FREQUENCY STABILIZATION OF

ISOLATED AND GRID CONNECTED HYBRID MICROGRID

MODEL

A PROJECT REPORT
Submitted by

RAMANAN M 211417105121
SURESH KUMAR A.V 211417105149
PADMA SUNDER B 211417105103
MANIKANDAN C 21141715081

In partial fulfillment for the award of the

Degree

Of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

IN

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE, CHENNAI

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI

600 0123
APRIL 2021

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 0125

1
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “UPS SYSTEM USING PV PANELS” is the

bonafideworkof“PREMKUMAR.S(211417105112),PRAVEENKUMAR.V(2114

17105114),SANTHOSHKUMAR.G(211417105135),VIGNESH.M(2114151141

67)” who carried out the project work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE     SIGNATURE

Prof.S.SELVI ,M.E.,(Ph.D.) Prof.G..

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT SUPERVISOR

PROFESSOR                                           ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,
Department of Electrical and Department of Electrical and
Electronics Engineering Electronics Engineering,
Panimalar Engineering College Panimalar Engineering College, Chennai
Chennai– 600 123. – 600 123.

Submitted for Anna University Project Viva Voce held on ………… at Panimalar
Engineering College,Chennai.

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

At the outset we would like to express our gratitude to our beloved respected
Chairman, Dr.Jeppiaar M.A B.L., Ph.D.,Our beloved correspondent and
Secretary Mr.P. Chinnadurai M.A., M.Phil., Ph.D., and our esteemed director
for their support.

We would like to express thanks to our Principal, Dr. K. Mani M.E., Ph.D., for
having extended his guidance and cooperation.

We would also like to thank our Head of the Department, Dr.S. Selvi, M.E.,
Ph.D., Professor and Head, Department of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering for her encouragement.

Personally, we thank M.E. Ph.D in Department of Electrical and Electronics

Engineering for the persistent motivation and support for this project, who at all
times was the mentor of germination of the project from a small idea.

We express our thanks to the project coordinators Dr. N. Manoj Kumar, M.E.,
Ph.D. in Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering for the Valuable
suggestions from time to time at every stage of our project.

Finally, we would like to take this opportunity to thank our family members,
friends, well-wishers who have helped us for the successful completion of our
project.

We also take the opportunity to thanks all faculty and non-teaching staff members
to our department for their timely guidance to complete our project.

3
 ABSTRACT

This project inquires load frequency control of Isolated and Grid-connected

hybrid power system models (IHPS and GHPS). The generating units of IHPS are
diesel engine generator (DEG), wind turbine generator (WTG), and solar thermal
power generation (STPG) whereas, the generating units of GHPS include the
integration of WTG and steam thermal power station (STPS). Superconducting
magnetic energy storage (SMES) is used as the energy storage device while the
system is operated in isolated mode. To stabilize the load frequency and enhance
the dynamic performance of the system a conventional proportional-integral (PI)
controller is used. The transient response of the system concerning step changes in
the load demand is examined for IHPS and GHPS using Mat lab Simulink.

4
 TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO

ABSTRACT iv

LIST OF TABLES viii

LIST OF FIGURES x

LIST OF ABBREVATION xi

1 INTRODUCTION 12

1.1 USES OF SOLAR ENERGY 13

1.1.1 Heating 13

1.1.2 Cooling 14

1.1.3 Transportation 14

1.2 GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY FROM 15

SOLAR ENERGY

1.3 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF SOLAR INVERTER 17

1.4 NEED OF SOLAR INVERTER 17

1.5 TYPES OF SOLAR INVERTER 18

1.5.1 Stand Alone Inverters 18

1.5.2 Grid Tie Inverters 19

1.5.3 Battery Backup Inverters 19

2 LITERATURE SURVEY 19

2.1 ENERGY SOURCES 19

2.1.1 Non-Renewable Energy Resources 19

2.1.2 Renewable Energy Resources 19

2.2 SOLAR ENERGY AS FUTURE 20

2.2.1 POLLUTION FREE ENERGY 20

2.2.2 Reduction in Green House Gases 22

5
 2.2.3 Energy Production On Remote 21

LOCATIONS

2.3 BACKGROUND STUDY 23

3.5 SOFTWARE REQUIREMENT 23

3 WORKING EXPLANATION 24

3.1 SIMULATION DIAGRAM 26

4 ARDUINO NANO 23

4.1.1 ARDUINO Nano Technical 25

Specifications

4.1.2 Other ARDUINO Boards 27

4.1.3 Other Development Boards 27

4.1.4 Difference Between ARDUINO UNO 28

and ARDUINO NANO

5 PROBLEM STATEMENT 29

5.1 OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE 29

5.2 RESEARCH 29

5.2.1 Source Information 29

5.2.2 Required Input Data 30

5.3 DESIGN APPROACHES OF SOLAR 31

INVERTER

5.3.1 Push Pull Topology 32

5.3.2 H- Bridge Topology 33

5.4 SOLAR INVERTER PARTS 34

5.4.1 Solar Battery Charger 33

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 5.4.2 Solar Panel 36

5.4.3 Modelling Of 50W Panel 36

Inverter

5.4.4 Inverter 38
5.5 MODELLING OF 50WATT SOLAR INVERTER 38

5.5.1 Selection of Battery Size And 38

Solar Panel

5.5.2 Selection of Topology 40

6 MOTOR SELECTION 41

6.1 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE 44

DRIVING SYSTEM

6.2 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE 45

DEGREE OF FREEDOM

6.3 SINGLE-AXIS SOLAR TRACKING 47

SYSTEM

6.4 DUAL-AXIS SOLAR TRACKING 47

SYSTEM

6.2 ADVANTAGES 50

6.3 DIS-ADVANTAGES 50

6.4 APPLICATIONS 51

VI CONCLUSION 56

V REFERENCES 58

7
 II. LIST OF TABLES

TABLE.NO TABLE PAGE.NO

3.1.1 Arduino Nano Technical Specifications 29

3.1.2 Difference between Arduino and UNO 30

III LIST OF FIGURES

8
 FIG.NO. FIGURES PAGE.NO.
1.1 Heating Application of Solar Energy 13
1.2 Generation of Electricity from Solar 15
Energy
2.1 Electricity Generation from Remote 21
Locations
2.2 Role of Solar Energy in Renewable 23
Energy Consumption

3.1 Ups System Using PV Panels 24

3.2 Circuit Diagram 25
3.3
Real Time Example 25

4.1 Nano pin Configuration 27

5.1 General Flow of An Inverter 32
5.2 (A) Top Switch Close State 33
(B) Bottom Switch Close State
5.3 H Bridge Topology 33
5.4 Solar Panel 35
5.5 Rechargeable Battery 37
6.1 Solar Tracking Model 45
6.2 Single Axis Solar Tracker 47
6.3 Dual Axis Solar Tracker 48
6.4 Need for Solar Tracker 48

III ABBREVATIONS:

AC Alternating Current
A-Si Amorphous Silicon
BOS Balance of System
Cd-Te Cadmium-Telluride

9
CIGS Copper-Indium-Gallium-Selenide
C-Si Crystalline Silicon
DAU Data Acquisition Unit
DC Direct Current
DG Distributed Generation
ES Energy Storage
GHG Greenhouse Gases
G-VSC Grid-connected Voltage Source Converter
IC Incremental Conductance
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (UN)
LCC Life Cycle Cost
LCOE Levelized Cost of Electricity
Mono-Si Monocrystalline Silicon Solar Cell
MOSFET Metal–Oxide–Semiconductor Field-Effect
Transistor
MPP Maximum Power Point
MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracking
NiMH Nickel Metal Hybrid
NOx Nitrogen Oxides
P&O Perturb and Observe
Poly-Si Polycrystalline Silicon
PV Photovoltaic/Photovoltaics
PWM Pulse-Width Modulation
RMS Root Mean Square
SOC State of Charge
S-Ox Sodium Oxides
STC Standard Testing Conditions
THD Total Harmonic Distortion
UPS Uninterruptible Power Supply

