
(IRRI 2019; Jusoh et al. 2013). These studies conducted the experiments on vermi-­
composting using rice straw, cow manure, shredded banana trunk, and African
Night Crawler (ANC). The temperature profile during composting is shown in
Fig. 3.1. Temperature of the composts reaches to 70 °C during the first and second
phases (thermophilic) of the composting process, and then cools down to from 22 to
35 °C finally balancing with the ambient temperature.

3.1.3  pH Value of Composting Environment

The pH also strongly affects the composting process. High pH together with high
temperature at the beginning of composting can cause a loss of nitrogen through
ammonia volatilization (Diaz et al. 2007). Generally, pH of organic matters used for
composting widely varies from 3 to 11 (Bertoldi et  al. 1984). In some specific
research, the optimized pH value is 7.60 ± 0.08 for rice straw, 7.10 ± 0.08 for goat
manure, and 6.5 ± 0.48 for green waste (Jusoh et al. 2013). In research results under
36 N. T. Nghi et al.

Mesophilic
Thermophilic Cooling Maturing
70
60
Temperature, 0C

50
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Days of composting
Ambient temperature Composting without EM
Composting with EM Composting without ANC
Composting with ANC Four phases of microbial activity

Fig. 3.1  Temperature profile during composting of rice straw mixed with cow manure, shredded
banana trunk, and ANC, adapted from Jusoh et al. (2013), Shilev et al. (2007), and IRRI (2019)

the BMZ-IRRI rice-straw management project (IRRI 2019), the pH value of com-
post after production was from 6.80 to 6.85 (Table 3.1), which are in line with the
recommended range of from 6.9 to 8.3 at the end of composting (Ameen et al. 2016;
Diaz et al. 2007; El-Haddad et al. 2014).

3.1.4  Carbon-to-Nitrogen Ratio

The ratio of carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N ratio) in the mixing compound depends on the
C/N ratio of the materials and its mixing ratio. It is computed based on the Eq. (3.1):

W1 * C1 + W2 * C2 +¼. + Wn * Cn
C/N = (3.1)
W1 * N1 + W2 * N 2 +¼. + Wn * N n

Where:
W1, W2,… Wn = weight of single materials
C1, C2, … Cn = organic carbon content of single materials
N1, N2, … Nn = Nitrogen content of single materials
The C/N ratio of the residue to be composted is one the most important factors
affecting the quality and period of composting. In addition, the composition and the
mixing ratio of the raw materials used for composting influence the quality of the
compost. For an optimal process, a C/N ratio in the range of 20–30 is generally
3  Rice Straw-Based Composting 37

recommended (Vigneswaran et al. 2016). Higher ratios lead to longer composting

periods due to slower decomposition whereas, at lower ratios, nitrogen can be rap-
idly lost by conversion into gaseous forms (as ammonia or nitrogen), affecting the
compost quality. Thus, it is necessary to mix straw with a high-quality organic mate-
rial such as manure in order to have a suitable ratio of C/N (25–30) for composting
process (Ameen et  al. 2016). Due to the low C/N ratio of cattle manure, it was
adjusted to 25 by adding sawdust or rice straw (Qiu et al. 2013; Jusoh et al. 2013).

3.1.5  Moisture Content of Substrates

The moisture content of the composting materials affects the availability of oxygen
for microbial processes. Water is essential for the decomposition process and water
stress is among the most common limitations on microbial activity on solid sub-
strates. However, when moisture levels exceed 65%, air in the pore spaces of the
raw materials is displaced by water, which leads to anaerobic conditions, odors, and
slower decomposition (Pace et al. 1995; Sherman 1999). Moisture content of the
mixture was maintained at 60%, which is the optimum level for microbial activity
(Goyal and Sindhu 2011; Diaz et al. 2007). To maintain the moisture content at an
optimal range of 50–65% (wet basic), water is added to the compost during turning
periods. After the turning process, a plastic sheet is used to cover the windrow to
retain the moisture content and prevent excessive loss of heat (Vigneswaran et al.
2016; Jusoh et al. 2013). At the end of the composting process, the moisture content
of the compost should be about 30% to prevent any further biological activity in the
stabilized material (Diaz et al. 2007).

3.2  Current Practices for Rice-Straw Composting

3.2.1  Vermi-composting

Vermi-composting is a biological process of bio-oxidation and stabilization of

organic material involving the joint action of earthworms and microorganisms (Aira
et  al. 2002). While microbes are responsible for the biochemical degradation of
organic matter, earthworms serve as the important drivers of the process in condi-
tioning the substrate and alteration of biological activity. The end product, or vermi-­
compost, is a finely divided peat-like material with high porosity and water-holding
capacity that contains most nutrients in forms that are readily taken up by the plants
(Dominguez and Edwards 2004). The invertebrates have indirect effects on the
structure and activities of bacterial and fungal communities through inoculum dis-
persal, grazing, litter combination, gut passage, and aggregate formation (Anderson
1987). The use of earthworms in compost heaps, beds or boxes makes the process
38 N. T. Nghi et al.

