Creating Inclusive Schools

For All
Students
An education for children with every day, in the classroom without significant behavioral
incidents and he passed the 3rd-grade state test.
disabilities that, as one principal “It was also all about Maria. Initially, she was removed
from her class for ESL instruction. Her teacher said she
was reserved, had difficulty transitioning and was always
puts it, offers ‘nothing separate, no behind in completing work. Now she spends her entire
day in the 5th-grade classroom; she is a vocal member
special spaces, no special teachers’ in class, proficient on the 5th-grade state test, and was a
runner-up in the school spelling bee.”

B Y J U L I E C AU S T O N - T H E O H AR I S Nothing Special
A N D G E O R G E T H E O H AR I S Nationwide, schools and districts from Concord, N.H., to
Whittier, Calif., and from Cambridge, Mass., to Charlotte,

H
N.C., are undertaking inclusive school reform with posi-
tive results. Schools become inclusive for various reasons
ow do we create an inclusive school for all stu- — the legislative mandate of the Individuals with Dis-
dents? How do we establish an authentic sense abilities Education Act, pressures to meet adequate yearly
of belonging? What is improving learning all progress, advocacy from families and the vision of school
about? leaders. We see inclusion and belonging as essential con-
Here’s how George Theoharis, former principal ditions for educating each child.
at Falk Elementary School in Madison, Wis., described his At Falk Elementary, implementing an inclusive
school’s shift as it sought to answer the above questions. philosophy meant no self-contained special education
“It was all about Celia. She went from spending all classrooms, no resource room pullout programs, no kids
day in a self-contained room for kindergarten to spending sent to other schools. The principal’s commitment to
her whole day with her [general education] 1st-grade class. eliminating pullout programs and separate instruction was
She went from looking sad and limp in her wheelchair simply: “Nothing separate, no special spaces, no special
to looking animated and participating in everything that teachers.”
was going on. Theoharis added, “All kids, and I mean all kids — kids
“It was all about Jamal. Last year, he had to be escorted with significant disabilities, kids with autism, kids with
out of the school by the police. He spent 2nd grade isolated serious behavior issues, kids with learning disabilities,
because of ‘violent behavior issues.’ Now he spends all day, kids in wheelchairs, kids who were high flyers, kids who

24 T H E S C H O O L A D M I N I S T R AT O R s e p t e m b e r 2 0 0 8
 were learning English — each and every child needed
to be an essential member of the classroom and school
community.”
General education teachers and specialists (special
education, English as a second language, reading, etc.)
had to co-plan and co-teach. The same staff was used,
just arranged differently, meaning no additional funds
were used. This deeply held commitment to inclusion
permeated all aspects of the school — after-school pro-
grams, reading interventions, the physical arrangement of
classrooms and dramatic changes on the playground.
“This was not a program,” Theoharis said. “This was a
way to understand and view everything in our school. It
wasn’t easy; it was a constant struggle and we were never
perfect, not at all … but we have seen serious achieve-
ment gains as a result of these changes.”
He admits his school was not utopia. None of the other
school systems mentioned above have perfect schools or
perfect inclusion, but they do share a common mission
— to educate students together. Because of this commit-
ment, the Falk school realized substantial achievement
gains by bringing students with disabilities and others who
commonly receive intervention services to the center of
the discussion about school reform and to the center of
the general education classroom.
Nonetheless, critiques of inclusion are common. We
hear tales of unsupported classroom teachers or students
floundering in mainstream education. Some will claim, dated notions of “inclusive” classrooms toward creating
“We tried it and it didn’t work.” These are not critiques genuinely inclusive schools and an increasingly inclusive
about inclusion at all. They are instead critiques of poor school district. In Madison, district policy states that all
mainstreaming, of partial efforts at bringing students into students should attend the schools they would attend
the general education classroom and leaving the school’s regardless of disability, all students should be placed in
structures, norms and policies unchanged. general education classrooms with attention to natural
Having inclusion classrooms or inclusive students does proportions and special education teachers are no longer
illustration © B Y canopy photography / veer