10
 CHAPTER I

I.INTRODUCTION:

In today's climate of growing energy needs and increasing environmental concern,

alternatives to the use of non-renewable and polluting fossil fuels have to be
investigated. One such alternative is solar energy. Solar energy is quite simply the
energy produced directly by the sun and collected elsewhere, normally the Earth.
The sun creates its energy through a thermonuclear process that converts about
650,000,0001tons of hydrogen to helium every second. The process creates heat
and electromagnetic radiation. The heat remains in the sun and is instrumental in
maintaining the thermonuclear reaction. The electromagnetic radiation (including
visible light, infra-red light, and ultra-violet radiation) streams out into space in all
directions. Only a very small fraction of the total radiation produced reaches the
Earth. The radiation that does reach the Earth is the indirect source of nearly every
type of energy used today. The exceptions are geothermal energy, and nuclear
fission and fusion. Even fossil fuels owe their origins to the sun; they were once
living plants and animals whose life was dependent upon the sun. Much of the
world's required energy can be supplied directly by solar power. More still can be
provided indirectly. The practicality of doing so will be examined, as well as the
benefits and drawbacks. In addition, the uses solar energy is currently applied to
will be noted. Due to the nature of solar energy, two components are required to
have a functional solar energy generator. These two components are a collector and
a storage unit. The collector simply collects the radiation that falls on it and
converts a fraction of it to other forms of energy (either electricity and heat or heat
alone). The storage unit is required because of the non-constant nature of solar
energy; at certain times only a very small amount of radiation will be received. At
night or during heavy cloud cover, for example, the amount of energy produced by
the collector will be quite small. The storage unit can hold the excess energy
produced during the 2 periods of maximum productivity, and release it when the
productivity drops. In practice, a backup power supply is usually added, too, for the

11
situations when the amount of energy required is greater than both what is being
produced and what is stored in the container.

1.1 USES OF SOLAR ENERGY

People use energy for many things, but a few general tasks consume most of the
energy. These tasks include transportation, heating, cooling, and the generation of
electricity. Solar energy can be applied to all four of these tasks with different
levels of success.

1.1.1 Heating

Heating is the business for which solar energy is best suited. Solar heating requires
almost no energy transformation, so it has a very high efficiency. Heat energy can
be stored in a liquid, such as water, or in a packed bed. A packed bed is a container
filled with small objects that can hold heat (such as stones) with air space between
them. Heat energy is also often stored in phase-change or heat-of-fusion units.
These devices will utilize a chemical that changes phase from solid to liquid at a
temperature that can be produced by the solar collector. The energy of the collector
is used to change the chemical to its liquid phase, and is as a result stored in the
chemical itself. It can be tapped later by allowing the chemical to revert to its solid
form.

FIG 1.1 – Heating Application of Solar Energy

12
Solar energy is frequently used in residential homes to heat water. This is an easy
application, as the desired end result (hot water) is the storage facility. A hot water
tank is filled with hot water during the day, and drained as needed. This application
is a very simple adjustment from the normal fossil fuel water heaters.

1.1.2 Cooling

Solar energy can be used for other things besides heating. It may seem strange, but
one of the most common uses of solar energy today is cooling. Solar cooling is far
more expensive than solar heating, so it is almost never seen in private homes.
Solar energy is used to cool things by phase changing a liquid to gas through heat,
and then forcing the gas into a lower pressure chamber. The temperature of a gas is
related to the pressure containing it, and all other things being held equal, the same
gas under a lower pressure will have a lower temperature. This cool gas will be
used to absorb heat from the area of interest and then be forced into a region of
higher pressure where the excess heat will be lost to the outside world. The net
effect is that of a pump moving heat from one area into another, and the first is
accordingly cooled.

1.1.3 Transportation

Of the main types of energy usage, the least suited to solar power is transportation.
While large, relatively slow vehicles like ships could power themselves with large
onboard solar panels, small constantly turning vehicles like cars could not. The
only possible way a car could be 4 completely solar powered would be through the
use of battery that was charged by solar power at some stationary point and then
later loaded into the car. Electric cars that are partially powered by solar energy are
available now, but it is unlikely that solar power will provide the world's
transportation costs in the near future.

1.1.4 Generation of electricity

Besides being used for heating and cooling, solar energy can be directly converted
to electricity. Most of our tools are designed to be driven by electricity, so if you

13
can create electricity through solar power, you can run almost anything with solar
power. The solar collectors that convert radiation into electricity can be either flat-
plane collectors or focusing collectors, and the silicon components of these
collectors are photovoltaic cells.

FIG 1.2 – Generation of Electricity from Solar Energy

1.2 – Generation of Electricity from Solar ENERGY

Photovoltaic cells, by their very nature, convert radiation to electricity. This

phenomenon has been known for well over half a century, but until recently the
amounts of electricity generated were good for little more than measuring radiation
intensity. Most of the photovoltaic cells on the market today operate at an
efficiency of less than 15%; that is, of all the radiation that falls upon them, less
than 15% of it is converted to electricity. The maximum theoretical efficiency 5 for
a photovoltaic cell is only 32.3%, but at this efficiency, solar electricity is very
economical. Most of our other forms of electricity generation are at a lower
efficiency than this. Unfortunately, reality still lags behind theory and a 15%
efficiency is not usually considered economical by most power companies, even if

14
it is fine for toys and pocket calculators. Hope for bulk solar electricity should not
be abandoned, however, for recent scientific advances have created a solar cell with
an efficiency of 28.2% efficiency in the laboratory. This type of cell has yet to be
field tested. If it maintains its efficiency in the uncontrolled environment of the
outside world, and if it does not have a tendency to break down, it will be
economical for power companies to build solar power facilities after all. Now, we
know that solar panel transfers electrons into DC, and most appliance at home is
using AC, that's why we use inverters.

1.3 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF SOLAR INVERTER

A solar inverter, or PV inverter, converts the variable direct current (DC) output of
a photovoltaic (PV) solar panel into a utility frequency alternating current (AC) that
can be fed into a commercial electrical grid or used by a local, off-grid electrical
network. It is a critical component in a photovoltaic system, allowing the use of
ordinary commercial appliances. Solar inverters have special functions adapted for
use with photovoltaic arrays, including maximum power point tracking and anti-
islanding protection

1.4 NEED OF SOLAR INVERTER

There are two types of sources for electrical power generation. One is conventional
and other is non- conventional. Today to generate most of electrical power
conventional sources like coal, gas, nuclear power generators are used. Some of
conventional source are polluted the environment to generate the electricity. And
nuclear energy is not much preferable because of its harmful radiation effect on the
mankind. After some of ten years conventional sources will not sufficient enough
to full-fill the requirements of the mankind. So some of the electrical power should
be generated by non-conventional energy sources like solar, wind. With the
continuously reducing the cost of PV power generation and the further
intensification of energy crisis, PV power generation technology obtains more and
more application.6 Conventionally, there are two ways in which electrical power is

15
transmitted. Direct current (DC) comes from a source of constant voltage and is
suited to short-range or device level transmission. Alternating current (AC) power
consists of a sinusoidal voltage source in which a continuously changing voltage
(and current) can be used to employ magnetic components. Long distance electrical
transmission favour AC power, since the voltage can be boosted easily with the use
of transformers. By boosting the voltage, less current is needed to deliver a given
amount of power to a load, reducing the resistive loss through conductors. The
adoption of AC power has created a trend where most devices adapt AC power
from an outlet into DC power for use by the device. However, AC power is not
always available and the need for mobility and simplicity has given batteries an
advantage in portable power. Thus, for portable AC power, inverters are needed.
Inverters take a DC voltage from a battery or a solar panel as input, and convert it
into an AC voltage output.

