Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development www.iiste.

org
ISSN 2222-1700 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2855 (Online)
Vol.5, No.15 2014

Analysis of Coffee Marketing Cost and Margins in South West,

Ethiopia
Dessalegn Gachena, Solomon Kebebew
Wolkite University, College of Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Economics, Wolkite, Ethiopia
E-mail address: [email protected]

Abstract
The aims of this study were to identifying the existing coffee marketing channel, and estimating coffee
marketing cost and margins. A two stage random sampling techniques was used to select 15 PAs and 150 coffee
growers from the two major coffee producing woredas of the zone, while a purposive sampling technique was
employed to select 40 traders and seven processors. Both primary and secondary data were used for this study.
Descriptive statistics were employed to analyze the data. The result of marketing costs, margin and benefit
analysis imply that coffee collectors incurred the lowest cost which was 7.97 birr per 17 kg. Coffee producers
bear the highest cost followed by wholesalers which was 104.98 birr and 48.67 birr per 17, kg respectively. The
average coffee wholesaler retained significant annual total net benefit than producers and coffee collectors. The
estimated annual net benefits of a typical coffee producer, collector and wholesaler were birr 3879.88, 1708.28,
and 390257.06, respectively. This implies that coffee trading is highly profitable at the wholesale level. The
producers’ share as a percentage of wholesale prices is low as compared to farmers in other regions of the
country.
Keywords: Coffee, margins, coffee marketing channel, producers, traders

1. INTRODUCTION
Ethiopian coffee production systems are broadly categorized into four namely; forest coffee (8-10%), semi-forest
(30-35%), garden or cottage (50-55%) and plantation (5-6%) MOA (2008). It is the most important cash crop
with superior quality and organic in nature, indicating the huge potential of fetching high price premium in both
domestic and the international markets. Ethiopia is the world’s 6th largest coffee producer, and Africa’s top
producer, with 273,400 metric tonnes in 2008 (FAOSTAT, 2011). Export earnings from coffee grew by 19.7%
as a result of a 19.4 % increase in the volume of exports contributing to significant rise to the country export
earnings, while its average national prices remain as its preceding fiscal level. It also accounts for more than
25 % of GDP absorbs around 25% of employment opportunity for both rural and urban dwellers and 10% of the
total government revenue (MOA, 2008).
Furthermore, the Ethiopian Investment Agency (2011) reported that the country exported 179,283
tonnes of coffee with a value of about US$562 million which accounted for 24% of the total quantity, 50% of
the total value of agricultural products exported and 26% of the total value of country’s export in 2008.
According to ECX (2011), agricultural markets in Ethiopia before 2008 had been characterized by small scale
producers (95%), high costs and risks of transacting and little access to market information. Aklilu and Ludi
(2012) indicated that even though the government deals with coffee marketing, still the country has been
constrained by poor marketing performance of agricultural products in general and coffee sub-sector in particular.
The weak performance of the agricultural markets in Ethiopia has been recognized in various studies as the
major impediments to the growth of the agricultural sector and the overall economy (FAO, 2011). In addition,
without an efficient marketing system, the surplus resulting from increased production benefits neither the
producer nor the country (Jema, 2008).
The Bench Maji zone Agriculture and Rural Development (2012) reported that about 13,421 tonnes of
coffee were produced in the Bench Maji zone in the year 2011. This represents about 12.6% of SNNPRs output
and 4.4% of Ethiopia’s total output. Given the economic and social importance of coffee to the country in
general and the Bench Maji zone in particular, an efficient marketing system may contribute to an increase in the
marketable surplus by scaling-down the losses arising out of the inefficient processing, storage, and
transportation. It guarantees the farmers better prices for their products and induces them to invest their surplus
in the purchase of modern inputs so that productivity my increase (Kohls and Uhl, 1998). The current study aims
for analyzing and evaluating coffee market channel and profitability of coffee production and margins in
Southwest Ethiopia; the case of Bench Maji zone.

