THE POTENTIAL FOR GREEN

HYDROGEN IN THE GCC REGION

Dii & Roland Berger
May 2021

1
Content
A. GLOBAL H2 ECONOMY TO DEVELOP SIGNIFICANTLY IN THE COMING DECADES ....................................5
H2, A KEY LEVER TO DRIVE THE WORLD'S DECARBONIZATION ..........................................................5
H2 GLOBAL DEMAND EXPECTED TO REACH ~580 M MT BY 2050 .......................................................10
B. HIGH LOCALIZATION POTENTIAL FOR GCC COUNTRIES ...........................................................................12
I. POTENTIAL H2 REVENUES FOR GCC COUNTRIES TO REACH USD 70-200 BN BY 2050 ..................12
II. GCC COUNTRIES' GREY H2 CAPACITY AND RECENT INVESTMENTS IN GREEN H2.........................18
HIGH POTENTIAL FOR LOCALIZING ELECTROLYZERS........................................................................20
POTENTIAL OF ~1 M JOBS FROM THE GREEN H2 VALUE CHAIN LOCALIZATION BY 2050 ..............23
C. H2 STRATEGIES, INFRASTRUCTURE & HUMAN CAPABILITIES AS KEY ENABLERS ...............................26
I. COMPREHENSIVE H2 STRATEGIES AS A KEY ENABLER .....................................................................26
II. ECOSYSTEM DEVELOPMENT VIA H2 VALLEYS, INTERNATIONAL PARTNERSHIPS AND R&D
PROGRAMS ...............................................................................................................................................28
III. REQUIREMENT FOR ENHANCED EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS AND TRAININGS ..................................32
D. CONCLUSION FOR GCC COUNTRIES .............................................................................................................33
E. ABOUT ................................................................................................................................................................34
F. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......................................................................................................................................35
G. ILLUSTRATIONS ................................................................................................................................................37
H. REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................................................38

2
Disclaimer
This report has been published by Roland Berger Middle East W.L.L. (Roland Berger) and Dii Desert Energy for general guidance
only. Roland Berger and Dii Desert Energy confirm that information contained herein, including projections, has been obtained
from sources believed to be reliable. While we do not doubt their accuracy, we have not verified them and make no guarantee,
warranty or representation about them. It is your responsibility to confirm independently their accuracy and completeness. Roland
Berger and Dii Desert Energy shall not be liable for any damages resulting from any use of the information contained in the
publication.
All rights to the material are reserved and cannot be reproduced without prior written permission from Roland Berger and Dii Desert
Energy.

3
Executive Summary
The pivotal role of emission-free energy carriers is becoming visible in all corners of the globe. Swiftly dropping costs of green
power are leading to increased competitiveness and growing market shares for green power. As green power becomes cheaper,
so does green hydrogen produced from green power. As a result, energy carriers based on green hydrogen become more and
more attractive on the path to the decarbonized economy. In spite of great doubts only until a few years ago, today hydrogen is
believed to have the potential to become the ‘new oil’ or the ‘new natural gas’. The GCC countries have the advantage of having
plenty of space, sunshine and, in some areas, wind energy amidst being prosperous, expanding economies open for innovations.
Thus, it is not surprising that the GCC region has quickly become one of the highest-ranked regions in terms of lowest-cost and
largest-scale renewable energy projects. Not only the steep learning curves and the relatively low costs of capital, but also the
culture of protecting the natural environment as a heritage for next generations is making GCC a natural leader in the energy
transition. Hence GCC, like any other energy marketplace, is subject to an accelerating transition towards becoming carbon
emission free itself and a significant exporter of emission-free energy Estimates indicate that the global market for green hydrogen
may eventually reach 500 m MT by 2050, whereas hydrogen production annual revenues in GCC could grow up to USD 70-200
bn.
The energy transition in GCC will have a major impact on the industries in the region. Particularly, it will impact labor needs, not
only in terms of quantity, but also skill requirements of emerging jobs. The emerging ‘green energy’ economy will offer a spectrum
of localization opportunities across the value chain. This will include renewables (mainly solar and wind), electrolysis systems
producing hydrogen, potentially upgrading to synthetic fuels, transport, storage and innovative demand-side processes. As the
localization opportunities of the hydrogen economy in GCC is still a rather unexplored subject, this joint report of Roland Berger
with the international industry network, Dii Desert Energy, is zooming in on the localization and the resulting job creation potential
of hydrogen economy in the region. In the short term, job creation seems to be most obvious in the area of renewable generation
and electrolysis technologies. In the long term, labor needs will undoubtedly arise along the entire green energy value chain.
Estimates point at up to 1 million direct and indirect jobs by 2050.
Public and private stakeholders in GCC may benefit from the following recommendations for hydrogen-related job creation:
1. Create a vision, give a clear direction and create conditions for success
2. Combine learning and fast growth with economies of scale through ‘Hydrogen Valleys’, ecosystems focused on successful
hydrogen business and trade, attracting investors
3. Connect to the international movements for hydrogen business expansion, particularly becoming part of technology
partnerships
4. Make sure the local communities will have the ‘license to operate’ and be the master of the market by education, training and
knowledge

4
A. GLOBAL H2 ECONOMY TO DEVELOP SIGNIFICANTLY IN THE
COMING DECADES
H2, A KEY LEVER TO DRIVE THE WORLD'S DECARBONIZATION
In the last decades the increase in CO2 emissions has Paris Agreement, 196 countries agreed to limit global
profoundly changed the trajectory of the world's climate. warming to 2ºC and pursue efforts to limit the
It's only recently that governments and populations have temperature increase to 1.5ºC. However, the
acknowledged this phenomenon and have become more commitments made after Paris Agreement are not enough
and more conscious of the negative impact that climate to define a path for emissions reduction that complies with
change can have on societies and economies. In the the 2ºC goal (see Illustration 1).

Illustration 1: Evolution of greenhouse gas emissions depending on level of commitment [gigatons per year]

Current trajectory Scenario explanation

> Current trajectory: No
Paris pledges
40 measures taken, rising
emissions leading to disastrous
impact on environment
> Paris pledges: Increase in
2.0o C compatible path 1) temperature up to +3.2o C, also
leading to devastating impact
0 > 1.5o C & 2.0o C compatible
paths: Best scenarios with less
devastating impacts according
1.5o C compatible path 2) to scientists – High
-20 commitment from countries
required to reach ~25 CO2 Gt
2010 2020 2050 2100 by 2030

1) Temperature rise limited to 2.0 oC; 2) Temperature rise limited to 1.5 oC

Source: UN, Roland Berger

According to S&P global, the COVID-19 pandemic has Hydrogen has been recognized as the “missing piece” for
increased the awareness of governments towards the energy transition. Hydrogen's multiple positive
climate policy and has placed at the fore-front the intrinsic characteristics make it a clean and versatile
importance of the energy transition. For instance, the energy carrier (see Illustration 2), while its high gravimetric
European Union expects to mobilize at least €1 trillion in (energy/weight) energy density characteristics and the
sustainable investments over the next decade through the availability of raw materials needed to scale up the
European Green Deal, . In addition, it is estimated that production ensure it is a competitive energy carrier.
COVID-19 has reduced the long-term oil demand by 2.5
million (m) barrels per day (~3% of the global demand),
favoring the energy transition away from oil.