1.5 TYPES OF SOLAR INVERTER

Solar inverters may be classified into three broad types.

1. Stand Alone Inverters

2. Grid Tie Inverters

3. Battery Backup Inverters

1.5.1 STAND ALONE INVERTERS

Stand-alone inverters, used in isolated systems where the inverter draws its DC
energy from batteries charged by photovoltaic arrays. Many stand-alone inverters
also incorporate integral battery chargers to replenish the battery from an AC
source, when available. Normally these do not interface in any way with the utility
grid, and as such, are not required to have anti-landing protection.

1.5.2 GRID TIE INVERTERS

16
Grid-tie inverters, which match phase with a utility-supplied sine wave. Grid-tie
inverters are designed to shut down automatically upon loss of utility supply, for
safety reasons. They do not provide backup power during utility outages.

1.5.3 BATTERY BACKUP INVERTERS

Battery backup inverters, are special inverters which are designed to draw energy
from a battery, manage the battery charge via an onboard charger, and export
excess energy to the utility grid. These inverters are capable of supplying AC
energy to selected loads during a utility outage, and are required to have anti-
islanding protection.

17
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 ENERGY SOURCES

An energy resource is something that can produce heat, power life, move objects,
or produce electricity. Matter that stores energy is called a fuel. Human energy
consumption has grown steadily throughout human history. There are two type of
energy sources

1) Non-Renewable Energy Sources

2) Renewable Energy Sources

2.1.1 NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

Non-renewable energy comes from sources that will run out or will not be
replenished in our lifetimes—or even in many, many lifetimes. Most non-
renewable energy sources are fossil fuels: coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Carbon
is the main element in fossil fuels.

2.1.2 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

Wind, solar, and biomass are three emerging renewable sources of energy.
Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that is collected from resources
which are naturally replenished on a human timescale, such as sunlight, wind, rain,
tides, waves, and geothermal heat.

2.2 SOLAR ENERGY AS FUTURE

Solar power has two big advantages over fossil fuels. The first is in the fact that it
is renewable; it is never going to run out. The second is its effect on the
environment.

18
2.2.1 POLLUTION FREE ENERGY

While the burning of fossil fuels introduces many harmful pollutants into the
atmosphere and contributes to environmental problems like global warming and
acid rain, solar energy is completely non-polluting. While many acres of land must
be destroyed to feed a fossil fuel energy plant its required fuel, the only land that
must be destroyed for a solar energy plant is the land that it stands on. Indeed, if a
solar energy system were incorporated into every business and dwelling, no land
would have to be destroyed in the name of energy. This ability to decentralize solar
energy is something that fossil fuel burning cannot match.

2.2.2 REDUCTION IN GREEN HOUSE GASES

Global warming and energy policies have become a hot topic on the international
agenda in the last years. Developed countries are trying to reduce their greenhouse
gas emissions. For example, the European Union has committed to reduce their
greenhouse gas to at least 20% below 1990 levels and to produce no less than 20%
of its energy consumption from renewable sources by 2020. In this context,
photovoltaic (PV) power generation has an important role to play due to the fact
that it is a green source. The only emissions associated with PV power generation
are those from the production of its components. After their installation they
generate electricity from the solar irradiation without emitting greenhouse gases. In
their life time, PV panels produce more energy than that for their manufacturing.
Also, they can be installed in places with no other use, such as roofs and deserts.

2.2.3 ENERGY PRODUCTION ON REMOTE LOCATIONS

They can produce electricity for remote locations, where there is no electricity
network. The l atter type of installations is known as off-grid facilities and
sometimes they are the most economical alternative to provide electricity in
isolated areas. However, most of the PV power generation comes from grid-
connected installations, where the power is fed in the electricity network. In fact, it
is a growing business in developed countries such as Germany which is world
leader in PV power generation followed by Spain, Japan, USA and Italy. As the

19
primary element of construction of solar panels, silicon, is the second most
common element on the planet, there is very little environmental disturbance
caused by the creation of solar panels. In fact, solar energy only causes
environmental disruption if it is centralized and produced on a gigantic scale. Solar
power certainly can be produced on a gigantic scale, too.10 Among the renewable
resources, only in solar power do we find the potential for an energy source capable
of supplying more energy than is used.

FIG 2.1 – Electricity Generation from Remote Locations

Suppose that of the 4.5x1017 kWh per annum that is used by the earth to evaporate
water from the oceans we were to acquire just 0.1% or 4.5x1014 kWh per annum.
Dividing by the hours in the year gives a continuous yield of 2.90x1010 kW. This
would supply 2.4 kW to 12.1 billion people. This translates to roughly the amount
of energy used today by the average person available to over twelve billion people.
Since this is greater than the estimated carrying capacity of the Earth, this would be
enough energy to supply the entire planet regardless of the population.
Unfortunately, at this scale, the production of solar energy would have some
unpredictable negative environmental effects. If all the solar collectors were placed
in one or just a few areas, they would probably have large effects on the local
environment, and possibly have large effects on the world environment. Everything
from changes in local rain conditions to another Ice Age has been predicted as a
result of producing solar energy on this scale. The problem lies in the change of

20
temperature and humidity near a solar panel; if the energy producing panels11 are
kept non-centralized, they should not create the same local, mass temperature
change that could have such bad effects on the environment. Of all the energy
sources available, solar has perhaps the most promise. Numerically, it is capable of
producing the raw power required to satisfy the entire planet's energy needs.
Environmentally, it is one of the least destructive of all the sources of energy.
Practically, it can be adjusted to power nearly everything except transportation with
very little adjustment, and even transportation with some modest modifications to
the current general system of travel. Clearly, solar energy is a resource of the
future.

2.3 BACKGROUND STUDY

The use of efficient photovoltaic solar cells has emerged as an important solution in
energy conservation and demand side management. Owing to their initial high
costs, they have not been an attractive alternative for users who are able to buy
cheaper electrical energy from the utility grid. However, they have been
extensively used in pumping and air conditioning in remote and isolated areas
where utility power is not available or too expensive to transport.

FIG 2.2 – Role of solar energy.

Although solar cell prices have decreased considerably during the last years due to
new developments in the film technology and the manufacturing process, PV arrays

21
are still considered rather expensive compared with the utility fossil fuel generated
electricity prices. After building such an expensive renewable energy system, the
PV array has to be operated at its highest conversion efficiency by continuously
utilizing the maximum available output of the array. The electrical system powered
by solar cells requires special design considerations because of the varying nature
of the solar power generated resulting from unpredictable changes in weather
conditions which affect the solar radiation level as well as the cell operating
temperature. The efficiency of a PV plant is affected mainly by three factors: the
efficiency of the PV panel (in commercial PV panels it is between 8-15%). The
efficiency of the inverter (95-98%) and the efficiency of the maximum power point
tracking algorithm (which is over 98%). Improving the efficiency of the PV panel
and that of the inverter is not easy as it depends on the technology available. It may
require better components, which can increase drastically the cost of the
installation. Instead, improving the tracking of the maximum power point with new
control algorithms is easier, not expensive and can be done even in plants which
are already in use by updating their control algorithms, which would lead to an
immediate increase in PV power generation and consequently a reduction in its
price. In practice, the voltage dependency on the irradiation is often neglected. As
the effect on both the current and voltage is positive, i.e. both increase when the
irradiation rises, the effect on the power is also positive. More the irradiation, the
more power is generated. PV panel manufacturers provide in their data sheets the
temperature coefficients, which are the parameters that specify how the open circuit
voltage, the short circuit current and the maximum power vary when the
temperature changes. As the effect of the temperature on the current is really small,
it is usually neglected.