2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
2.1. Description of the Study Area
This study was conducted in Bench Maji Zone, South West Ethiopia the case of Bench Maji. It is one of the 13
zones in the Southern Nations, Nationalities and People’s Region (SNNPR) of Ethiopia. It is located at 651 kms
southwest of Addis Ababa. The zone comprises of 10 with a total of 230 peasant associations (PAs). Among

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Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1700 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2855 (Online)
Vol.5, No.15 2014

these 10 woredas, Sheko and South Bench are the leading coffee producing woredas of the zone (BMZARD,
2008). Therefore, this study particular has been undertaken in these two coffee producing districts of the Zone.
2.2. Sources and Methods of Data Collection
Both primary and secondary data were used for the study. The primary data were collected from sample coffee
producers and traders by using structured questionnaires and informal survey. Separate questionnaires were
designed for sampled farmers and traders. The questionnaires were pretested before the actual data collection
practices. In addition to the questionnaire, an informal survey in the form of market visit and focussed group
discussions were employed to acquire additional supporting information. Discussions were made with key
informant farmers, coffee traders, and coffee marketing experts at the respective woreds and zonal level. In
addition to primary data, secondary data were collected from Bench Maji zone Agriculture and Rural
Development and from agricultural office of the two major sampled, Bench Maji zone Trade and Industry office,
Bench Maji zone Finance and Tax office, Cooperative Union, CSA, MOA and EXC.
2.3. Sample Size and Methods of Sampling
The sample respondents were coffee growing farmers, coffee collectors, coffee suppliers/ wholesalers, coffee
hullers and pulpiers. Both purposive and random sampling techniques were used to select the two woredas and
producers, respectively. The list of coffee producing woreds in the study area was obtained from the Zonal
Office of Agriculture and Rural Development and then after, Sheko and South Bench woreds were purposively
selected on the ground that they are the leading coffee producers in the zone.
After identifying the area, a two-stage random sampling techniques were used to select the PAs and
farm households. In the first stage, due to constraints of time and logistics, 7, and 8 PAs were randomly selected
from Sheko and South bench woredas respectively. In the second stage, a total of 150(70 from Sheko and 80
from South Bench) coffee growing farmers were drawn from the selected PAs using systematic random
sampling techniques. Moreover, 13 coffee wholesalers which also undertake coffee processing, 27 coffee
collectors, 3 coffees pulping and 4 coffee hulling firms were purposively selected for the analysis.
2.4. Method of Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics such as mean and frequency have been employed to describe the marketing costs and
margins. The structure-conduct-performance approach was used to analyse coffee market performance in terms
of marketing cost and profitability of actors along the major marketing channels.
Marketing Costs, Marketing Margins and Producers’ Share
Marketing costs, margins or price spreads analyses were undertaken to set strategies to tackle the problems in
coffee marketing. The net marketing margin of each intermediary (coffee collectors and wholesalers) in the two
main market channels was calculated as:
Gross marketing margin (GMM) = P1-P2 (1)

P1= price received by a middleman,

P2= price paid by the same middleman,
Or simply it is expressed in percent as:
Consumer price − Producer's price
TGMM = × 100 (2)
Consumer price
Where: TGMM is total gross marketing margin.
It is useful to introduce the idea of producer participation, farmer’s portion or producer’s gross margins (GMMP)
which is the portion of the price paid by the consumer that goes to the producer. In this study, producers’ share
of the coffee wholesalers’ price was computed for the two marketing channels.
Consumer price - Gross marketing margin
GMMp = × 100 (3)
Consumer price
The net marketing margin (NMM) is the percentage over the final price earned by the intermediary as his net
income once his marketing costs are deducted.
Gross margin - market cost
NMM = × 100 (4)
Consumer price
Higher NMM or profit of the marketing intermediaries reflects reduced downward and unfair income
distribution, which reduces market participation of producers. An efficient marketing system is where the net
margin is near to normal or reasonable profit.

3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

3.1. Current Coffee Marketing Channels of the Study Area
The study revealed that coffee passes through several stages before it reaches the ultimate consumers. These

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ISSN 2222-1700 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2855 (Online)
Vol.5, No.15 2014