mean some students on the surface are included, but as a slotted to teach students with a particular disability label,
whole the school is not truly inclusive. An overloaded but all special education teachers serve students across
classroom with high numbers of students with disabilities the entire range of disabilities.
densely “clustered” with other students is not inclusion.
These arrangements create special education islands within A Way of Thinking
general education classrooms and are difficult to manage. Inclusion is built on the premise that all students should
District policies and procedures in Madison, Wis., be valued for their unique abilities and included as essen-
led by Jack Jorgensen, director of student services, paved tial members of a school community. Inclusion is not a
the way in many regards for moving beyond these out- place; it is a way of thinking. Moving some students from

s e p t e m b e r 2 0 0 8 T he S chool A dministrator 25
 special education settings to general education settings have access to rigorous and meaningful general education
is merely a first step to ensuring supported and successful curricula and receive collaborative support to succeed. In
inclusion for all. inclusive schools, students do not have to leave to learn.
Norman Kunc, a contributor to the 1992 book Restruc- Rather, services and supports are brought directly to them.
turing for Caring & Effective Education, defines inclusion A compelling body of research documents that students
as the valuing of diversity within the human community: with and without disabilities, as well as students who are
“When inclusive education is fully embraced, we abandon learning English, benefit both socially and academically
the idea that children have to become ‘normal’ in order from inclusive services.
to contribute to the world. …We begin to look beyond Federal law ensures “to the maximum extent appropri-
typical ways of becoming valued members of the com- ate, children with disabilities … are educated with children
munity, and in doing so, begin to realize the achievable who are not disabled” (Individuals with Disabilities Educa-
goal of providing all children with an authentic sense of tion Act). Further, federal courts routinely support inclusive
belonging.” over segregated placements and establish the notion that
Inclusive schools are places where students, regard- special education services are portable. A relatively early
less of ability, race, language and income, are integral court case (Roncker v. Walter, 1983) determined, “The
members of classrooms, feel a connection to their peers, court should determine whether the services … could be

The Only Way “Our vision is to successfully include 100 percent of special
To Fly, Inclusively education students in the regular education setting to the
B Y C AR L D . R O B E RT S a nd
fullest extent possible.”
c a r olyn t eigl a nd
Our vision is to successfully include 100 FY ‘02 and will be $21.7 million in FY ‘09.

F
percent of special education students in the Economy-to-scale cost-saving strategies do
ive years ago, the Cecil County Public regular education setting to the fullest extent not work in an inclusive education setting.
Schools in Maryland embarked on an possible. All students will receive the services
KK No. 3: Ensure training, training
aggressive schedule to fully include they require in their neighborhood school,
and more training. The biggest fear
all students with special needs in the allowing them to attend school with their age-
that regular education teachers have is that
regular education setting to be consistent appropriate peers.
they do not have the knowledge or skills
with the most recent interpretation of “least
Free Advice necessary to work with special education
restrictive environment.”
students. The biggest fear special educators
At the time, 59 percent of special education We’ve learned several lessons about what it
have is that they do not have the knowledge
students were receiving their instruction in the takes from a system leadership perspective
or skills to be successful in the regular edu-
regular education setting. By last December, 89 to make inclusion happen.
cation classroom.
percent of students with individual education
KK No. 1: Provide strong leadership. We trained our regular educators but forgot
plans were fully participating in the regular class-
The board of education, superintendent and in the early years about the change for our
room, being fully exposed with proper accom-
top leadership throughout the school sys- special educators. Training must be ongoing
modations to the regular education curriculum.
tem must be the leading advocates for inclu- and individualized for the unique needs of the
Translating percentages into numbers of students,
sive education. The energy and resources students and classrooms in question.
1,722 of Cecil County’s 1,931 special education
required must be guaranteed or the initia-
students were included in the regular education KK No. 4: Recognize that passions run
tive will fail.
classroom during the past school year. high. Community advocates and parents of
The doubters within and outside the school
Not only have we fully included the vast special needs students are feverishly pas-
system look to the leadership to determine
majority of our special-needs population, but we sionate about the rights and needs of their
how committed they are. There can be no
also have reduced the number of students iden- children.
weak link. Both central-office administrators
tified as being eligible for special education. Parents will be concerned about a new
and principals must share the vision for inclu-
This has not been an easy journey, and program, especially if they believe that
sive education.
by no means are we done. In the fifth year somehow their children are going to receive
of the plan, our five high schools are in the K K No. 2: Dispel the myths concern- less attention than before. Include them in the
early stages of full inclusion as special-needs ing resources early on. Including spe- planning and training early on in the process.
students matriculate to the 9th grade, having cial-needs students in regular classrooms is Effective communication with this powerful
experienced inclusion during their elementary not inexpensive. The Cecil County budget and influential constituency must be ongoing
and/or middle school years. for special education was $12.7 million in and two-way.