5
Illustration 2: Benefits of clean hydrogen (blue and green)

Source: Hydrogen Europe

Within economies and societies, hydrogen has several applications that guarantee low CO2 emission and enable the energy
transition (see Illustration 3).

Illustration 3: Mapping of hydrogen end-uses

Centralized Buildings &

Industry Mobility
energy microgrids
Oil H2 to elec-
1 refining
1 Road 1 tricity grid
1 Power

H2 to
2 Iron & steel 2 Rail 2 gas grid
2 Heat

3 Ammonia 3 Maritime

4 Methanol 4 Air

Other
5 chemicals

6 Heat

Source: International Energy Agency (IEA), press review, expert interviews, Roland Berger

6
Additionally, hydrogen can be utilized to store energy for Cooperation Council (GCC) have geological conditions that
significant time-frames (see Illustration 4) utilizing different could allow the development of large-scale underground
storage means (e.g., large tanks, salt caverns). According to storage facilities in rock formations which could serve as a
Geostock (Entrepose Group), some countries from the Gulf buffer for varying seasonal demand.

Illustration 4: Energy storage capacity by technology

Capacity

10 GW

1 GW Pumped hydro storage

100 MW Compressed air

Geographical capacity
constraints
10 MW Hydrogen storage1)

1 MW
Fly-
wheel
100 kW
Battery
10 kW

1 kW Super capacitor

Minute Hour Day Week Season

Discharge duration
1) IEA data updated due to recent developments in building numerous 1 MW hydrogen storage tanks

Source: IEA, JRC Scientific and Policy Report

7
Recent national and regional (e.g. Europe) hydrogen Although other types of hydrogen (e.g., blue or turquoise,
strategies focus primarily on developing green hydrogen, see Illustration 5) may play an intermediate role, green
which highlights the economic and climate-friendly potential hydrogen will grow supported by the expected drop in its
of the molecule. price and its limited CO2 emissions.

Illustration 5: Hydrogen production1) pathways and types [2019]

Source: IEA, Press review, Roland Berger

8
The cost of green hydrogen is expected to become By the end of 2020, the 42+ countries (including the EU)
competitive with blue hydrogen by 2025 and with grey had developed strategies and plans focusing on
hydrogen by 2030 in GCC countries according to various hydrogen development (see Illustration 6). The largest
sources (e.g., (Hydrogen Council, 2020), (IHS Markit, share of the countries have focused their national strategies
2020)). The cost of renewables is expected to remain the on green hydrogen (e.g., Chile, Germany, Netherlands,
key driver (~60% of the cost per kg of green hydrogen) and Portugal), reinforcing renewable-based hydrogen as the key
the significant drop expected in the cost per kW of long-term option.
eletrolyzers, due to R&D, economies of scale and
standardization, will also represent an important lever to
reach USD 1.5-2.0 per kg by 2030 or before.

Illustration 6: Hydrogen potential development around the world [2020]

Source: Eurasia Group, International Energy Agency, Bloomberg

9
 H2 GLOBAL DEMAND EXPECTED TO REACH ~580 M MT BY 2050
In the recent years, hydrogen has gained traction world-wide ▪ Chemical industry, using ammonia as a feedstock to
with chemical and refining industries in particular driving produce fertilizers (~65% of 2018 total demand).
an increase in demand. According to the (IEA, 2019), the ▪ Refining industry, using hydrogen to lower the sulfur
international hydrogen demand grew approximately four fold content of diesel fuels (~25% of the 2018 total
since 1975 and reached ~75-85 m MT in 2018 (see demand).
Illustration 7) with grey hydrogen, the most cost competitive ▪ Other sectors, such as mobility or electricity
hydrogen over the afore-mentioned period (1.5-2.5 USD/kg), production, have not so far significantly utilized
utilized in key industries: hydrogen, primarily due to low cost competitiveness,
lack of infrastructure (e.g., hydrogen refueling
stations) and underdeveloped technologies.

Illustration 7: Historical hydrogen demand by application [m MT, 1975 – 2020]

Source: IEA, Roland Berger

10
In the upcoming decades, hydrogen stakeholders (e.g., 2050 (e.g., Iberdrola, Eni, Enel, BP). In addition,
producers, international hydrogen-related initiatives) are several trends in the investment field, such as
expecting a significant growth in the hydrogen sector sustainable finance, are likely to influence a shift of
driven by three main factors: investments towards companies with lower impact on
the environment.
▪ Reduction in the Levelized Cost of Hydrogen ▪ Increase in regulations and incentives favoring
(LCOH): The cost of producing hydrogen is expected clean hydrogen adoption: Given the concerns and
to drop between 30% (IEA, 2019) to 50% (Hydrogen awareness around the climate change challenge,
Council, 2020) by 2030 in GCC countries. This is policymakers and governments are expected to
expected to be driven by the continued decrease in increasingly introduce policies and regulations
cost of renewable electricity (e.g., through fostering reduction of CO2 and utilization of green
economies of scale and improved manufacturing technologies such as hydrogen. For instance, the
technologies) and by lower capital expenditure European CO2 market is expected to have a
investments required in the hydrogen value chain significant impact on the economy, fostering green
due to scaling up of manufacturing activities (e.g., products and activities. In Japan, the 2017 target of
lower cost of electrolyzers and other equipment along 80% emissions reduction by 2050 is currently under
the value chain). Furthermore, there are several revision and could be expanded to zero emissions by
projects (e.g., AquaVentus and NortH2 in Europe) 2050 (Reuters, 2020).
and collaboration platforms worldwide (Catapult or
HyDeal in Europe) targeting a drastic cost reduction Given this context, demand is expected to increase
in hydrogen (100% green hydrogen for €1.5/kg by significantly, reaching up to ~580 m MT by 2050 (see
2030). Illustration 8) – hydrogen demand, throughout this paper,
▪ Awareness from companies and market pressure: includes the demand for hydrogen and derivative products –
Increasing global awareness for the impact of CO2 driven by a rise in new applications such as building and
emissions on climate change is expected to add industrial heat & power, as well as transportation.
further pressure on companies. Several energy Hydrogen used as an industrial feedstock is expected to
companies have announced a net-zero strategy by increase to ~150 m MT a year.