Fig. 3.2  ANCs are incorporated in the windrows after the anaerobic stage of decomposition (left)
and harvested around 80–90 days (right)

faster for the breakdown of organic waste and its decomposition, i.e., composting
(Edwards et al. 1989; Gaur and Sadasivam 1993).
Vermi-composting technology is employed using windrows for composting.
A windrow consists of layers rice straw, manure, and shredded banana trunks.
Water is added during windrow building to reach a moisture content of 60%,
which is a suitable condition for composting. A field trial of vermi-composting
was conducted in 2017–2018 at IRRI in the Philippines (IRRI 2019). The experi-
ment was set up with a windrow height of 1 m, a width of 1.5 m. It was composed
of four layers of rice straw, cow manure, and shredded banana trunk (Fig. 3.2).
From the total amount produced in every windrow, it is expected to recover 50%
of the vermicast.
The vermi-compost consists of two composting stages, anaerobic and aerobic.
Anaerobic composting is implemented during the first 40 days by covering the com-
post heap with a plastic sheet that reduces the exchange of air between the atmo-
sphere and the compost. The covers are then removed for the next 40–50 days. The
ANC, which is introduced during the aeration phase, is one the popular species of
earthworm used for this process. Watering of the windrows is also essential for ANC
to thrive, grow, and be efficient in producing vermicast. Water is applied for every
windrow, 100 L for 1000 kg of composting materials for every other day from day
40 to day 80, and daily from day 81 to day 93. To efficiently manage water use, drip-­
irrigation technology is recommended. The vermicast recovery ratio is 1:2, which
means that, with a total input of 1000  kg of compost, 500  kg of vermicast are
recovered.

3.2.2  Mechanized Windrow Composting

The windrow-composting method consists of linear rows of compost materials

(rice straw and cow manure), which are placed layer by layer and mechanically
turned periodically. The air contained in the interspaces of the composting mass
3  Rice Straw-Based Composting 39

varies in composition. The CO2 content gradually increases and the O2 level falls
during composting process. The concentration of O2 for composting varies from 15
to 20%. (Diaz et al. 2007). Thus, the turning process helps improve aeration and
mixing of compost constituents. The windrow composting method relies on
mechanical aeration, typically with a compost windrow turner, to optimize the
composting process. During turning, microbial inoculum is mixed with water and
sprayed in the windrow to speed up the composting process and obtain the required
moisture content. The interval between turnings is usually 10–14 days (IRRI 2019),
but 15-day intervals have also been reported (Muzamil 2012). After turning, the
windrow is covered using a plastic sheet to maintain the proper moisture content
and temperature. The height and width of the windrows are typically set to fit the
size of the turner.
A mechanical windrow composting system comprises main components of
turner and tractor (Fig. 3.3a; IRRI 2019). A windrower or compost turner presented
in IRRI (2019) comprises six main parts: turning drum, universal joints, trail link-
age, wheels, gear box, and frame and housing (Fig. 3.3b).
The turner is pulled by a tractor through a trail linkage system. The rotor of the
turner is powered by the tractor’s power-take-off shaft. The blades installed on the
drum rotate to turn the materials in the windrow when the machine moves for-
ward. After the turning, the substrates are pushed to the middle of windrow.
According to IRRI (2019), the turner hauled by a 30- to 50-HP tractor has a
capacity of 30 t/h.
The resulting compost can help improve rice productivity (see Chap. 9) and other
crops, particularly vegetables. Additionally, the application of the compost to rice
production decreases greenhouse gas emissions compared to when fresh straw is
incorporated in situ (see Chap. 10). The process serves to bring value to the waste
products that would otherwise have environmental consequences.

Fig. 3.3a Mechanical
windrow composting
system with tractor and
turner
40 N. T. Nghi et al.

Fig. 3.3b  Structure of the Frame and housing

compost turner designed
under the BMZ-IRRI Gear box
project (IRRI 2019)

Wheel
Turning drum

Universal joint

Trail linkage

3.3  Conclusions and Recommendations

The best practices of composting described here can help optimize the quality and
nutrient efficiency of the mixture of rice straw and animal manure used to improve
soil and crop productivity.
The application of composting technology and the compost turner can contribute
to reducing labor costs in turning, creating alternative uses for rice straw, and
increasing farmers’ income by adding value to rice and other related uses, such as
mushroom production. In addition, increasing the value of the rice straw, especially
low-quality straw, leads farmers to avoid burning it in the field.

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