22
 CHAPTER 3

3.WORKING EXPLANATION:

Fig 3.1 – Ups System using PV panel

The above diagram represents the completed project with a tracking system to
improve the power output. The proposed tracking system can be used to track a lot
of solar energy during the daytime with the help of PV panel rotation in different
direction. In dual axis system we can track the sun in four different directions as the
sensors are placed on either of the corners of the panel as a, result we can achieve
more amount of energy from the solar panel. During this period, we are able to
absorb additional sun rays. The dual-axis system is as effective as the single axis
however the former rotates in both axes and captures more energy when compared
to the latter, the former captures the solar energy more productively by rotating in
both horizontal as well as vertical direction as the name itself suggest that they are
dual axis tracker. The sensors placed on the corner transfer a signal to the controller
which then starts the motor and orients the panel in the precise position where the
intensity of the radiation is maximum, the actuator is used to position the panel.
Since the position of the Sun keeps changing due to the movement of the Earth
solar energy produced by the fixed panel will not be much effective as the position
of the Sun varies by an angle of 22 degrees from north to south.

23
 Fig 3.2 – Circuit diagram
The servo motor is operating to follow the path of the sun. This servo motor and
LDR sensors are interfaced with a microcontroller where servo motor is operated
on the base of sensor reading. Sun light sensed by LDR sensors and send a signal to
microcontroller. The microcontroller receives signals from LDR sensor and based
on the received input signal it decides the rotation direction of servo motor and
positions the panel towards the sun to get a maximum output. This energy can be
stored in a battery for future use or fed directly to the grid or can be used for
domestic appliances like TV, Fridge and washing machines etc. They consist of an
inverter and converter set-up to convert the DC to AC and vice versa.

Fig 3.3 – Real Time Example

24
3.1 SIMULATION DIAGRAM:

Fig 3.4 – Simulation diagram

The simulation circuit was designed using proteus professional software version
6.0 The components were picked from the library and connected appropriately as
represented in figure 2.0. The switches represent the sensor with outputs connected
to pins-7 and 8 of the microcontrollers. The outputs from pins 5 and 6 are
connected to input port, pins 10 and 12 of motor driver which controls the direction
of motor movement through the output ports, pin13 and pin14.The compiled
program was transferred to the microcontroller after the design completion by right
clicking and selecting the program file. Closing and opening the switches cause the
motor to change direction while increasing and decreasing the voltage assumed
from the panel give different values of
power and voltage on the LCD.

CHAPTER-4

25
4.ARDUINO NANO:

FIGURE.4.1 Nano Pin Configuration.

 1-2, 5-16 D0-D13 I/O Digital input/output port

 0 to 13 3, 28 RESET Input Reset (active low)
 4, 29 GND PWR Supply ground
 17 3V3 Output +3.3V output (from FTDI)
 18 AREF Input ADC reference
 19-26 A7-A0 Input Analog input channel 0 to 7
 27 +5V Output or Input +5V output (from on-board regulator) or +5V (input
from external power.

4.1.1 Arduino Nano Technical Specifications:

26
Microcontroller ATmega328P – 8bit AVR family
microcontroller
Operating Voltage 5V
Power Vin, 3.3V, Vin: Input voltage to Arduino when
7-12V
5V, GND using an external power source (6-
12V).
Recommended Input Voltage
5V: Regulated power supply used to
for Vin pin
power microcontroller and other
Analog Input Pins 6 (A0 – A5)
components on the board.
Digital I/O Pins 14 (Out of which 6 provide PWM
3.3V: 3.3V supply generated by on-
output)
DC Current on I/O Pins 40 mAboard voltage regulator. Maximum
current draw is 50mA.
DC Current on 3.3V Pin 50 Ma
GND: Ground pins.
Flash Memory 32 KB. (2 KB is used for Bootloader)
Analog Pins
SRAM A0 – A7 2 KBUsed to measure analog voltage in the
range of 0-5V
EEPROM
Input/Output 1 KB
Digital Pins D0 – Can be used as input or output pins.
Frequency
Pins (Clock D13
Speed) 16 MHz0V (low) and 5V (high)
Serial Rx, Tx Used to receive and transmit TTL
Communication IIC, SPI, USART
serial data.
External 2, 3 To trigger an interrupt.
Interrupts
PWM 3, 5, 6, 9, 11 Provides 8-bit PWM output.
SPI 10 (SS), 11 Used for SPI communication.
(MOSI), 12 (MISO)
and 13 (SCK)
Inbuilt LED 13 To turn on the inbuilt LED.
IIC A4 (SDA), A5 Used for TWI communication.
(SCA)
AREF AREF To provide reference voltage for input
voltage.

27
 4.1.2 Other Arduino Boards:

Arduino UNO, Arduino Pro Mini, Arduino Mega, Arduino Due, Arduino Leonardo
 
4.1.3 Other Development Boards:

Raspberry Pi, PIC Development Board, AVR Development Board, MSP430

Launchpad, Intel Edison, ESP32
 
4.1.4 Difference between Arduino UNO and Arduino Nano:

Name Processor Operating/Inpu CPU Analog Digital EEPROM / Flash USB USART

t Voltage spee In/Out IO/PW SRAM[Kb]

d M
Uno Atmega328 5V / 7-12V 16 6/0 14 / 6 1/2 32 Regula
1
P MHz r
Nano Atmega328 5V / 7-12V 16 8 / 0 14 / 6 1/2 32
MINI 1
P MHz
The Arduino Nano is very much similar to the Arduino UNO. They use the same
Processor (Atmega328p) and hence they both can share the same program. One big
difference between both is the size UNO is twice as big as Nano and hence
occupies more space on your project. Also Nano is breadboard friendly while Uno
is not. To program a Uno you need Regular USB cable whereas for Nano you will
need a mini USB cable. The technical difference between Uno and Nano is shown
below.
Table – 4.1.2 Difference between Arduino and UNO

4.1.5 Difference between Arduino Nano and Arduino Mega:

There is a considerable amount of difference between the Arduino Nano and the
Arduino mega as the processor used itself is different. Arduino Mega is more
powerful than an Arduino Nano in terms of speed and number of I/O pins. As you
might guess the size is also bigger than an Arduino UNO. Arduino Mega is

28
normally used for projects which require a lot of I/O pins and different
Communication protocols. The technical difference between Nano and Mega is
shown below.

CHAPTER 5

29
5. PROBLEM STATEMENT

The world demand for electric energy is constantly increasing, and conventional
energy resources are diminishing and are even threatened to be depleted. Moreover;
their prices are rising. For these reasons, the need for alternative energy sources has
become indispensable, and solar energy in particular has proved to be a very
promising alternative because of its availability and pollution-free nature. Due to
the increasing efficiencies and decreasing cost of photovoltaic cells and the
improvement of the switching technology used for power conversion, our goal is to
design an inverter powered by PV panels and that could supply stand-alone AC
loads. Solar panels produce direct currents (DC), and to connect these panels to the
electricity grid or use them in other industrial applications, we should have an AC
output at a certain required voltage level and frequency. The conversion from DC
to AC is essentially accomplished by means of a DC-AC inverter, which is the
major component in the system. Yet, the output of the solar panels is not
continuously constant and is related to the instantaneous sunlight intensity and
ambient temperature.