Illustration 8: Global hydrogen demand forecast [m MT, 2019-2050]

Source: Hydrogen Council

11
B. HIGH LOCALIZATION POTENTIAL FOR GCC COUNTRIES
I. POTENTIAL H2 REVENUES FOR GCC COUNTRIES TO REACH USD 70-200 BN BY 2050
GCC countries have a number of competitive regular wind, making the GCC a high potential
advantages that can enable them to play a significant role region for renewables. According to the IEA, the
on a global and regional scale: abundance of renewables makes GCC region
potentially one of the most cost competitive for
▪ Abundance of solar & wind energy: The GCC region hydrogen production (IEA, 2020) with long-term cost
has amongst the highest solar radiation in the potentially reaching USD 1.5-2 per kg
world. In addition, some areas benefit from strong and (see Illustration 9).

Illustration 9: Potential long-term cost of green hydrogen based on solar photovoltaic & onshore wind systems [USD/kg]

Source: IEA

▪ Significant funding availability: GCC countries have production assets. Furthermore, they might face obstacles
taken advantage of the Oil & Gas economy to preventing the deployment of local large-scale
create significant financial reserves, which are often production capacities to supply their market which would
channeled through the important investors such as create an attractive export opportunity for GCC
sovereign funds (e.g., Saudi Public Investment Fund, countries. Indeed, these future large markets could face the
Abu Dhabi Investment Authority) and international following obstacles:
funding sources.
▪ Advanced export infrastructure and central ▪ Less competitive renewable resources: Countries
location to energy demand markets: GCC countries could be limited by the low availability of solar and
have proven track record in building and operating wind due to their geographic location and the limited
export infrastructure (e.g. United Arab Emirates' Jebel space availability (for example, a solar park such as
Ali and Saudi Arabia's Jeddah ports among the top 40 Noor Abu Dhabi Solar Park requires 800 ha).
ports in the world (World Shipping Council, 2019)) and ▪ Reluctance due to concerns around biodiversity
are well positioned between the potentially large and impact in agricultural land: Construction of
European and East Asian markets (see illustration 10). renewable capacity can happen at the expense of the
▪ Local capabilities: The region's highly qualified biodiversity and natural environments (e.g. forest).
workforce in the Oil & Gas sector represents a major The development of solar PV could impact valuable
opportunity for the development of the hydrogen agricultural land. Offshore wind can further create
economy in the region. competition with fishing activities and biodiversity
concerns (birds and marine animals). For countries
In addition to these key competitive advantages, the with concerns about these topics, building the required
future large demand markets (e.g., EU, Japan) will have renewable capacity for the hydrogen production could
difficulties to ramp up the needed capacities for H2 be challenging
production locally considering the timeframe to build the

12
 ▪ Public acceptance of power generation and 100 m MT in 2050 with Germany and Belgium each
transport assets: Communities in the large demand importing ~25 m MT, while East Asia, especially Japan,
markets (e.g., EU, Japan) can oppose the could import ~85 m MT of ammonia (see
development of power generation and transport
assets (e.g., grid, pipelines) next to their local areas Illustration 10). The cost competitive hydrogen from GCC
countries could be in a prime position to capture this
The resulting opportunity for GCC countries could be opportunity and be a key enabler in global decarbonization.
significant. For instance, EU hydrogen imports could reach

Illustration 10: Potential 2050 hydrogen imports of selected regions and countries [2050]

Source: Vision Port of Rotterdam, Germany's National Hydrogen Strategy, EU Hydrogen Strategy, METI, Hydrogen Korea Team, Roland Berger

In addition to potential export markets, GCC countries can cater for their own regional demand. The GCC demand in 2019
amounted to ~5.5 m MT, mainly driven by industrial applications. The regional demand could reach 25-50 m MT by 2050 driven
by existing industries in the region (e.g., methanol and ammonia production) and local activities (e.g., transportation, energy) (see
Illustration 11). It is assumed that green hydrogen will be the most competitive hydrogen source by 2050 supported by policies and
regulations and thus 100% of local demand is assumed to be supplied through green hydrogen.

13
Illustration 11: GCC current and future hydrogen demand by application [m MT]

Demand1) per country [2019] Total current and future GCC demand
Potential range:

CAGR CAGR
0.99
2019-2030 2030-2050
2.39
50 m MT 10% 6%
0.25 Qatar
25 m MT 6% 4%
0.46
Bahrain

1.09
UAE
Saudi 5.5
Arabia 0.6
1.7
Oman2) 2.0
1.2
2019 2050

Others Direct reduced iron (DRI) Methanol production Ammonia production Oil refining

1) Demand for other chemicals not included; 2) Announced projects included

Source: IEA, Roland Berger

GCC countries are in a prime position to achieve this 12). This renewable deployment would power ~150-
ambition by leveraging distinct competitive advantages 210 GW of electrolysis capacity to produce 50-70 m
which will enable to develop the local hydrogen industry and MT of hydrogen per year by 2050.
also access a significant share of the global market. Given
▪ Aggressive scenario: GCC countries could deploy a
their competitive advantages, the future hydrogen market
higher amount of capacity to address a larger share of
share of these countries will depend on how much hydrogen
the market (see Illustration 12). Chile, for example,
they can phyisically supply.
plans to deploy 300 GW for hydrogen production by
Conservative and aggressive scenarios are defined based 2050 (Government of Chile, 2020). As GCC is ~3
on the level of renewable deployment that could be achieved times larger than Chile in terms of surface, we
in GCC countries: estimate that GCC could deploy a renewable capacity
of 700-1,000 GW. This renewable capacity would
▪ Conservative scenario: Supposing that GCC
power ~350-500 GW of electrolysis capacity, that
countries continue the renewable deployment in line
could produce 80-100 m MT of hydrogen per year by
with the 2030 targets (~100-140 GW per decade),
2050.
they would be able to dedicate those 300-420 GW for
the hydrogen production accordingly (see Illustration

14
Illustration 12: Potential hydrogen opportunity for GCC countries [2050]

Source: Roland Berger

Installing the afore-mentioned renewable and electrolysis USD 70-140 bn annual revenue from hydrogen by
capacities would allow the GCC countries to capture a large 2050 (see Illustration 13).
share of the international markets leading to potential
▪ Aggressive scenario: In addition to supplying the
generation of USD 70-200 bn annual revenue from
local hydrogen demand, GCC countries would supply
hydrogen by 2050:
~50 m MT for the Europe and East Asia markets by
▪ Conservative scenario: In addition to supplying the 2050 (equivalent to 30% market share in Europe and
local hydrogen demand, GCC countries would supply East Asia markets) resulting in potential generation of
~20 m MT for the Europe and East Asia markets by USD 120-200 bn annual revenue from hydrogen by
2050 (equivalent to 10% market share in Europe and 2050 (see Illustration 13).
East Asia markets) resulting in potential generation of

15
Illustration 13: Potential hydrogen revenues of GCC countries [2050]

Source: Roland Berger

Installing the renewable & electrolysis capacities mentioned would require an annual investment of USD 16-60 bn over a period
of 25 years (see Illustration 14), mainly driven by the cost of installing the renewable capacity (30-40% of the total).