stages were local collection station, processing, storage,and transporting, grading, exporting and domestic
distribution. Accordingly, the following coffee marketing channels were identified in the study area.
Channel I: Coffee growers-coffee collectors-wholesalers-coffee export market
Channel II: Coffee growers- wholesalers- coffee export market
Channel III: Forest coffee producers’ cooperatives-coffee export market/wholesalers
Channel IV: Coffee growers- cooperatives – coffee export market
Channel V: Coffee growers - consumers
Channel VI: Coffee plantation and development enterprises- Coffee export market
Among these, channel I is the principal coffee marketing channel through which sun-dried coffee passes from
coffee producers to coffee collectors and then processed coffee bean is passed from coffee wholesalers to
auction market. Following channel I, channel II is also well practiced coffee marketing channel through which
both forms coffee (red- cherry and sundried coffee) pass from coffee growers to wholesalers and processed
coffee then passes from wholesalers to the auction market. Channel III is a coffee marketing channel in which
the forest coffee is produced or purchased, processed and directly exported or delivered to coffee exporters at the
auction market. However, as compared to channel II this channel was not well practiced since at its youngest
stage. It was organized very recently as such its impact is not yet sound and in fact, this channel has to be
encouraged hoping it has a potential to fetch export earnings which the country needs badly. Sometimes there
was also the case when the forest coffee producers’ cooperatives purchase quality coffee from other coffee
growing farmers especially when-their own production is very limited in order to benefit from economies of
scale while selling at the export/ world market as indicated in channel IV.
Channel VI is the case of state farms such as Bebeka and Tepi Coffee Plantation and Development
Organization. In fact this channel is out of the scope of this research and the idea is simply to show the flow of
coffee. Figure 1 shows the current coffee marketing channel of the study area.
Farmers sell their coffee to the market place which is far from them. They sell their coffee in the form
of red cherry during harvesting seasons and in sun-dried form (locally named as Jenfel) after storing for some
months. About 21% of sampled farmers also sell their coffee in the form of Marbush (refers to locally hulled
coffee) due to the price advantages than Jenfel though such practice is forbidden by woreda office of agriculture.
Since it is manually hulled, marbush 1 contains significant amount of broken coffee beans which is usually
purchased by illegal traders and mixed with better once to earn price margin which in turn deteriorates the
quality of coffee. The main purchasers of coffee in the area were wholesalers, coffee collectors and cooperatives
in the given order as summarized in (Table 1)
Table 1. Estimate of quantity of coffee sold (85 kg sacks ) by sample farmers to different agents.
Coffee
Types of coffee Cooperatives Total
Coffee collectors Wholesaler
Red-cherry 1374 21764.7 600 23738.7
Sundried 5848.06 53764.7 300 59912.8
Source: Survey result, 2013.
Unlike the findings of Elias (2005), wholesalers purchase large amount of coffee both in the case of
sun dried and red cherry either directly or through their agents (Table 1). Coffee collectors were the next largest
purchasers of coffee followed by cooperative societies. In addition to licensed coffee traders, there was also an
involvement of illegal coffee traders in the study area through which coffee passes on to unlicensed traders.
Farmers sell their red cherry to illegal traders to meet the urgent cash needs especially those farmers who are
living in distant areas where there is a shortage of or no coffee washing service. Illegal traders earn price margin
by collecting coffee from house- to-house. They buy broken coffee beans for lesser price and mix them with
better quality coffee to earn price margin. About 58% of coffee growing farmers reported that illegal traders try
to pay similar price for both broken and quality coffee. As a result this action discouraged those farmers who
keep the quality of coffee since there is no extra pay. Unlicensed speculative middlemen purchase coffee from
producers and sell it to coffee collectors and make profit at the expense of farmers. There was no strong system
to control the actions of these traders. About 61 % of coffee traders reported that the failure to control illegal
traders and quality of Jenfel has led to deterioration coffee quality.
Coffee wholesalers and pulpiers were the major purchasers of red-cherry through their legal agents
(coffee collectors) in the study areas. Cooperatives also purchase some amount of red cherry. The amount of red
cherry presented to domestic consumers is insignificant. It is only that amount sold by wives and children.

1
Marbush refers to manually hulled/processed coffee at the farm level. It contains large proportion of broken coffee bean.