5.1 OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE

The main objective of our project is to design and construct a PV based system
that produces electric energy and operates in dual mode, supplying stand-alone AC
loads, while minimizing its cost and size. The system’s main property is to
production of quality electricity from a renewable source to reduce dependence on
fossil fuels and the associated emissions of pollutants. Our goal is to design and
develop an inverter that will handle the task described.

5.2 RESEARCH

5.2.1 SOURCE INFORMATION

The development of renewable energy such as sun, geothermal, biomass and wind
have become important contribution to the total energy consumed in the world.
These alternative sources of energy can never be exhausted. They cause less

30
emission and therefore stand out as a potentially feasible source of clean and
limitless energy. These resources do not cause any significant environmental
pollution or substantial health hazards and apparently available as natural abundant
resources. Solar energy is amongst the highest development of renewable
resources. Malaysia is one of the countries that receive abundant of sun light in
average mostly in northern side of Peninsular Malaysia. Perlis, Kedah and Penang
have high potential in applying solar energy. With the rapid progress of the power
electronic techniques, solar energy as an alternative energy source has been put to
use such as photovoltaic (PV) module. The basic concept for PV module is to
collect solar energy in space and transfer it for distribution as electrical power.
However this renewable source energy requires rather sophisticated conversion
techniques to make them usable to the end user. The output of PV is essentially
direct current (DC) form. Therefore, it needs to be converted to alternating current
(AC) for it to be commercially feasible. This is necessary because the power
utilization is mostly in AC form. This conversion can be done by using inverter. In
any PV based system, the inverter is a critical component responsible for the
control of electricity flow between the modules, battery and loads. Inverters are
essentially DC-AC converters. It converts DC input into AC output. It can be
designed to be used with different voltage ranges and topologies for varying
applications A solar inverter takes the DC electricity from the solar array and uses
that to create AC electricity. Inverters are like the brains of the system. Along with
inverting DC to AC power, they also provide ground fault protection and system
stats including voltage and current on AC and DC circuits, energy production, and
maximum power point tracking. When sufficient output available from Solar
panels to charge the battery, solar panel charges a storage battery. In this time
mains supply will not be utilized for charging purpose. A control circuit
continuously monitors the battery's voltage. When the battery is fully charged, the
circuit automatically turns on a power inverter and switches the appliance from
running on grid power to running on the energy stored in the battery. Then when
the battery's voltage drops too low, the circuit automatically switches the appliance
back to grid power until the battery is recharged. we can run the equipment like

31
fans, LED lights, pumps etc. directly without using battery, but as the output of
Solar panels are not steady due to clouds, bad weather etc. It’s not advisable to run
the appliances which require stable voltage. However with suitable regulators, you
can very easily run low power devices. Solar pumps work directly on the direct
input from Solar panels. Solar pump is a combination of a DC motor and a
centrifugal pump. Solar submersible pump sets are also available. Solar pump sets
are extremely useful where Grid power supply is not accessible. In India a typical 1
HP, 500 W input 24 V solar pump set costs 35000/- to 40000/- without the cost of
Solar panel and fittings. A complete set can cost around Rs 1 Lakh. These pump set
can deliver around 1500 litres of water per hour on sunny days. There are few
sections of the solar inverter they are:

1) The solar battery recharger,

2) The solar panel

3) Rechargeable battery

4) The inverter.

5.2.2 Required Input Data

Solar PV system includes different components that should be selected according

to your system type, site location and applications. The major components for solar
PV system are solar charge controller, inverter, battery bank, auxiliary energy
sources and loads (appliances).

1) Size and Rating of Solar Panel – converts sunlight into DC electricity.

2) Solar charge controller – regulates the voltage and current coming from the PV
panels going to battery and prevents battery overcharging and prolongs the battery
life.

3) Size of Inverter – converts DC output of PV panels or wind turbine into a clean

AC current for AC appliances or fed back into grid line.

32
4) Size of Battery Bank – stores energy for supplying to electrical appliances when
there is a demand.

5) Load – is electrical appliances that connected to solar PV system such as lights,

radio, TV, computer, refrigerator, etc.

6) Type of Connection of Solar Panel.

7) Energy from Solar Panel as per Daily Sun lights.

8) Select Type of connection of Batteries in Battery Bank.

5.3 DESIGN APPROACHES OF SOALR INVERTER

There are many topologies or circuit designs for creating higher power AC from
low voltage DC sources. Two common topologies are the Push-Pull and H-Bridge.
The Push-Pull topology is suitable for producing square and modified square wave
inverter while the H-Bridge is useful for producing modified square wave and sine
wave inverter.

FIG 5.1 – GENERAL FLOW OF AN INVERTER

5.3.1 Push Pull Topology

The basic theory of Push-Pull topology is shown. There are two transistor switches
in this design. If the top switch closes, it will cause current to flow from the battery
negative through the transformer primary to the battery positive. This induces a
voltage in the secondary side of the transformer that is equal to the battery voltage
times the turn’s ratio of the transformer

33
Only one switch is closed at a time. The switches flip-flop after a period of
approximately 8ms which is one-half of 60Hz AC cycle. The top switch opens and
then the bottom switch closes allowing current to flow in the opposite direction.
The continuing of closes and opens switch will produce a square wave output
waveform which is higher voltage.

FIG 5.2 – (A) Top Switch Close State (B) Bottom Switch Close State

The addition of an extra winding in the transformer along with a few other parts
allows output of a Modified Square Wave.

4.3.2 H- Bridge Topology

The operation of H-Bridge topology is similar to Push-Pull topology. The term H-

Bridge is derived from the typical graphical representation of such a circuit. An H-
Bridge is built with four transistor switches. The transistors are divided into four
groups with the transformer primary connected across the middle of the bridge as
illustrate in Fig 2.6

34
 FIG 5.3– H Bridge Topology

The transistors are switched on and off in a specific pattern to produce each part of
the waveform. If the switch 1 and 4 are closed, current will flow from the battery
negative through transformer primary to the positive terminal of the battery. This
current induces a current flow in the secondary of the transformer, which has a
peak voltage equal to the battery voltage times the turn ratio of the transformer.
The switch 1 and 4 open after a period of time and the switch 2 and 4 close
providing off time shorting. The length of the on and off time is determined
according to the Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) controller.

Then, the switch 2 and 3 are close and allow current flow through the transformer
in a direction opposite to the current flow. The switch 2 and 4 are close after this
cycle is complete for off time shorting. This cycle will continuous to produce AC
power.