16
Illustration 14: Estimation of investments required from GCC countries by 2050 [USD bn]

Source: Roland Berger

The key competitive factors to address the Europe and Morocco, Spain, Australia), thereby harvesting the early-
East Asia export markets will be the hydrogen price and mover benefits.
the carbon emissions related to hydrogen production,
The journey to a large-scale green hydrogen production
due to the anticipated regulations in these geographies (e.g.,
facility running at full capacity has not been achieved yet
European CO2 regulation). To be competitive on both
world-wide, and obstacles and delays may arise; moving
factors, GCC countries must produce green hydrogen and
early – with the support of relevant policies and regulations
make significant investments in the near future to reach cost
– will allow GCC countries to be at the forefront of the
competitiveness before potential competitors (e.g.,
hydrogen race.

17
II. GCC COUNTRIES' GREY H2 CAPACITY AND RECENT INVESTMENTS IN GREEN H2
GCC countries currently have a hydrogen production nationally and potentially internationally for electrolyzers and
capacity of 5-6 m MT/year mainly utilizing Steam Methane the broader value chain.
Reforming (SMR) (grey hydrogen) which primarily
Furthermore, in December 2020, the Hyport® Duqm Green
addresses refineries and ammonia demand requirements.
Hydrogen Project was announced in Oman. The project
More recently, GCC countries have made progress on the plans for a 250-500 MW electrolyzer powered by solar and
green hydrogen front with several promising projects and wind (Deme Group, 2020). In addition, Sohar Port aspires to
initiatives being announced in 2020 and early 2021. become the Middle East’s first green hydrogen generation
hub powered by gigawatts of solar.
In Saudi Arabia, a large-scale 2 GW green hydrogen
production facility for Ammonia is being planned in In the United Arab Emirates (UAE), an industrial-scale green
NEOM, located on the west coast of the country (see hydrogen pilot project of DEWA and Siemens is in
Illustration 15). This project is being developed through a commissioning phase (DEWA, 2020). In addition, the
partnership composed of ACWA Power, Air Products and Ministry of Energy and Infrastructure launched the’ UAE
NEOM, with thyssenkrupp as the hydrogen technology Hydrogen Technical Committee in 2020, which brings
partner and is one of the largest green hydrogen projects in together the key stakeholders who will be able to shape the
the world. Given the availability of competitive and low-cost future of hydrogen in the UAE. Furthermore, the Abu Dhabi
renewable energy, NEOM will produce green hydrogen at National Oil Company (ADNOC), ADQ and Mubadala have
scale and convert it to green ammonia for export. Air launched the Abu Dhabi Hydrogen Alliance aiming at
Products is going to be the distributor of the green product. developing UAE's international leadership in hydrogen and
NEOM’s prime location enables world record low a substantial green hydrogen local economy (Mubadala,
renewable energy prices, and among the highest 2021). Mubadala also signed a Memorandum of
combined capacity factors by solar and wind energy beyond Understanding with Siemens Energy and other energy
70%, aiming to produce hydrogen between USD 1.5-1.95 players to accelerate green hydrogen capabilities in UAE.
per kg depending on the set-up. This project is unique since the goal is to produce e-fuel
(great potential in the region) with airlines as off-takers, as
Neom has developed a comprehensive localization
well as to promote hydrogen based ecosystems. These
approach and strategy which could have the potential to
developments signal significant green hydrogen
make it a first hydrogen valley in the MENA region. As a core
developments in the future, which will enable GCC
element of the above-mentioned green hydrogen project,
countries to advance rapidly.
the electrolyzers are envisioned to be assembled by
thyssenkrupp locally with a focus on the cells. Considering Moreover, under the umbrella of Dii Desert Energy, the
the size of the project with approx. 2GW of electrolyzer MENA Hydrogen Alliance is bringing together private
capacity, the local manufacturing could serve as an and public sector actors and academia to kick-start a
incubator for Neom and other green hydrogen projects (green) hydrogen economy based on low-cost value
chains for green molecules in the region and beyond.

18
Illustration 15: Overview of NEOM project in Saudi Arabia

Project partners Location

Each party holds 1/3rd
Large KSA player with 34 GW of An additional 100% ownership of City still in
power and 5.9 m m3 /day water distribution to end customers1) development (USD
desalination capacity in portfolio c.500 bn development) Neom
Project scope

Energy Green hydrogen Ammonia conversion Reconversion Offtake

generation production (c. 1.4 mton NH3 p.a.)
(4 GW) (c.2 GW) <1.5 ~2.0 ~2.5 ~3.0 >3.5
Nitrogen
Long-term LCoH potential for solar & onshore wind hybrid setups
[EUR/kg H 2] according to IEA

4 GW renewables USD 5 bn c.240,000 t

energy generation CAPEX1) hydrogen p.a. by 2025
1) Air Products invests an additional USD c.2 bn in the distribution to end customers resulting in a total investment of Air Products of USD 3.7 bn

Source: Air Products, IEA, Roland Berger

19
 HIGH POTENTIAL FOR LOCALIZING ELECTROLYZERS
The production of green hydrogen usually follows a four- ▪ Transportation, storage & distribution: Storage of
step process involving different stakeholders and hydrogen in tanks or combined with another molecule.
technologies. The four steps include (see Illustration 16): Transportation and distribution to the consumption
location.
▪ Renewable generation: Production of green
▪ Final use: Consumption of hydrogen as a feedstock
electricity from renewable sources (e.g., solar, wind).
by off-takers in their industrial process or in other
▪ Electrolysis: Conversion of the electricity into applications (e.g., fuel cell vehicle, centralized
hydrogen via electrolyzers. electricity system).