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Table 2. Percentage of sample farmers who sold red cherry to different agents
Woreda
Agents Sheko South Bench Total
N=80 N=70 N=150
Illegal traders 43.37 28.57 36.66
Private pulpiers 100 100 100
Coffee wholesalers 50.0 42.86 46.67
Cooperatives 8.75 14.29 16.67
Domestic consumers 1.25 2.85 2.00
Source: Survey results, 2013
According to the survey results, the dominant purchasers of sun dried coffee are coffee collectors and
wholesalers. In choosing buyers, most farmers (65.80%) reported that price is the primary decision variables.
About 69% of the sampled farmers reported that even though the price and the weighing scale of wholesalers
and private pulpier are considered preferable, selling to coffee collectors is easier because the time and cost of
transportation required in the exchange process are less demanding. The survey revealed that 50.67% of farm
households sold their sun-dried coffee to coffee collectors in 20008. Even though the direct transaction between
farmers and wholesalers was officially forbidden previously, 53 farmers (about 35.33% from the total) reported
to have sold to wholesalers. This percent varies across Woredas which is 40% and 31.25% in Bench and Sheko
Woredas respectively. Farmers also sell sun-dried coffee to illegal traders, cooperatives and domestic consumers.
In this respect, about 23% of the sample farmers reported to have sold their coffee to illegal traders. The major
reason why farmers sell to illegal traders is the fact that these traders are sometimes willing to offer a better price
and collect coffee through home to home visit which reduces the transportation and other costs to the producers.
About 11% and 6% sample farmers also reported that they had sold sun-dried coffee to cooperatives and
domestic consumers, respectively (Table 3).
Table 3. Proportion of sample farmers who sold sun dried coffee to different agents in percent (Multiple
responses).
Woredas
Agents Sheko South Bench Total
N=80 N=70 N=150
Legal coffee collectors 50.00 51.43 50.67
Unlicensed coffee collectors 25.00 21.43 23.33
Wholesalers 31.25 40.00 35.33
Cooperatives 12.50 8.57 10.66
Domestic consumers 5.00 7.14 6.00
Source: Own survey result, 2013.
Results presented in Table 4 show that all coffee collectors purchase coffee from farmers, as they also used to
purchase from unlicensed traders. As previously indicated, unlicensed traders purchase coffee from farmers and
sell to legal collectors making a profit at the expense of farmers.

Woreds
Sources of supply Sheko South Bench Total
N=7 N=20 N=150
Coffee growing farmers 100.0 85.00 88.89
Unlicensed traders 71.43 50.00 55.56
Source: Own survey result, 2013.
Most coffee collectors sell the purchased coffee on the same day as reported by 72.8%. However, some
collectors (27.2%) responded that they store for some times (more than two months) for speculative purposes.
The absence of buyers which might happen sometimes also forces them to store coffee for sometimes until it is
sold. During market survey it was observed that farm-gate price is not fixed at uniform level. Different prices
(with marginal difference among individuals between 10 to 25 cents per kg of Jenfel) prevail due to the influence
of illegal traders and collectors. Similarly the price discovered by the transaction between coffee collectors and
wholesalers is not uniform within a market day.
All coffee collectors sell their coffee to wholesalers and the wholesalers in turn supply it to the terminal market
for auction sell. As shown in Table 29, all wholesalers purchase from coffee collectors. Most of the sample
coffee wholesalers (84.62%) also purchase from farmers through either their wives licensed for coffee collection
or directly through their agents in which the farmers wrongly perceive them as legal collectors. Moreover, about

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Vol.5, No.15 2014

31% the wholesalers confirmed that they also purchase from illegal traders. Similarly 15.38% of the wholesalers
responded that they purchased from cooperatives when the cooperatives face technical problems in their
operation. That is when they fail to deliver to the central market or when they fail to export for some reasons.
The survey revealed that coffee exporters buy hulled and washed coffee at the auction market. To meet the
export standards, exporters reprocess the coffee until it becomes clean. Coffee rejected at inspection centre goes
to domestic consumption through wholesalers and retailers.
Woredas
Suppliers Sheko South Bench Total
N=4 N=9 N= 13
Coffee collectors 100 100.0 100.0
Coffee growing farmers 100 77.78 84.62
Unlicensed traders 25 33.33 30.77
Cooperatives 25 11.11 15.38
Sources: own survey results, 2013.
3.2. Results of Marketing Cost and margins analysis
Marketing margin is defined as the percentage of the final weighted average selling price taken by each of the
marketing chain. The margin must cover the cost involved in transporting the produce from one stage to the next
and provide a reasonable return to those doing the marketing. The marketing margin analysis indicated that the
total gross marketing margin was 118.49 birr per 17 kg of clean bean coffee in channel I and 109.64 birr per kg
of clean coffee bean in channel II. The producers share from the auction market was 63.11% in channel I,
whereas it was 65.87% in channel II. This difference might support the theory that as the number of marketing
agents increases the producers share decreases. The reason being, the higher number of middlemen in the
commodity market, the more profit they retain for their services whether they add value to the item or not.
Labour cost which includes (weeding, pruning, harvesting, food item during group work, loading and unloading,
etc.) was the principal cost of coffee growers constituting about 62.11% of the total cost. Cost of transportation
(farm to home, home to market or sometimes market to home when the price is very low) was also the second
major cost of producers followed by cost of land, materials and tax. As indicated in the Table 36 the producers’
net benefit was estimated to be 30.43%, 33.18% in channel I and II respectively. Transport cost is the major cost
component for both coffee collectors and wholesalers which accounted for 28.24% and 41.09%, respectively.
Table 6. Marketing margin (Birr per 17 kg of clean coffee bean) in channel I.