26 T H E S C H O O L A D M I N I S T R AT O R s e p t e m b e r 2 0 0 8
 feasibly provided in a nonsegregated setting (i.e., regular
class). If they can, the placement in the segregated school
“In inclusive schools, students do not have
would be inappropriate under the act (IDEA).” Individual
court cases and class action lawsuits further determine the
to leave to learn. Rather, services and
legal presumption of placement in a general education class
with peers without disabilities.
supports are brought directly to them.”
No Exceptions eral education setting. For example, Jamie might need
When thinking about inclusion, people often ask, “What sensory supports in the classroom, a communication sys-
about Jamie?” They immediately think of the student tem in place, a modified curriculum and/or peer supports.
whom they believe to be the exception, someone who Although a continuum of placements may need to be
cannot be included because of the significance of his or made available, more restrictive placements often are
her academic, or more often behavioral, needs. But we made as a lasting decision and students are permanently
mean Jamie, too. excluded.
We must thoughtfully consider the classroom teacher Instead, we see every child as a permanent member
and what supports will be needed for success in the gen- of a general education classroom and a more restrictive

KK No. 5: Get expertise if you don’t when they enter the classroom and see their
already have it! The Maryland Coalition friends. Regular education students welcome
for Inclusive Education has been a partner special needs students as their classmates and
with our school district since 2002. We are as their friends.
fortunate that the Maryland State Depart- Our children are experiencing learning in a
ment of Education funds the involvement of diverse setting that is free of discrimination.
these dedicated professionals. The knowl- While we knew it would improve the lives of
edge, skill and commitment this organiza- special needs children, the change has been
tion brings to the school district’s central truly inspiring.
administration and school-based personnel
are critical factors in the success of our Social Gains
inclusion efforts. Sherri Isaacs, an elementary school teacher, Carl Roberts and Carolyn Teigland
shares this description of an autistic child
A Narrowing Gap who was included in her 3rd-grade classroom: promised and the teachers have ensured that
We believed at the beginning of this initiative “Blake came to us fairly nonverbal. The only all the proper supports for Jared are in place.
that including students with special needs in thing he would do is repeat what others said He now speaks to me in full sentences. I
the regular education setting was the right to him, and he had a very limited sight vocab- believe the modeling from the other children
thing to do. It made sense that exposing ulary. Now he responds to greetings from has been a real positive. They have taken Jared
students with disabilities to the essential others and has significantly increased the under their wing.”
curriculum and to peers without special number of sight words he recognizes. With There are so many champions of inclusive
needs would offer excellent role models proper accommodations, he is being exposed education in Cecil County that we cannot name
and higher performance on class, county and to the grade-level curricula and materials.” them all. Past and current leadership, teachers
state assessments. The greatest growth, Isaacs adds, has been in and paraprofessionals, parents and students,
Our special education subgroup is improving Blake’s social behaviors: “He can now sit and the Maryland Coalition of Inclusive Education
and closing the learning gap when compared participate with other students. The other and the state department of education have all
with the non-special education student popula- stu­dents respond to him well and look after played key roles.
tion. Students who previously performed signif- him.” It’s the right thing to do for children. All
children deserve access to the regular educa-
PHOTO BY KELLY KEETON/CECIL COUNTY, MD., PUBLIC SCHOOLS