Illustration 16: Hydrogen value chain overview

Transport,
Renewable
Electrolysis distribution & Final use
generation
storage
Source: Roland Berger

GCC countries have an attractive localization opportunity the localization of these activities would take a lengthier
along the hydrogen value chain (see Illustration 17). timeline than other activities in the sector.
Among the value chain elements, electrolysis has the
Opportunities further exist in other parts of the value chain:
largest potential in the short-term. The key opportunity
lies in the manufacturing activities, due to: ▪ Renewable electricity: Engineering & design
activities can be localized in the long-term if significant
▪ Technological maturity: The electrolysis technology renewable capacities are installed regionally. Other
(Alkaline and PEM) is mature and doesn't have any activities (e.g., manufacturing, R&D) require targetted
major technological barrier. strategies due to high competition (e.g., Chinese PV
▪ Limited industry development: Capacities for large- industry).
scale electrolyzers are just being ramped up and, ▪ Transportation & storage: Despite the small share of
given the overall market growth, this creates an the value chain total cost (10-20%), opportunities can
opportunity for GCC countries. arise from the specific requirements for hydrogen
▪ Attractive share of value: This step of the value chain transportation (e.g., reinforced pipelines and tanks to
represents a 20-40% share of the total cost. resist hydrogen corrosiveness) and dedicated
Additionally, engineering & design activities could be manufacturing capabilities could be localized.
Opportunities created will depend on the types of
localized in the medium and long-term if the demand is
transport vectors used (e.g., ammonia, LOHC).
significant and the required capabilities are developed. R&D
activities should be promoted to gain technological Across the whole value chain, all installation and
leadership along the hydrogen value chain. These activities operation & maintenance activities will need to be
would require significant efforts to build human capabilities localized, contingent on the right human capabilities being
(e.g., dedicated programs, international partnerships) and in place and could also represent an opportunity for GCC
countries.

20
Illustration 17: Localization potential across the hydrogen value chain (final use not considered)

Source: Expert interviews, Roland Berger

Within electrolyzer systems, balance of plant and power complexity of the subsystems enables a reasonable ease for
electronics components are the subsystems with the fast localization. Despite a higher share of total cost (30-
highest potential for localization (see Illustration 18). 55%), the electrolysis stack part has a lower overall potential
Indeed, both subsytems combine a significant share of the in the short & medium-term, mainly due to the complexity of
total electrolyzer cost (25-40% and 25-30% respectively), the technology and the international partnerships and
some of the capabilities required are already in place in the significant investments required to develop the technology.
GCC countries (e.g., metal fabrication and electronics
manufacturing production capabilities) and the limited

Illustration 18: Localization potential of electrolyzer sub-systems

Source: RVO, EKZ, Kumar and Himabindu 2019, NREL, expert interviews, Roland Berger

21
In addition to electrolyzers, demand for green hydrogen in Wind turbine components offer a comparably high
GCC countries will also support the localization of the potential to localize for GCC countries as the leading
renewable energy value chain. For PV and wind projects, manufacturers globally have already succeeded in localizing
non-complex components can potentially be engineered in the manufacturing of these components in various parts of
GCC countries using the existing capabilities while more the world (e.g., Asia, Latin America, Europe). Non-complex
complex components are expected to be engineered outside wind turbine components (e.g., steel structures, cabling)
the region at the location of the component manufacturer. can be manufactured locally using current GCC
capabilities in the short-term. Additionally, more complex
Manufacturing of non-complex PV components (e.g.,
wind turbine components (e.g., blades, nacelle) can
mounting structures, cabling) is expected to be localized in
potentially also be localized in GCC countries in mid- and
the short-term leveraging the current GCC capabilities.
long-term by establishing partnerships with international
Manufacturing of more complex PV components (e.g.,
players and ensuring technology transfer (e.g. in 2017,
wafer and polysilicon) face high global competition
Siemens Gamesa inaugurated Africa’s first wind blade
leading to reduced competitive advantage to localize for
factory in Tanger, Morocco).
GCC countries.

Illustration 19: Localization potential of Renewable Energy value chain

Source: Expert interviews, Roland Berger

22
 POTENTIAL OF ~1 M JOBS FROM THE GREEN H2 VALUE CHAIN LOCALIZATION BY 2050
The development of the hydrogen economy and In a conservative case it is assumed that GCC countries
localization of the value chain activities represent new will achieve high levels of localization for manufacturing of
employment opportunities across a wide range of low complexity components from the hydrogen value chain
positions and skills. The GCC countries becoming a leading (e.g., steel structures, electrical components) and partially of
player in the hydrogen ecosystem could result in the creation medium complexity components (e.g. solar photovoltaic
of 400-900 k direct and indirect jobs in the region by 2050. modules).
This estimation is based on the afore-mentioned hydrogen In the aggressive case, GCC countries will achieve high
economy scenarios of USD 70-140 m (Conservative case) localization of low and medium complexity components
and USD 120-200 m (Aggressive case) revenue from while partially localizing the manufacturing of high
green hydrogen production. In addition, it is contingent on complexity components (e.g. polysilicon).
the level of local manufacturing activities in the GCC
countries which foster local job creation.

Illustration 20: Localization scenarios

Source: Roland Berger

23
Consequently, it is expected (see Illustration 20) that the Lastly, hydrogen storage is expected to create ~65-150 k
largest job creation in the value chain will be within the direct and indirect jobs by 2050 while hydrogen distribution
renewable industry dedicated to green hydrogen. ~200- sector has the potential to create employment for ~45-90 k
450 k jobs are expected to be created in the region by 2050 people in the GCC countries.
for the renewable generation related to hydrogen
A large share of the jobs created in hydrogen economy is
production, of which a majority will be for the manufacturing
expected to be in manufacturing activities across the
and construction of the renewable capacity.
hydrogen value chain, with a total of ~180-400 k people
Additionally, the electrolysis industry is expected to employed in these activities by 2050. In addition, ~120-270
contribute substantially to the job creation in the region. k jobs are expected to be created in design & installation-
By 2050, electrolysis and related industries have the related activities. Finally, ~100-230 k jobs are expected
potential to employ between ~100-220 k people in GCC within the operation and maintenance activities across
countries. the hydrogen value chain by 2050.

Illustration 20: Job creation by value chain activity [2030-2050]

400-900 k
Distribution

Storage

Electrolysis

Renewable Generation

40-80 k

2030 2050

Source: Roland Berger

The development of the hydrogen industry in GCC countries Workers will be the job group with highest demand,
will ensure the creation of a significant number of high- especially within the manufacturing and construction
skilled jobs in the region (see Illustration 21). It is estimated activities throughout the value chain. ~150-320 k skilled
that ~75-150 k people with a university background can (e.g., electricians, metal and machinery workers) and
be employed in the hydrogen and related industries as ~150-360 k unskilled workers (e.g., labourers,
managers or professionals by 2050 mainly driven by design, assemblers) are expected to be employed in the GCC
project development and engineering activities. The majority hydrogen economy by 2050. As GCC countries become a
of these will be engineers from diverse backgrounds hub for the global hydrogen economy, manufacturing jobs
consisting of primarily electrical, chemical and mechanical will be permanent while a part of construction workforce will
engineers. eventually shift to other sectors as the hydrogen sector
development & construction is scaled down.
Technicians will also be required, driven by manufacturing
and O&M activities, with the potential to employ ~45-90 k
technicians by 2050 across the hydrogen value chain.