1. Producers
Cost Items Cost
Labor 65.20
Materials 8.250
Transport 15.40
Tax 2.5
Land rent 13.63
Total producer cost 104.98
Average selling price 202.71
Benefit/Profit 97.73
2. Coffee collectors
Collectors purchase price 202.71
Material 0.31
Labour 1.46
Transport to selling station 2.20
License renewal 0.45
Tax 1.42
Storage rent 0.16
Interest 0.75
Personal travel and other expenses 1.22
Total collectors cost 7.97
Collectors selling price 213.34
Collectors gross margin 10.63
Collectors net benefit 2.66
3.Coffee wholesalers
Wholesalers purchase price 213.33
Materials 3.72

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Labour 5.26
Agent commission 1.43
Transportation 20.00
License renewal 0.02
Tax 2.41
Wages for permanent workers 0.64
Processing (Hulling charge) 4.16
Electricity 0.31
Storage rent 1.21
Interest 6.50
Telephone expenses 0.44
Other (personal travel and sample wastage) 0.48
Depreciation 2.09
Total wholesalers cost 48.67
Wholesalers price 321.20
Wholesalers gross margin 107.87
Wholesalers net benefit 59.20
Source: Survey result, 2013.

Table 7. Marketing margin Birr per 17 kg of clean coffee bean) in channel II.

1. Producers
Cost Item Cost
Labour 65.20
Material 8.25
Transport 15.40
Tax 2.50
Land rent 13.63
Total producer cost 104.98
Average selling price 211.57
Profit/ Benefit 106.59
2.Coffee wholesale
Wholesalers purchase price 211.56
Materials 3.72
Labour 5.26
Agent commission 1.43
Transportation 20.00
License renewal 0.02
Tax 2.41
Wages for permanent workers 0.641
Processing Hulling charge) 4.15
Electricity 0.31
Storage rent 1.21
Telephone expenses 0.44
Other personal travel and sample wastage) 0.48
Depreciation 2.09
Interest 6.50
Total wholesalers cost 48.67
Wholesalers value 321.20
Wholesalers gross margin 109.64
Wholesalers net benefit 60.97
Source: Survey results, 2013.
The net marketing margin/benefits for coffee collectors and coffee wholesalers were birr 2.66 and birr 59.20 per
feresula clean coffee bean in channel I respectively. However, the net benefit of wholesalers was 60.97 per
feresula in channel II due to the direct transaction with farmers. The Woreda agriculture office reported that
currently we have developed a law to encourage the direct transaction between coffee growers and wholesalers
in order to improve growers’ benefits and coffee quality. To encourage the enforcement of this law, collectors
were ordered through formal letter to submit their trade license to the office of trade and industry starting from

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Vol.5, No.15 2014

February 2009.
Table 8. Summary of marketing share(% share) in 2011 for channel I and II.

Gross Share from Net marketing

Selling Price (birr/17kg) Wholesale price (%) Share (%)
Marketing agent Channel I Channel II Channel I Channel II Channel I Channel II
Producers 202.71 211.56 63.11 65.87 30.43 33.18
Collectors 213.34 0.00 3.31 0.00 0.83 0.00
Wholesalers 321.20 321.20 33.58 34.13 18.43 18.98
Sources: survey results, 2013
The net benefits retained by coffee growers are poorly motivating as compared coffee producers in other regions
of the country. According to Edilegnaw et al. (2006) in the post period, 1992-2004, producers in Harar, Wellega,
Sidama and Jimma zone received 62.70, 53.4, 59.20 and 55.70%, respectively. The reason for this low share is
the fact that the producers price is affected by marketing costs (physical and transaction costs), concentration of
market power in the hands of few, both locally and internationally, and lack of market supporting institution in
the study areas.