5.4 SOLAR INVERTER PARTS

There are few sections of the solar inverter they are,

1. The solar battery recharger,

2. The solar panel

3. Rechargeable battery

4. The inverter.

35
5.4.1 Solar Battery Charger

A battery charger is a device used to put energy into a secondary cell or battery by
forcing an electric current through it. The charge current depends upon the
technology and capacity of the battery being charged. For example, the current that
should be applied to recharge a 12V battery will be very different from the current
for a mobile phone battery

The solar battery recharger as the name suggest it is in fact a battery charger which
charges a sealed rechargeable battery of 6V 4.5 AH in this case. The solar battery
charger derives its pow er from the12V 500mA solar panel. The solar panel which
in turn converts the sunlight to electrical energy. The charger converts the raw 12V
from the solar panel to a regulated voltage feed for the sealed rechargeable battery.
The solar battery recharger features:

1. Custom controllable voltage regulation.

2. Auto cut-off when battery is fully charged.

3. Filtered input from the solar panel.

4. No current back flows from the battery.

5. Very simple, compact and efficient.

5.4.2 Solar Panel:

A solar panel (also solar module, photovoltaic module or photovoltaic panel) is a

packaged, connected assembly of solar cells, also known as photovoltaic cells. The
solar panel can be used as a component of a larger photovoltaic system to generate
and supply electricity in commercial and residential applications. Because a single
solar panel can produce only a limited amount of power, many installations contain
several panels. A photovoltaic system typically includes an array of solar panels, an
inverter, and sometimes a battery and interconnection wiring.

36
 FIG 5.4 – Solar Panel

Solar panels use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity through
the photovoltaic effect. The structural (load carrying) member of a module can
either be the top layer or the back layer. The majority of modules use wafer- based
crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells based on cadmium telluride or silicon. The
conducting wires that take the current off the panels may contain silver, copper or
other non-magnetic conductive transition metals.

The cells must be connected electrically to one another and to the rest of the
system. Cells must also be protected from mechanical damage and moisture. Most
solar panels are rigid, but semi-flexible ones are available, based on thin-film cell.

Electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage and/or
in parallel to provide a desired current capability. Separate diodes may be needed
to avoid reverse currents, in case of partial or total shading, and at night.

Silicon cells may have adequate reverse current characteristics that these are not
necessary. Reverse currents waste power and can also lead to overheating of
shaded cells. Solar cells become less efficient at higher temperatures and installers
try to provide good ventilation behind solar panels.

Some recent solar panel designs include concentrators in which light is focused by
lenses or mirrors onto an array of smaller cells. This enables the use of cells with a
high cost per unit area (such as gallium arsenide) in a cost-effective way.

Depending on construction, photovoltaic panels can produce electricity from a

range of frequencies of light, but usually cannot cover the entire solar range
(specifically, ultraviolet, infrared and low or diffused light). Hence much of the

37
incident sunlight energy is wasted by solar panels, and they can give far higher
efficiencies if illuminated with monochromatic light. Therefore, another design
concept is to split the light into different wavelength ranges and direct the beams
onto different cells tuned to those ranges. This has been projected to be capable of
raising efficiency by 50%.

Currently the best achieved sunlight conversion rate (solar panel efficiency) is
around 21% in commercial products, typically lower than the efficiencies of their
cells in isolation. The energy density of a solar panel is the efficiency described in
terms of peak power output per unit of surface area, commonly expressed in units
of watts per square foot (W/ft2). The most efficient mass-produced solar panels
have energy density values of greater than 13 W/ft2 (140 W/m2).

5.4.3 Re-chargeable Battery:

The battery used in this project is a rechargeable sealed lead sulphate battery rating
12V 4.5AH. This type of battery is excellent for rechargeable purpose. A
rechargeable battery or storage battery is a group of one or more electrochemical
cells. They are known as secondary cells because their electrochemical reactions
are electrically reversible. Rechargeable batteries come in many different shapes
and sizes, ranging anything from a cell to megawatt systems connected to an
electrical distribution network. Several different combinations of chemicals are
commonly used, including: lead acid, Nickel Cadmium (Ni-Cd), Nickel metal
hydride (NiMH), lithium ion (Li-ion), and Lithium-ion polymer (Li-ion polymer).

FIG 4.5 – Rechargeable Battery

38
Rechargeable batteries have lower total cost of use and environmental impact than
disposable batteries. Some rechargeable battery types are available in the same
sizes as disposable types. Rechargeable batteries have higher initial cost, but can be
recharged very cheaply and used many times.

5.4.4 Inverter:
Since normal dc can’t be used in most applications due to which there is a
requirement that somehow the dc is changed to ac for this the inverter is used
which converts the dc to ac of suitable range for use in house hold appliances.

In this project the dc from the sealed rechargeable battery of 6V is fed to the
inverter which then converts it to ac of 140V – 220V this makes it possible to
recharge normal mobile chargers.

An inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC) to alternating

current (AC), the converted AC can be at any required voltage and frequency with
the use of appropriate transformers, switching, and control circuits. Solid-state
inverters have no moving parts and are used in a wide range of applications, from
small switching power supplies in computers, to large electric utility high-voltage
direct current applications that transport bulk power. Inverters are commonly used
to supply AC power from DC sources such as solar panels or batteries. The inverter
performs the opposite function of a rectifier.

5.5 MODELLING OF 50WATT SOLAR INVERTER

A successful design involves accurate knowledge of daily electrical load
calculation and accounts for all worst-case scenarios which might possibly occur
during operation. A good designer will be pragmatic and keep the costs down by
cutting on unnecessary over sizing the system.

39
5.5.1 Selection of Battery Size And Solar Panel:
Now let’s begin,
Suppose we have to design an inverter for load of 40 Watts and required backup
time for batteries is 1 Hour and we have to model a Solar Inverter than Inverter
ratings, Required No of Solar Panel and No of batteries are calculated as follows.

Inverter should be greater 25% than the total Load

40 x (25/100) = 10
40+10 = 50 Watts
This is the rating of the UPS (Inverter)
Now the required Back up Time in Hours =
2.5 Hours Suppose we are going to install
4.5Ah, 6 batteries, 6V x 4.5Ah = 27Wh

Now for One Battery (i.e the Backup time of one battery)
27Wh / 40W = 0.675 Hours
But our required Backup time is 1 Hour.
Therefore, 1/0.675 = 2→ i.e. we will now connect two batteries each of 4.5Ah,
6V.
Hence this is a 12 V inverter system, now we will install two batteries (each of
6V, 4.5Ah) in Parallel. Because this is a 6V inverter System, so if we connect
these batteries in parallel, then the Voltage of batteries 6V remains same, while
it’s Ah (Ampere Hour) rating will be increase

1. In parallel Connection, Voltage will be same in each wire or section, while

current will be different i.e current is additive e.g. I1+I2+I3…+In = 4.5Ah
+4.5Ah = 9Ah

2. In Series Circuits, Current is same in each wire or section while voltage is

different i.e Voltage is additive e.g. V1+V2+V3….Vn. For The above
system if we connect these batteries in series instead of parallel, then. The

40
 rating of batteries become V1+V2 = 12V while the current rating would be
same i.e. 4.5Ah.

3. We will now connect 2 batteries in parallel (each of 4.5Ah, 6V), therefore

for two Batteries it will be 9 Ah 6V, Now Required Charging Current for
these two batteries (Charging current should be 1/10 of batteries Ah) → 9Ah
x (1/10) = 0.9A.

Now the required No of Solar Panels,

P = VI
P = 6V x 0.9 A
P = 5.4 Watts
This is our required watts for solar panel (only for battery charging, and then
battery will supply
power to the load), Now
5.4W/3W = 2 Solar panels
Or 5.4W/6 = 1 Solar panels.

5.5.2 Selection of Topology:

The Push-Pull topology was the first step in electronic inverter technology. The
advantage of this topology is the simplicity of the overall circuit design and cost
effective in manufacturing. But the major problem is the current in the transformer
has to suddenly reverse directions. This will cause a large reduction in efficiency.
The disadvantages of this topology are complexity of the transformer design and
higher transformer losses in square wave design.