24
Illustration 21: Job creation by skill level [2030-2050]

400-900 k

Managers & Professionals

Technicians

Skilled workers

Unskilled workers
40-80 k

2030 2050

Source: Roland Berger

The emerging jobs in GCC hydrogen economy will create a region. Part of the workforce in the manufacturing activities
substantial demand for fresh graduates and can transition into the manufacturing industry, which will
experienced professionals in the region. However, during support the hydrogen value chain.
the transition into the hydrogen economy, there is potential
The compatibility of the positions and skills between the
that part of the newly created positions can be filled
Oil & Gas and the hydrogen industry will reduce the
leveraging existing local capabilities.
efforts needed to develop the workforce for the newly
The region's highly qualified workforce in the Oil & Gas developing hydrogen sector, reduce the redundancies in the
sector represents a major opportunity for the development workforce driven by the decarbonizing of the economy and
of the hydrogen economy in the region. also support the Saudization efforts in the newly developing
hydrogen economy.
In particular, potential exists in the manufacturing
industry currently supporting the Oil & Gas sector in the

25
C. H2 STRATEGIES, INFRASTRUCTURE & HUMAN CAPABILITIES AS
KEY ENABLERS
To accelerate the development of the hydrogen ecosystem, GCC countries must address three key enablers (see Illustration 22).

Illustration 22: Key enablers for hydrogen in GCC countries

Source: Roland Berger

I. COMPREHENSIVE H2 STRATEGIES AS A KEY ENABLER

Countries leading the push to decarbonize their ministries, citizens) are involved throughout the design
economies, have focused their efforts on developing process.
specific and tailored hydrogen strategies. In recent
Quantified targets are a key element within the strategies
years, 42+ countries (including the EU) have developed
of multiple countries. For instance, 2030 targets have
strategies and plans focusing on hydrogen (see
been set in North America, Europe and Asia on
Illustration 6, Illustration 23).
hydrogen mobility and combined heat & power
Often the hydrogen strategies are announced in parallel to applications (see Illustration 23). Going forward, it will be
the energy system integration strategies, providing a also key for GCC countries to set quantified targets and
framework for the green energy transition, hence define clear execution roadmaps.
highlighting the importance of an integrated energy system
The involved governments have communicated ambitions to
in which all sectors can fully contribute to decarbonization.
have >80 m fuel cell cars on the road by 2030, and >21 k
(e.g., European Union).
hydrogen refueling stations. In addition, >30 k commercial
These hydrogen strategies define the approach for countries vehicles have been announced to decarbonize public
to develop their hydrogen economy. Most of the strategies transportation, with Asia representing the largest share of
include elements such as quantified targets and the global target (>28 k).
roadmaps. To ensure the quality and relevance of the
strategy, key stakeholders (e.g. private sector, relevant

26
Illustration 23: Publicly stated plans of deployment of FCH technology by continent

Source: Public reports and databases, Roland Berger

Countries with hydrogen ambitions have also developed their regulatory landscape to foster the ecosystem (see Illustration
24). Approaches and tools differ depending on the region, varying from technology development (e.g. grant for pilot projects) to
end-users (e.g. tax removal on hydrogen, performance requirement, carbon tax).

Illustration 24: Hydrogen policy landscape analysis

Source: Roland Berger

Key best practices and next steps can be derived from ▪ Comprehensive and integrated approach: A
benchmarking, among others, U.S., China and Chile comprehensive strategy specific to hydrogen including
national hydrogen strategies, and must include (see a clear roadmap for all stakeholders to set the
Illustration 25): ecosystem in motion with a clear direction.
▪ Governance bodies: Definition of a body to
▪ Quantified and realistic targets: GCC countries coordinate and oversee the development of the
must set realistic and meaningful targets in terms of hydrogen ecosystem and manage the diverse
hydrogen production, markets, and investments. stakeholders.

27
 ▪ Engaging in international efforts: GCC countries guarantees of origin, which will be a major element in
must support international efforts to work on international trade

Illustration 25: Potential actions for GCC countries

Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Gobierno de Chile, Cleantech Group, China Hydrogen Alliance, Roland Berger

II. ECOSYSTEM DEVELOPMENT VIA H2 VALLEYS, INTERNATIONAL PARTNERSHIPS AND

R&D PROGRAMS
Hydrogen valleys combine green hydrogen production, Hydrogen valleys typically focus on a wide variety of
storage, distribution and final-use in one geographical applications such as industrial use (e.g., chemicals, refining,
area, thereby forming an integrated ecosystem (see iron & steel), mobility and energy storage, as well as having
Illustration 26). Hydrogen is produced via electrolysis capabilities to export green hydrogen.
powered by renewable capacity. The renewable capacity
can be located onsite or in another location depending on
the space available.

Illustration 26: Hydrogen valley overview and potential off-takers

Source: Roland Berger

28
To build a competitive green hydrogen valley, several storage capacity to overcome the intermittent
requirements need to be taken into account: nature of renewables and to ensure a stable input
for the electrolyzer during off-peak periods.
▪ High electrolyzer load factor obtained through:
- An optimized mix of complementary ▪ Hydrogen storage capacity: Hydrogen storage
renewable sources: Combination of several facilities at the consumption site are required to ensure
renewable sources (e.g. solar, wind) is required a constant flow of hydrogen to off-takers.
to ensure a combined production cycle ▪ Pipelines for transport/distribution: The large and
maximizing electrolyzer utilization (key cost stable hydrogen demand requires the use of pipelines
driver). to transport the hydrogen and increase the cost
competitiveness (see Illustration 27).
- Electricity storage capacity (e.g., battery, hydro
storage): Hydrogen valleys need electricity

Illustration 27: Hydrogen delivery methods

Source: U.S. Department of Energy

29
The hydrogen valley concept is a key enabler of hydrogen (e.g. cement industries) or equipment manufacturers
ecosystems due to the following direct benefits: (e.g. electrolyzer manufacturer).
▪ Lower hydrogen cost: The valleys bring the costs ▪ Promotion of Green H2 benefits: H2 valleys help to
down for off-takers by achieving economies of scale, promote green hydrogen due to the scale and diversity
significantly reducing the cost of transportation and of the stakeholders involved in the projects.
enabling predictable supply and demand. To heighten their competitiveness and lead the race for
▪ Heightened investment attraction: Hydrogen global leadership in hydrogen, it is important for GCC
valleys enable more competitive production costs, countries to develop hydrogen valley projects in the near
greater distribution of risk amongst different future. Worldwide, 30+ hydrogen valleys have recently been
stakeholders (e.g., producers, off-takers) thereby developed (see Illustration 28) in 15+ countries. Europe
fostering investors' confidence. hosts a large part of the projects (20+), in particular in
▪ Increased adjacent industry localization: The countries such as Germany, France and the UK. Countries
larger scale offered by hydrogen valleys make them with high renewable availability such as Chile and Australia
more attractive (low hydrogen cost, ecosystem have also developed specific hydrogen valleys, with large
already in place) for localization of adjacent industries projects under development.

