Program : B.

Tech
Subject Name: Engineering Physics
Subject Code: BT-201
Semester: 2nd
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VIJAY BHAT

ELECTROSTATISTICS IN VACUUM
Q.1 Explain the Coulomb’s law of Electro statistics.
Ans: Coulomb proposed the laws for interaction between static electric charges. Which are as:
First Law: Like Charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other
Second Law: Magnitude of the force exerted by the charges on each other is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them and is directly proportional of the
product of their charges
1
∝ 2
and ∝ 1 2
1 2
= 2
1
=
4 0
� =1
Q.2 Explain the terms: Electric Field Intensity, Electric Lines of Forces and Electric Flux.
Ans: Electric Force experienced by unit positive charge in the electric filed is known as Electric Field
Intensity and is denoted by E. Expression for electric filed intensity is
1
=
4 0 2
Path along which a unit positive charge tend to move when free to do so in the electric filed is
known as Electric Lines of Forces.
Number of electric lines of forces through a specified area I called as Electric Flux it is denoted
by Greek letter ϕ. Mathematically electric flux through a surface S is given as
�= .
Q.3 Calculate the electric field intensity due to an infinite line charge.
Ans: Let us consider a line of infinite length having charge per unit length λ. Now we consider a point
P at Y distance from line and consider a small length element dx having charge dq=λdx, which is
at a distance r from point P as shown in the figure
dEy
dE
θ
dEx P
θ

r
y

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
x dx
The x and y component of the force dE will be =− � �� = �
As x components at P will cancel out each other therefore net filed will be due to only y-
component.

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VIJAY BHAT

Therefore
=+∞ =+∞
= = �
=−∞ =−∞

=+∞
Or = =0
2 �
=+∞ 2 �
= =0 2 (1)
4 0

As =� therefore

=+∞
2� �
= 2
=0 4 0
Or
� ∞
= 2 � (2)
2 0 0
From the figure above we can write

= � � (3)
Or
= 2
� � (4)
Also
2 2 2
= + (5)
2
Placing the value of dx and r in equation (2) we get
� 2� �
= 2
0 2+ 2
� (6)
2 0
Using equation (3), above equation can be rewritten as
� 2 � � 2
= �
2 0 0
2 � 2� + 2
Or
� 2 2
� � �
= 2 2�
2 0 0
� 2 �
= �
2 0 0
�
= � � 2
0
2 0
�
=
2 0

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VIJAY BHAT

Q.4 Calculate the electric field intensity due to a dipole at axial position.
Ans: Let us consider a dipole of separated by length 2a. Now we consider a point P at x distance from
the center of dipole as shown in the figure

x
+q -q
2a E1 E2

Charge at P will experience two forces E1 and E2 in opposite directions. Where

1 = and 2 =
4 0 ( −�)2 4 0( +�)2
The resultant electric field intensity will be
= 1 − 2
Or = −
4 0( −�) 2 4 0( +�)2

1 1
= −
0 ( −�)
4 2 ( +�)2


( +�) −( −� )2
2
=
4 ( −�)2 ×( +�)2

0
4 �
=
4 0 ( 2 −� 2 )2
4 �
If x>>a then = 4


4 0
4 �
= 3


4 0
2×2 � 2
= 3
or = 3
4 0 4 0
Q.5 Calculate the electric field intensity due to a dipole at perpendicular bisector of dipole.
Ans: Let us consider a dipole of separated by length 2a. Now we consider a point P at y distance from
the center of dipole as shown in the figure
E2
2θ
E1
x

θ θ
+q -q
2a

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VIJAY BHAT

Electric filed at point P will be E1 and E2 at an angle 2θ, The magnitude of both the forces are
equal i.e. we can write

1 = 2 = 2 +� 2
4 0
therefore the resultant electric filed intensity can be resolved as
2 2 2
2
= + +2 2�
4 0
2 + �2 4 0
2 + �2 4 0
2 + �2
2
2
=2 1+ 2�
4 0
2 + �2
2
2
=2 1+2 2
�−1
4 0
2 + �2
2
2
=4 2
�
4 0
2 + �2
=2 �
4 0
2 + �2
�
�=
2 + �2
Therefore
�
=2
2 + �2 4 0
2 + �2
2�
= 3
4 0
2 + �2 2