icantly below grade level are now reading and Sharon Boyd, who has a son with autism
working at or just below grade level. However, in our schools, has witnessed a marked differ- tion program. It is not easy and it is not for the
we still have a performance gap that becomes ence between a self-contained classroom and half-hearted. But if you truly love children, it is
more difficult as students enter middle and an inclusion classroom. Exposure to proper the only way to fly.
high school. behavior of same-age peers has had a tremen-
What we knew but didn’t realize was the dous positive impact on Jared. Carl Roberts, who retired in June as superin-
extent of the positive benefit in the social realm “I was totally against inclusion at the begin- tendent of the Cecil County Public Schools in
for both disabled and nondisabled students. ning, but the staff at Jared’s elementary school Elkton, Md., is executive director of the Public
We have cases of previously nonverbal children is totally awesome,” Boyd says. “The screaming School Superintendents’ Association of Mary-
who can now express themselves orally and and physical gyrations have ceased and Jared land. E-mail: [email protected]. Carolyn
through writing. Students who did not smile is now dealing with grade-level content. I give Teigland is associate superintendent for educa-
or show emotions now brighten up each day the teachers all the credit. The school system tion services in Cecil County.

s e p t e m b e r 2 0 0 8 T he S chool A dministrator 27
 “Moving all students into general
education is the first step toward
inclusion. The next step is helping them
feel they belong.”
and deliver instruction to the full range of learners. All learn-
ers are placed into general education classrooms in natural
proportions — students with special education needs are
not concentrated in certain classrooms.

A Human Response
Moving all students into general education is the first step
toward inclusion. The next step is helping them feel they
belong. Humans need to have a sense of belonging. People
who feel they do not belong often shut down, become
quiet, get angry or become unavailable for learning.
As educators, we understand this human response to
belonging, yet schools often create separate spaces and
systems that all but ensure students will feel disconnected.
For example, classrooms are set aside specifically for stu-
dents with labels such as autism, learning disabilities or
Julie Causton-Theoharis facilitates a planning session on creating
behavior challenges. Time-out spaces are demarcated,
more inclusive schools in Syracuse, N.Y. and separate programs are created for students learning
functional skills. These separate spaces are created with
little thought to how it might feel to attend a class for
setting is used only if and when a student needs short- others with behavior problems or to be denied access
term support (i.e., a temporary crisis, or medical need). to general education. Small wonder that students with
Further, this setting is available to any student who needs disabilities who are in segregated settings continue to
temporary extra support, not only those with disabilities. have the lowest performance rates and among the high-
At Falk Elementary School and others, even students est dropout rates.
with the most significant disabilities, who would often be Conversely, when people feel a sense of belonging they
placed in self-contained classrooms and schools elsewhere, are more motivated, engaged, attentive, participatory and
are flourishing in general education settings. more likely to take risks and learn. Research establishes
Salem Hyde Elementary School, in the Syracuse, N.Y., a strong connection between belonging and how well
City School District, made the shift toward a schoolwide students feel and perform in school.
philosophy of inclusion. Salem Hyde previously concen- At Falk Elementary School, the staff used the com-
trated or overloaded intense needs of students with dis- munity-building program called Tribes. All teachers
abilities into certain classrooms. These rooms were called received training and built community purposefully each
inclusive classrooms. Other classrooms still had a range day through morning meetings, positive behavior manage-
of learner needs but lacked special education support. ment systems, appreciations and group problem solving. A
Many students across the school were removed from sense of belonging pervaded the very fabric of the school,
their classrooms for portions of the day to receive pullout encompassing scheduling, community-building activities,
special education services. Additionally, there were two the playground, relations among students, school climate
self-contained special education rooms where multi-aged and staff organization.
students with disabilities spent their entire day removed
PHOTO BY STEPHEN SARTORI/SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY

from their general education peers and curriculum. All Achieving

Many school districts today offer a similar model of Given the current push for academic accountability, we
service delivery among schools that attempt to do inclu- must consider whether implementing inclusion will improve
sion without initiating the needed deep and systemic achievement. Theoharis, principal of the 500-student school,
change to fully embrace an inclusive philosophy. documented how student learning improved after policies,
After restructuring service delivery, Salem Hyde no lon- procedures, curricula and instruction were shifted to support
ger operates resource rooms or self-contained classrooms. all learners. On the state reading test, Falk went from testing
All special education teachers are paired with two general 78 percent of its students to testing 98 percent.
education classrooms and a teaching assistant to jointly plan continued on page 30

28 T H E S C H O O L A D M I N I S T R AT O R s e p t e m b e r 2 0 0 8
 continued from page 28
Even with testing almost every student (including
“Schools must transcend the myth that
students with disabilities and English language learn-
ers), the percentage of students achieving at proficient
special educators have ‘magic dust’ that
or advanced levels rose from 50 percent before their
restructuring to 86 percent three years later. The Falk
enables them to work effectively with
school saw significant gains in reading among all sub-
groups: African-American students improved from 33 students with disabilities.”
percent achieving proficient or advanced to 78 percent;
Asian students, 47 percent to 100 percent; Hispanic
students, 18 percent to 100 percent; students in spe- belonging are the first steps toward greater achievement
cial education, 13 percent to 60 percent; ELL students, for all students. But this must be followed by improving
17 percent to 100 percent; and students receiving free/ the core teaching and curriculum to enhance learning
reduced-price lunch, 40 percent to 78 percent. of all students through differentiation, and teaching to
Yet many schools and districts do not make adequate multiple modalities and learning preferences.
yearly progress because they fail to meet the needs of stu- For these changes to occur, teachers must release some
dents with disabilities. Teaching the same curriculum in of their traditional roles.This means that general educa-
the same way has not worked. Likewise, grouping students tors must understand that the curriculum is not theirs
by ability under the guise of individualized instruction alone to dictate. Similarly, special educators must aban-
has not worked. don the feeling that “these students won’t make it without
Inclusion in general education and attention to me.” Both groups of teachers require shared knowledge

But We Already Do Inclusion, Don’t We?

M any administrators and teachers

believe they already are doing inclu-
sion. However, if you look closely
at the national statistics from the
U.S. Department of Education, more than
one million students are denied access to the
general education curriculum and instruction,
KK Professional development on establish-
ing/maintaining inclusive services, including
collaborating with adults, is provided for all
school personnel.

District Placement Systems

Staff Collaboration
KK All teachers (general and special educa-
tion) are assigned to grade-level or content-
area teams.
KK Special education teachers support two
or three inclusive sections or teachers.
KK No students are sent to schools or pro-
and many more have access in name only. grams outside of the district and there are KK All special education services are provided
We believe school leaders can examine no schools within the district set aside for seamlessly within the general classroom set-
current practices in their own district to gauge students with disabilities. ting, typically through co-teaching.
how inclusive the schools actually are. KK Related services are provided primarily
KK All students attend the chronologically
The list of indicators below, while not through consultation with the general edu-
age-appropriate schools and classrooms they
exhaustive, is a place to begin critically cation teacher and through seamless support
would attend regardless of ability/disability
reflecting on prevailing practices. We hope in the classroom.
or native language.
these statements provide a vehicle for discus-
KK Percentages of students with disabilities KK Time is provided for teams of teachers
sion with administrators, teachers and staff.
in individual classrooms represent natural and paraprofessionals to plan together.
As you read each statement below, ask yourself
whether it reflects the schools in your district. proportions within the school building.
Inclusive Classroom Environments
District Policies and Priorities School Vision and Climate KK All students receive academic instruction
KK The district vision and priorities focus on KK The principal and staff articulate a vision in the general education setting.
inclusive education for every student. and commitment to inclusive services for KK No rooms or spaces in the school are
KK General and special education administra- every child. reserved for the use of students with dis-
tors are committed to inclusive services for KK The principal is knowledgeable about spe- abilities.
all students and see this as their responsi- cial education service delivery. KK Teachers use ongoing and purposeful
bility. KK The principal and staff articulate a school- community building throughout the year.
KK General education and special education wide commitment to community building, KK Teachers do not use phrases like “my stu-
funds and resources are merged to build establishing a climate of belonging and valu- dents” and “Beth’s kids,” but instead refer to
staff and system capacity. ing human diversity. all students as “ours,” indicating a belief that