Illustration 28: Global landscape of hydrogen valleys (selection)

Source: FCH JU, Roland Berger

30
In the short-term, GCC countries need to setup R&D already being commissioned, with Siemens providing the
partnerships with international technology providers to technical knowledge and know-how.
accelerate the development of their hydrogen
In the medium and long-term, GCC countries could
ecosystem, in particular for advanced technologies (e.g.
develop R&D programs bringing together international
electrolyzer stack). Around the world, multiple partnerships
technology providers, national champions and
are beeing formed combining technology providers (e.g.,
hydrogen coordinating bodies to develop technologies
electrolyzer manufacturer) with energy stakeholders to
across the whole value chain and strengthen hydrogen
develop green hydrogen projects. For instance, Snam
leadership. For example, in Europe the Fuel Cells and
(Italian energy infrastructure company) and ITM Power
Hydrogen Joint Undertaking (see Illustration 29) organizes
(British manufacturer of electrolyzer) have recently signed a
and coordinates projects to demonstrate and develop
partnership agreement to integrate the development of
technologies (e.g. hydrogen bus pilot). It includes the
electrolyzer technology to green hydrogen projects. In the
European Commission, Hydrogen Europe (Industry
UAE, DEWA and Siemens have signed a partnership to
association) and N.ERGHY (research group including
launch a solar-based hydrogen electrolysis facility that is
universities and R&D centers).

Illustration 29: Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking (FCH2 JU) overview

Source: FCH JU, Hydrogen Europe, N.ERGHY, Roland Berger

31
III. REQUIREMENT FOR ENHANCED EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS AND TRAININGS
The development of the GCC hydrogen economy will the TVET level, existing programs need to be enhanced
create a large demand for qualified workforce. Many job considering the workforce demand and skills required in the
functions in the hydrogen sector will require new skills not hydrogen sector especially in manufacturing, installation and
existing in the current workforce, thus, it will be key to maintenance subjects.
establish a human capability build-up (HCB) ecosystem to
Part of the experienced workforce joining from other
develop the skills needed in the sector.
sectors (e.g. Oil & Gas) will re- skilling to serve in the
The HCB ecosystem should support the future sector hydrogen economy due to the sector specificities. Thus, it
workforce to gain the necessary skills throughout their will be key to develop sector-specific upskilling trainings for
development journeys through relevant educational experienced workforce joining the sector to adapt to the
programs (University and Technical & Vocational requirements of the hydrogen economy. These trainings will
Education), sector-specific upskilling trainings and on-the- need to be supported by on-the-job trainings for the
job trainings to ensure the hands-on experience. workforce to gain first-hand experience.
Educational programs need be established and revised Coordination between the stakeholders will be key to
to address the needs of this emerging sector. In the develop the relevant programs and certifications and
universities, bachelor and master programs related to set the standards regarding the capability development to
science and engineering need to include hydrogen focus for ensure that the future workforce gains the knowledge and
the interested students to have the first insights on the skills needed in the sector.
subject and gain the required skills to serve in the sector. On

32
D. CONCLUSION FOR GCC COUNTRIES
Driven by countries' policies & regulations and drop in countries need to set a clear direction for all key
costs, the hydrogen market is expected to significantly stakeholders with integrated hydrogen strategies,
grow in the coming decades, with demand potentially including quantified targets and hydrogen-specific
reaching ~580 m MT by 2050. regulations and incentives. Second, GCC countries should
develop hydrogen valleys to reduce production costs,
The GCC countries can seize this opportunity by deploying
attract additional investments and support the ecosystem
local large-scale production capacities and develop
development. Third, GCC countries must develop
their hydrogen ecosystems. By doing so, they could
international partnerships with key technology
generate annual revenues of USD ~70-200 bn and ~1 m
providers to gather and develop the required knowledge to
jobs by 2050. In the short-term, the most attractive activity
build leadership in hydrogen. Last, GCC countries must
to localize for GCC countries are the electrolyzers, which
enhance the university & training programs and sector-
represents 20-40% of the total value chain cost.
specific trainings to prepare the qualified workforce
To unlock the full potential of the hydrogen economy, GCC needed to deploy the hydrogen economy across its wide
countries must address four key enablers. First, GCC value chain.

33
E. ABOUT

Founded in 1967, Roland Berger is a leading global Dii Desert Energy is an independent, international public-
consultancy firm of European roots. It is German by origin private sector network operating from Dubai. Dii was
and has grown to develop a strong global footprint. Its launched in 2009 as an industry initiative in Germany
entrepreneurial spirit has shaped its growth and fueled its (formerly known as ‘Desertec Industrial Initiative’) for
outstanding achievements since the early days of the firm. accelerating the energy transition in the MENA region
With over 50 years of continuous growth behind it and 2,400 towards the supply of green electrons and molecules across
employees working in 34 countries, Roland Berger is one of the regional and global energy value chains. Our group is
the leading players in global top-management consulting encouraging sustained prosperity and stability in the region
and has successful operations in all major markets. Through through local value creation and jobs thanks to the energy
its particularly strong expertise and network in the energy transition. This has been established in the market as
sector globally, Roland Berger is at the forefront of Desertec 3.0.
discussions and developments related to energy transition
and decarbonization, renewable energy, and green In early 2020, Dii launched the MENA Hydrogen Alliance to
hydrogen. Roland Berger has done extensive work across kick start green hydrogen economies and to provide a
all energy subjects globally for policymakers, sector platform to discuss pathways forward and formulate joint
companies and investors. studies. The alliance acts as an impartial advisor to promote
projects, elaborating business cases and structures for mid-
scale to giga-scale projects. It proposes the necessary
policy and regulatory frameworks, identifies international off-
takers and educates different stakeholders on technical and
economic aspects of the entire value chain, including virtual
and physical export of green energy.

Dii's platform of more than 50 companies and organizations

from 25 countries is mobilizing top executives, public
stakeholders, R&D institutions and academia supporting
Our Mission: No Emissions!