The square wave inverter is the simplest and cheapest form of inverter. But, the
output waveform of square wave inverter has high total harmonic distortion (THD).
Motor will generate excess heat and most of electronic equipment will not operate
well from square wave inverter. Modified square wave inverters have better
improvement over square wave types. It has good voltage regulation, lower total

41
harmonic distortion and better overall efficiency. The operation of electric motor is
better from a modified square wave and most electronic component will operate
without problems.

The advantage of H-Bridge topology is the simplicity of needing only one primary
winding on the transformer. The efficiency of this design based on the quality of
the transistors used and the number of transistors in parallel. Mostly, the losses in
this topology are at the transistor switches. The performance of this design will
improve as transistors improve and become available.

For small load applications in PV system, the inverter can be design by using the
Push-Pull topologies. This topology is simple and easy to design. This kind of
inverter can run the lamp and fan however some modification of the design is
needed for this topology. The next step will continue with further improvement in
the circuit design and simulation of this topology in order to improve and modify
the circuit design.

42
 CHAPTER 6

6. MOTOR SELECTION:

There are many types of motor can be selected in ASTS design. Currently, several
types of motors being used in the area of ASTS around the world are: Step-motor,
Servo-motor, AC asynchronous motor, permanent magnetic DC servo motor,
permanent magnetic brushless synchronous motor, etc. Generally speaking, as the
gear ratio is high for the transmission system, motor control precision has very
small impact to the tracking precision. For example, for a system with the gear ratio
of 20000:1, the tracker only covers an angle of 0.314mrad when a one complete
circle is finished by the motor. Therefore, all kinds of the motor can satisfy the
precision of the tracking system however the feature of each type of motor is
different. AC asynchronous motor with encoder First of all, let’s take a look at the
AC asynchronous motor. To use this kind of motor, we need an encoder to locate
the position of the tracker. In our project, we install an encoder at the end of AC
motor. The PLC accepts the pulse to locate the tracker, while the transducer is used
to adjust the tracker’s speed. Certainly, we can install an encoder at the end of the
transmission to ensure the position of the tracker. The obvious advantage to use AC
asynchronous motor is its price. Even though it can achieve all the needed
functions, AC asynchronous motor is too heavy, too large, and too low in
efficiency to be installed. Also, for this type of motor, the torque at low speed is
very small. In addition to these disadvantages, it needs the work frequency be
above 5Hz to function properly. The lowest work frequency in our project is 10Hz.
As such, the possibility for us to use AC asynchronous motor in the future is
eliminated. Secondly, let’s compare the features of DC Servo-Motor and AC servo-
motor. There are two types of DC servo-motor: motor with brush and motor
without brush. Motor with brush is low in cost, simple in structure, and high in start
torque also it has wide range of speed adjustment, is easy to control. Though it
needs maintenance from time to time, it is very convenient to repair (replace the
brush) however it produces electro-magnetic interfere. Motor without brush is
small in size, light in weight, high in output, fast in response, small in inertia,

43
smooth in spinning, stable in output torque, low motor maintenance fee, high in
efficiency, low in electro-magnetic radiation, long life, and can be applied in
different working environments however it has more complex control system. AC
servo-motor is also a type of motor without brush. There are two types of AC
servomotor: synchronous AC motor and asynchronous AC motor. Currently,
synchronous AC motor is generally used in movement control. It can cover a wide
power range, which could be up to a very high power. Nowadays, with the fast
development of semiconductor technology, the shift frequency of power assembly,
and the processing speed of micro-computer have been increased significantly. As
such, it is possible to put the AC motor controller into a two-axial coordinate
system to control the directional current components, in order to achieve the
performance similar to the DC motor.www.studymafia.org Fourthly, the
comparison between AC servo-motor and step motor is done. AC servo-motor runs
smoothly during the low-speed period, while step-motor is apt to have low-
frequency vibration. In terms of the frequency-torque Characteristics, the output
torque of step-motor decreases with the increasing of rotation speed furthermore
the decrease is steep in high-speed range. AC servo-motor has a comparably stable
output torque, when the rotation speed is within the rated rotation speed. It gives
the constant output power when the rotation speed is beyond the rated value. Step-
motor doesn’t have the overload capability; while AC servo-motor posse a
satisfactory overload capability. The Panasonic AC servo-system is an example:
The maximum Output torque is three times big of the rated output torque, which
can be used to overcome the inertia load during the start period. As the step-motor
doesn’t have the overload capability, a much bigger size of step-motor is needed
obviously the step-motor will be over-sized during normal operation. Controller’s
type of Step-motor is open-loop type. It is easy to have the error of “step loss” or
blockage when the start frequency is high or the load is

heavy also it is easy to have the error of overshoot when it is stopped. So, to make
sure the precision of control be achieved, designer needs to pay more attention to
the speed-increase or speed-decrease periods. AC servo-motor system is a closed-

44
loop system. It is possible for the driver-component to sample the signal from the
motor encoder to complete a “position cycle” and “speed cycle” internally. As
such, AC servo-motor system generally will not have the errors of “step loss” or
“overshooting”, and is more reliable in terms of controlling performance. Step-
motor needs 200 to 400 mil-seconds to accelerate from still to a typical working
speed of several hundred rpm. AC servo-motor is better in terms of acceleration
performance. For example, Panasonic MSMA 400W needs only a few mil-seconds
to accelerate from still to its rated speed of 3000RPM. Hence it is clear that step-
motor’s performance is not so good. Though it’s cheaper. Started from late 70s and
early 80s, with the development of micro-process technology, high-power, high-
performance semiconductor technology, and manufacturing technology of
permanent magnetic material, the performance price ratio of AC servo-system has
been improved significantly. Price of AC servo-system also is gradually deceasing
in recent years. AC servo motor is becoming the dominant
product.www.studymafia.org The conclusion is that all the motors, step-motor, AC
asynchronous motor, DC motor with/without brush, AC servo-motor, can be
applied in ASTS. Asynchronous AC motor is the cheapest. But it is big in size, and
low in technical specification. The step-motor has a simple controlling mode and is
also low in price. AC servo-motor has the best performance and wide power range.
Its price is also the highest. As for the performance and price for permanent
magnetic DC brushless motor, they are both rated between step-motor and AC
servo-motor. Its performance is close to servomotor. For the situations that the
output torque is not very high (less than 2 N-m), permanent magnetic DC brushless
motor is a good option.

45
 Fig 6.1 – Motor Schematics

6.1 Classification Based on the Driving System:

The first and the most common classification of the tracking system is based on
their driving system, which can be divided into active and passive tracking systems.
Passive tracking systems use the pressure difference of special liquids or gases with
a low boiling point or springs from material with formed memory to move the axes
of the tracking system. The pressure difference is created by the thermal
differences of the shaded and illuminated sides of the tracking system. The tracking
system moves until the pressure difference is in balance, which allows stretching
and thus tracking in clear weather. Passive systems are used very rarely and do not
need additional power supply to operate. Such systems are not suitable for
demanding applications, as they are not sufficiently precise, but they are suitable
for smaller individual systems. Sánchez et al. present the design and construction of
a dual-axis passive solar tracker. A proposed solar tracker that has two degrees of
freedom, one used for continuous tracking of the sun and the other used to adjust
the solar tracker manually based on seasonal changes. The accuracy of a solar
tracker is relatively low, while the price of the solar tracker is below the market
price of any commercial solar tracker. Clifford et al. present the design of a novel
passive solar tracker that is controlled by a viscous damper and activated by
aluminium steel bimetallic strips. Modelling results show an increase of efficiency
by 23% compared to fixed PV systems, and excellent agreement between
simulation and experimental results. Active systems are those that use electrical

46
drives and mechanical assemblies to operate. The main components are a
microprocessor, an electric motor, gearboxes, and sensors. Active tracking systems
are further divided based on control drives, namely closed-loop, open-loop, and
hybrid tracking systems. In addition to the closed-loop and open-loop tracking
system, active systems are also divided into intelligent control systems,
microprocessor control systems, and sensor-based control systems. Intelligent
control systems use artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms, fuzzy logic, or neural
network algorithms to control tracking systems. Microprocessor control systems
use PIC and digital signal microcontrollers, while sensor-based control systems use
electro-optical sensors and light-dependent resistors (LDRs). A combination of
microcontroller and sensor-based control systems are very often used for control of
the PV tracking systems. Only closed-loop, open-loop, and hybrid systems are
described in more detail in the paper, but the descriptions of various studies also
mention the method of control they use (intelligent, microcontroller or sensor-
based control system.