= 3
4 0
2 + �2 2
Q.6 Define the term Dielectrics, Dielectric Constant, Electric Polarization (P) and Displacement
Current (D), also derive the relation between D, E and P.
Ans: Dielectrics materials are basically non conducting materials, used for storage of static charge.
These materials does not allow the flow of electricity through them when placed in the electric
field, but they tend to change the electric field.
Applied Field
+ - + - + -
+ - + - + -
+ - + - + -
+ - + - + -
- + - + - + - +
+ - + - + -
+ - + - + -
+ - + - + -
Internal Field

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VIJAY BHAT

Dielectric Constant or Relative Permitivity

The dielectric constant is the ratio of the permittivity of a substance to the permittivity of free
space
=
0
Dielectric constant can also be expressed as ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor with an
insulating material between its plates, to its capacitance in case of vacuum between its plates.

=
0
Electric Polarization
It is defined as induced dipole moment per unit volume and is denoted by P. By definition we
can write

=
or

= =
Equation above suggests that electric polarization numerically equals to the induced surface
charge density.
Relation between D , E and P
As shown in the figure above when a dielectric is subjected to an external field then an internal
filed is produced in the dielectric which is in the opposite direction of the applied field.
Therefore the net electric field E can be given as
= � −
Where Ea is applied external field and Ei is induced internal electric field.
= −
0 0
Where σ and σp are free and induced surface charge densities respectively.
0 = −
or
0 = −
Here D is called Displacement Vector its magnitude equals to the surface density of free
charges σ. Idea of displacement current is introduced to justify the flow of electric current in
capacitive circuit between the plates of capacitor where no charges are present.
Q.7 Explain the terms gradient, divergence and curl. Also give their physical significance.
Ans: Gradient: Gradient of a scalar filed is a vector quantity, whose magnitude gives the maximum
space rate variation of that scalar quantity at that point. It tends to point in the direction of
greatest change of scalar field. Mathematically it can be represented as
� = + + =∇

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VIJAY BHAT

Here ∇= + +
Physical significance: Gradient of potential field gives the electric field intensity i.e.
=
Divergence: The divergence of a vector field at a point is a scalar quantity of magnitude equal to
the flux of that vector field diverging out per unit volume. It tells us about the presence of source
and sink within the volume under consideration. It is mathematically represented as
div A = ∇ .
div A = + +
Physical Significance: If div (A) = 0; then no source or sink is present in the volume under
consideration it is also said as solenoid vector function. When div (A) >0 it indicates the
presence of source and in case div (A) < 0 it indicates the presence of sink.
Here ∇= + +
Curl: Curl of a vector field at point is a vector quantity whose magnitude is equal to the
maximum value of line integral of that vector per unit area along the boundary of a small
elementary area around that point. It is given as
=∇ ×

Physical Significance: Curl of a vector field tells about the rotation of the vector field. If for a
vector A value of curl A=▼ x A = 0 then the vector is said to be irrotational.
Q.8 Explain the Gauss’ divergence theorem and Stokes’ theorem.
Ans: Gauss’s divergence theorem: This theorem states that the flux of a vector field over any
closed surface S is equal to the volume integral of the divergence of vector field over the volume
enclosed by the surface S i.e.
. �= = ∇.
Divergence of any vector filed is defined as flux per unit volume. Mathematically we can write
divergence of any vector field as
. �
=

Hence
. �=
Stokes’ theorem.
Stokes’ theorem states that the net circulation of vector over some open surface � equals to
the line integral of along the closed contour C which bounds � thus
∇ × . �= .
In a conservative field

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VIJAY BHAT

. =0
By Stokes’ theorem we can write
∇ × . �=0
Or
∇ × =0
Thus curl of a conservative filed is zero.