34
F. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Authors

35
We appreciate the support provided for this document by the following list of interviewees:
Adamo Screnci, Dr Alessandro Zampieri, Amin Al Yaquob, Anas Almathami, Andrea Lovato, Dr Cetin Nazikkol, Damien Sage,
Driss Berraho, Emanuele Bianco, Fadi Maloouf, Firas al Abduwani, Frank Wouters, Jost Herbert, Dr Malcolm Cook, Manthos
Kallios, Manuel Kuehn, Mohamad El Nahi, Mohammed Lawati, Paul van Son, Ralph de Haan, Reshma Carmel Francy, Roland
Kaeppner, Thamer Alghafees and Yousif Al Ali.

36
G. ILLUSTRATIONS
Illustration 1: Evolution of greenhouse gas emissions depending on level of commitment [gigatons per year] ............................... 5
Illustration 2: Benefits of clean hydrogen (blue and green)............................................................................................................... 6
Illustration 3: Mapping of hydrogen end-uses ................................................................................................................................... 6
Illustration 4: Energy storage capacity by technology ....................................................................................................................... 7
Illustration 5: Hydrogen production1) pathways and types [2019] ..................................................................................................... 8
Illustration 6: Hydrogen potential development around the world [2020] .......................................................................................... 9
Illustration 7: Historical hydrogen demand by application [m MT, 1975 – 2020]............................................................................. 10
Illustration 8: Global hydrogen demand forecast [m MT, 2019-2050] ............................................................................................. 11
Illustration 9: Potential long-term cost of green hydrogen based on solar photovoltaic & onshore wind systems [USD/kg] .......... 12
Illustration 10: Potential 2050 hydrogen imports of selected regions and countries [2050] ............................................................ 13
Illustration 11: GCC current and future hydrogen demand by application [m MT] .......................................................................... 14
Illustration 12: Potential hydrogen opportunity for GCC countries [2050] ....................................................................................... 15
Illustration 13: Potential hydrogen revenues of GCC countries [2050] ........................................................................................... 16
Illustration 14: Estimation of investments required from GCC countries by 2050 [USD bn] ........................................................... 17
Illustration 15: Overview of NEOM project in Saudi Arabia ............................................................................................................. 19
Illustration 16: Hydrogen value chain overview ............................................................................................................................... 20
Illustration 17: Localization potential across the hydrogen value chain (final use not considered) ................................................. 21
Illustration 18: Localization potential of electrolyzer sub-systems .................................................................................................. 21
Illustration 19: Localization potential of Renewable Energy value chain ........................................................................................ 22
Illustration 21: Job creation by value chain activity [2030-2050] ..................................................................................................... 24
Illustration 22: Job creation by skill level [2030-2050]..................................................................................................................... 25
Illustration 23: Key enablers for hydrogen in GCC countries .......................................................................................................... 26
Illustration 24: Publicly stated plans of deployment of FCH technology by continent ..................................................................... 27
Illustration 25: Hydrogen policy landscape analysis ....................................................................................................................... 27
Illustration 26: Potential actions for GCC countries ........................................................................................................................ 28
Illustration 27: Hydrogen valley overview and potential off-takers .................................................................................................. 28
Illustration 28: Hydrogen delivery methods ..................................................................................................................................... 29
Illustration 29: Global landscape of hydrogen valleys (selection) ................................................................................................... 30
Illustration 30: Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking (FCH2 JU) overview ........................................................................... 31

37
H. REFERENCES
Deme Group. (2020). Kick-off of the Hyport® Duqm green hydrogen project. Retrieved from https://www.deme-
group.com/news/kick-hyportr-duqm-green-hydrogen-project

Dii/Friedrich Ebert Foundation. (2020). The risks and opportunities of green hydrogen production in MENA.

Dii Desert Energy & Fraunhofer ISI (2012). Desert Power 2050 – Perspectives on a Sustainable Power System for EUMENA.
Retrieved from https://dii-desertenergy.org/publications/desert-power-2050/

Dii Desert Energy (2013). The Economic Impacts of Desert Power, Socio-economic aspects of an EUMENA renewable energy
transition. Retrieved from https://dii-desertenergy.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2013-07-30_Dii_EIDP_EN_Digital.pdf

Dii Desert Energy (2019). P. van Son, T. Isenburg (2019). Emission-free energy from the deserts

Hydrogen Council. (2020). Path to hydrogen competitiveness: a cost perspective. Retrieved from
https://hydrogencouncil.com/en/path-to-hydrogen-competitiveness-a-cost-perspective/

IEA. (2019). The Future of Hydrogen. Retrieved from https://www.iea.org/reports/the-future-of-hydrogen

IEA. (2020). Renewables 2020, Analysis and forecast to 2025. Retrieved from https://www.iea.org/reports/renewables-2020

IHS Markit. (2020). IHS Markit: annual investments in green hydrogen production to exceed $1 billion by 2023. Retrieved from
https://www.greencarcongress.com/2020/12/20201204-
ihsgh2.html#:~:text=Green%20hydrogen%20production%20costs%20are,cost%20of%20the%20electrolysis%20equipment.

Mubadala. (2021). Mubadala and Siemens Energy sign MoU to accelerate green hydrogen capabilities in Abu Dhabi. Retrieved
from https://www.mubadala.com/en/news/mubadala-and-siemens-energy-sign-mou-accelerate-green-hydrogen-capabilities-abu-
dhabi

Mubadala. (2021). Mubadala, ADNOC and ADQ form alliance to accelerate Abu Dhabi Hydrogen leadership. Retrieved from
https://www.mubadala.com/en/news/mubadala-adnoc-and-adq-form-alliance-accelerate-abu-dhabi-hydrogen-leadership

Reuters. (2020). Japan set to target zero emissions by 2050 in policy shift. Retrieved from
https://www.reuters.com/article/climate-japan-policy-shift-idUSKBN2780RN

Sovereign Wealth Fund Institute (SWFI). (n.d.). Fund profile. Retrieved from https://www.swfinstitute.org/

Transparency Market Research. (2020). Water Electrolysis Machine Market. Retrieved from
https://www.transparencymarketresearch.com/water-electrolysis-machine-market.html

Van Wijk, A., Wouters, F., Rachidi, S., & Ikken, B. (2019, November). A North Africa - Europe Hydrogen Manifesto. Retrieved
from https://dii-desertenergy.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Dii-hydrogen-study-November-2019.pdf

Van Wijk, A., Chatzimarkakis, J., (2020). Green Hydrogen for a European Green Deal. A 2x40 GW Initiative. Retrieved from
https://dii-desertenergy.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/2020-04-01_Dii_Hydrogen_Studie2020_v13_SP.pdf

Wood Mackenzie. (2019). How the big Gulf producers are investing in 2019. Retrieved from
https://www.woodmac.com/news/the-edge/how-the-big-gulf-producers-are-investing-in-2019/

World Shipping Council. (2019). Top 50 world container ports. Retrieved from https://www.worldshipping.org/about-the-
industry/global-trade/top-50-world-container-ports

38