30 T H E S C H O O L A D M I N I S T R AT O R s e p t e m b e r 2 0 0 8
and skills about students and the curriculum, as well as
time to collaborate.
Schools must transcend the myth that special educators
have “magic dust” that enables them to work effectively with

PHOTO BY STEPHEN SARTORI/SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY

students with disabilities. Both general and special education
teachers must adopt new roles and participate in common
professional development. When adopting a new math cur-
riculum, for example, both groups should experience the
same training. These new roles require general and special
educators to co-plan and co-teach the curriculum.

Committed Leadership
To create more inclusive schools, school leaders are the
most critical factor. First, leadership is always key to
George Theoharis works with teachers and students at Salem
meaningful and lasting reform. To become an inclusive
Hyde Elementary School in Syracuse, N.Y.
district, the superintendent and administrative team must
articulate a vision and a commitment to the philosophy
and practice of inclusive education for all. by engaging in open, honest and reflective conversations
Students with the most significant disabilities must be about the current state of inclusion (see related story, page
moved to the center of the conversation and to the center 30). Another essential step is to develop an inclusive
of the general education classroom. One place to start is student placement process.
Second, general class membership cannot be an option
afforded only to those who are deemed “ready” or “well-
behaved.” Instead, inclusive schools are committed to
the idea that student membership is not contingent upon
readiness or behavior, but instead membership is a given
and fully supported so all students will be prepared to
participate in an inclusive society.
all teachers are responsible for all kids. Third, if you build it, they will come. School leaders
must stop funding and creating separate spaces for stu-
KK Students with disabilities are dispersed
dents — time-out rooms or alternative programs because
throughout the classroom naturally, not
once created these spaces will be used to separate stu-
clustered together.
dents who are seen as different — with a disproportional
KK No student (including those with sig- negative impact on students from marginalized groups.
nificant disabilities) engages in pullout or These resources should instead be put into building strong
alternative activities to the extent that general education classrooms, where teacher capacity is
disruptions in the daily schedule and peer high and support is seamlessly provided to any student
interactions occur. who needs it.
Finally, school leaders must provide explicit training
Curricular Considerations to teachers and staff to build their capacity to support all
KK Lessons are designed to address different kids in inclusive settings, to differentiate instruction and
modalities and the curriculum is differenti- to collaborate. They then must provide leadership and
ated to meet the needs of all students. support when difficulties arise.
These efforts are challenging, but any school reform
KK All students work toward the same stan-
effort worth doing is difficult. Support must be provided
dards-based outcomes.
at every turn, so students like Celia, Jamal, Maria and
KK All students receive access to appropri- Jamie have full access to the general education curricu-
ate technology, communication supports lum to reach their full academic and social potential. We
and accommodations to meet their unique cannot be satisfied with schools that work for only some.
needs. Ultimately, creating schools for all means including all
KK Students with disabilities are actively par- students, developing an authentic sense of belonging for
ticipating in the same classroom activities as all students and creating general education settings that
their peers, rather than simply observing or maximize learning for all students. n
regularly engaging in alternative or separate
tasks. Julie Causton-Theoharis is an assistant professor in the depart-
ment of teaching and leadership at Syracuse University. E-mail:
—Julie Causton-Theoharis, [email protected]. George Theoharis is an assistant professor in
George Theoharis and Christine Ashby the same department.

s e p t e m b e r 2 0 0 8 T he S chool A dministrator 31