Q.9 Give the continuity equation of current densities. Explain its physical significance.
Ans Continuity equation
Let us consider a volume V bounded by a surface S. A net charge Q exists within this region. If a
net current I flows across the surface out of this region, from the principle of conservation of
charge this current can be equated to the time rate of decrease of charge within this volume.
Similarly, if a net current flows into the region, the charge in the volume must increase at a rate
equal to the current. Thus we can write

=−

. =− .
On Applying Gauss’ divergence theorem we can write,

∇. =− .

∇. + =0
Equation above is known as equation of continuity.
Physical Significance
Current is the movement of charge. The continuity equation says that if charge is moving out of
a differential volume (i.e. divergence of current density is positive) then the amount of charge
within that volume is going to decrease, so the rate of change of charge density is negative.
Q.10 Derive the Maxwell’s equation for free space.
Ans: Maxwell’s first equation
Consider a surface S bounding total charge q. Then using Gauss’ law the amount of flux from
the surface S can be written as
. �=
0
Or
0 . �=
Or
. �=
Or
. �=

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VIJAY BHAT

Using Gauss’s divergence theorem

∇. =
On comparing both sides we can write
∇. =
The expression above is Maxwell’s first equation.
Maxwell’s second equation
As we know that isolated magnetic poles does not exist. They always exist in pairs. As a
consequence magnetic lines of forces entering any arbitrary closed surface are exactly the same
as leaving it. Thus flux of magnetic induction B across any closed surface is always zero.

. �=0
By Gauss’s divergence theorem
∇. =0
Or
∇. =0
Equation above is Maxwell’s second equation.
Maxwell’s third equation
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the induced emf in a closed loop
equals negative rate of change of magnetic flux
�
=−
As �= . �
Hence we can write
=− . �
By definition of emf it said that emf equals the work done in carrying a unit charge around a
closed loop therefore
= .
Or
. =− . �
Using Stoke’s theorem
∇× . � =− . �
Or
∇× . �+ . �=0

∇× + =0
Or

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VIJAY BHAT

∇× =−
This is Maxwell’s third equation.
Maxwell’s fourth equation
According to Ampere’s law
. =
As

= .
Therefore

. = .
Using Stokes, Theorem

∇× . � = .
 ∇ × −j=0
Taking the divergence of the above equation
∇. ∇ × − ∇. = 0
Since divergence of curl of any vector is always zero

Therefore ∇. = 0
This is the case for steady fields, so equation above need to be changed for general cases.
According to Gauss’ Law
∇. =
0
Differentiating the equation wrt Time

∇. 0 =
Adding ∇. to both sides of above equation we get

∇. J + ∇. 0 = ∇. J +
RHS of the above equation is continuity equation. Therefore

∇. J + ∇. =0
Here 0 =
So the ∇. ∇ × − ∇. = 0 will be rewritten as
∇. ∇ × − ∇. J + ∇. =0
Or

∇ × =J+
Equation above is Maxwell’s fourth equation.

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VIJAY BHAT

Q.11 Write Maxwell’s equations in integral form.

Ans: Maxwell’s equation in integral form.
1. Maxwell’s first equation in integral form
∇. =
Integrating above over an arbitrary volume
∇. =
Using Gauss’s divergence theorem
. �=
Physical significance: It signifies that the net outward flux of electric displacement
vector equals total charge within the volume
2. Maxwell’s second equation in integral form
∇. = 0
Integrating above over an arbitrary volume
∇. =0
Using Gauss’s divergence theorem
. �=0
Physical significance: It signifies that the magnetic induction flux through any closed
surface is equal to zero.
3. Maxwell’s third equation in integral form
∇× =−
Integrating over a surface S bounded by a curve C

∇× . �= − . �
Using Stokes’ theorem
. = − . �
The value of emf around a closed loop equals to negative rate of change of magnetic flux
linked with the path.
4. Maxwell’s fourth equation in integral form
∇ × = +
Integrating over a surface S bounded by a curve C
∇× . �= + . �
Using Stokes’ theorem
. = + . �
5. The value of mmf around a closed loop equals to conduction current plus of total
displacement current linked with the path.

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