Marketing Annual
channel agent Net benefit Average sales
(channel I) (Birr/17 kg) (17 kg)
Farmers 97.73 39.70
Coffee collectors 2.66 642.21
Wholesalers 59.20 6592.18
Source: Survey result, 2013.
Wholesalers retained by far more annual total net benefits than producers and coffee collectors.

4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Though the coffee marketing channel in the study area was relatively short, the existence of unlicensed traders in
the rural and urban areas discouraged licensed traders. These illegal traders do not pay taxes and can narrow the
gross margin of licensed traders by the amount of the tax they pay. The illegal traders are also making price
margin at the expense of producers by reducing the farm gate price or by cheating weighing scales. There was no
effective enforcement mechanism that can mitigate the activities of such traders. This made some tax payers not
to generate adequate profit after having covered all the necessary cost.
The result of marketing costs, margin and benefit analysis imply that coffee collectors incurred the lowest cost
which was 7.97 birr per 17 kg. Coffee producers bear the highest cost followed by wholesalers which was 104.98
birr and 48.67 birr per 17, kg respectively. The average coffee wholesaler retained significant annual total net
benefit than producers and coffee collectors. The estimated annual net benefits of a typical coffee producer,
collector and wholesaler were birr 3879.88, 1708.28, and 390257.06, respectively. This implies that coffee
trading is highly profitable at the wholesale level. The producers’ share as a percentage of wholesale prices is
low as compared to farmers in other regions of the country.
4.2. Recommendations
The provision of licensing for integrated activities. The government should abandon the restriction on the areas
of operations being imposed on traders. This is to mean that, allowing coffee wholesalers to purchase coffee
directly from producers, and also coffee collectors to perform the activities of wholesalers. Provision of
appropriate packing and coffee drying facilities for farmers at a reasonable price coupled with provision of
adequate training on the techniques of harvesting, drying, packing and storing to maintain the quality of coffee
are required. Strengthening quality inspection centre at the local market is also indispensable to improve the
quality of coffee in the study area. Improvement of the marketing infrastructure is another area of intervention to
improve the performance of coffee marketing in the study area. Due attention should be given to the
improvement of roads and communication networks in different production and trading centre. Finlay, there is a
need to attract and even force unlicensed traders to have a trading license since they are believed to lift up coffee
prices and narrow profit of licensed traders.
Conflict of interests
The authors have not declared any conflict of interests.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge Mizan-Teferi College of Agriculture (ATVET) for the financial support.
A special thanks to all collaborative for unreserved and back-up to carry out the coursework and the research
activities.

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Vol.5, No.15 2014

6. REFERENCES
Aklilu Amsalu and Ludi E. 2010. The Effect of Global Coffee Price Changes on Rural Livelihoods and Natural
Resource Management in Ethiopia: A Case Study from Jimma Area. NCCR North-South Dialogue 26. Bern,
Switzerland: NCCR North-South.
BMZARD (Bench Maji Zone Agriculture and Rural Development), 2008. Annual Report, Mizan Teferi.
ECX (Ethiopian Commodity Exchange ECX), 2009. Making Market for All: Solving an Age Old Problem,
Addis Ababa.
Elias, A., 2005. Economics of Coffee Marketing in Jima Zone: The Case of Gomma Distrits an M.Sc.Thesis
Presented to Alemaya University, Alemaya, Ethiopia.
FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization), 2011. Marketing Infrastructural Innovation in Developing Countries;
A Survey. World Bank Stuff Working Paper No.52.The World Bank, Washington DC USA. 43p.
FAOSTAT, 2011. FAO Statistical Year Book. Accessed on August 2011 from
http://faostat.fao.org/site/342/default.aspx
Jema, H., 2008. Economic Efficiency and Marketing Performance of Vegetable Production in the Eastern and
Central Parts of Ethiopia. PhD Thesis Presented to Sweden University of Agricultural Science, Sweden.
Kohl’s, R.L. and J.N. Uhl, 1985. Marketing of Agricultural Products, 5th Edition, Collermacmillan, USA.
Kohl’s, R.L. and J.N. Uhl, 1998. Marketing of Agricultural Products, 8th Edition, Macmillan Publishing
Company, New York.

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