Fig 6.2 – Solar Tracking Model

47
5.2 Classification Based on Degree of Freedom:
Photovoltaic systems are structurally assembled for their operation and can be
classified based on the number of directions for individual movement, called the
degree of freedom. They are divided into: • Fixed PV systems; • Tracking PV
systems; • Single-axis tracking PV systems; • Dual-axis tracking PV systems. Their
function is not only to attach and protect but also to determine the appropriate
inclination and azimuth angle, thus increasing the yield of available solar energy
that falls on the receiving surface. Thus, fixed systems are most often oriented to
the south and are inclined at a certain angle (depending on longitude and latitude).
Fixed PV systems represent the most common use of PV systems and can be
mounted directly on the roof of buildings (at the same slope as the roof of the
building). As a mathematical basis for the operation of a single-axis and dual-axis
photovoltaic tracking system, the angles presented below are of key importance for
the movement of the axis of the tracking system. The most important are the
following angles, which are also shown in Figure 5: zenith angle z, altitude angle
αs, declination angle δ, angle of incident i, latitude L, azimuth angle γ, and
inclination angle β. The relations between the mentioned angles are described in
more detail in. Classification Based on Degree of Freedom Photovoltaic systems
are structurally assembled for their operation and can be classified based on the
number of directions for individual movement, called the degree of freedom. They
are divided into:
 Fixed PV systems.
 Tracking PV systems.
 Single-axis tracking PV systems.
 Dual-axis tracking PV systems.
Their function is not only to attach and protect but also to determine the appropriate
inclination and azimuth angle, thus increasing the yield of available solar energy
that falls on the receiving surface. Thus, fixed systems are most often oriented to
the south and are inclined at a certain angle (depending on longitude and latitude).
Fixed PV systems represent the most common use of PV systems and can be
mounted directly on the roof of buildings (at the same slope as the roof of the

48
building). As a mathematical basis for the operation of a single-axis [47–49] and
dual-axis [8,50] photovoltaic tracking system, the angles presented below are of
key importance for the movement of the axis of the tracking system. The most
important are the following angles, which are also shown in Figure 5: zenith angle
z, altitude angle αs, declination angle δ, angle of incident i, latitude L, azimuth
angle γ, and inclination angle β. The relations between the mentioned angles are
described in motor.
6.3 Single-Axis Photovoltaic Tracking System
Single-axis photovoltaic tracking systems are divided into three different types.
These include horizontal single-axis tracking system, vertical single-axis tracking
system, and tilted single-axis tracking system. • Horizontal single-axis tracking
system (HSAT) The rotating axis of the HSAT is horizontal with the ground. •
Vertical single-axis tracking system (VSAT) The rotating axis of the VSAT is
vertical with the ground. These tracking systems rotate from east to west during the
day. Tilted single-axis tracking system (TSAT) Energies 2020, 13, 4224 9 of 24 All
tracking systems with a horizontal and vertically rotating axis are considered to be
tilted single-axis tracking systems. The tilt angles of tracking systems are often
limited to decrease the elevated end’s height off the ground and reduce the wind
profile. The polar-aligned single-axis tracking system (PASAT) is a unique version
of the tilted single-axis tracking system. In this case, the tilt angle is equal to the
latitude of the installation, which aligns the earth’s rotating axis with the rotating
axis of the tracking system. The polar-aligned single-axis tracking system
(PASAT) is a unique version of the tilted single axis tracking system. In this case,
the tilt angle is equal to the latitude of the installation, which aligns the earth’s
rotating axis with the rotating axis of the tracking system.

49
 Fig 6.3 – Single Axis Tracker

5.4 Dual-Axis Photovoltaic Tracking System:

Dual-axis photovoltaic tracking systems are divided into two different types, which
are classified by the azimuth of their primary axes with respect to the ground. Two
common types are azimuth-altitude tracking system and tip-tilt tracking system. •
Tip-tilt dual-axis tracking system (TTDAT). A tip-tilt dual-axis tracking system
(TTDAT) has its primary axis horizontal to the ground, while the secondary axis is

Fig 6.4 – Dual Axis Tracker

normal to the primary axis. • Azimuth-altitude dual-axis tracking system. An

azimuth-altitude dual-axis tracking system (AADAT) has its primary axis vertical
to the ground, while the secondary axis is normal to the primary axis.

50
 Fig 6.5 – Need for Solar Tracker

6.2 ADVANTAGES:

1. Position of the sun can be traced at any time of the day based on the
intensity.

2. Increased efficiency (i. e) 40% more than the fixed panels.

3. They are portable and can installed anywhere when compared to generator.

4. Environmental friendly as solar energy is pollution free.

5. It enhances clean and emission free power production.

6. One time investment and produce high efficiency and flexibility.

6.3 DISADVANTAGES:

1. Initial investment is high on the solar panel.

2. Moving parts and gears may require replacement in case of any damage.

3. They won’t be much effective during cloudy days.

4. This kind of inverters are expensive to afford.

5. They require huge space for installation.

51
6.4 APPLICATIONS:

1. They can used to generate power in rural, remote and hilly areas where the
erection of transmission poles are difficult.

2. They can be used for a wide range application such as domestic purpose or a
standalone system.

3. They can be used to replace the conventional way of producing electricity by

fossil fuel and non-renewable sources.

IV.CONCLUSION:

They can used to generate power in rural, remote and hilly areas where the erection
of transmission pole is difficult. They can be used for a wide range application such
as domestic purpose or standalone system. They can be used to replace the
conventional way of producing electricity by fossil fuel and non -renewable
sources. There are many methods to improve the efficiency of the solar power
generator but the effective way to improve the output obtained is solar tracking
based on the intensity of the sensor. Photovoltaic tracking systems represent an area
in which a great deal of research has been done. However, the field itself is so wide
that there is always space for innovations or improvements. One of the primary
reasons for the production and development of photovoltaic tracking systems is the
low efficiency of photovoltaic modules and, consequently, the lower generation of
electrical energy. Systems that improve the yield of conventional PV systems are
photovoltaic tracking systems, PV systems with concentrating mirrors (CPV), and
photovoltaic/thermal hybrid systems (PV/T). Each of these systems has the
potential to increase the yield of electrical energy. In view of this project report, it
has been established that solar tracking system is an efficient and feasible means of
obtaining optimal solar energy from the sun. By constantly aligning the
photovoltaic panel with the sun, it directly receives sunlight falling on its surface

52
thereby generating more electricity. Different techniques have been adopted in the
design of this system but the method implemented in this project is simple, easy to
maintain and requires no technical attention for its operation. The software
developed for this work can be used outside the mechanical part, thus it is flexible
for future modification. The solar module with tracking system as demonstrated in
the analysis achieves about 24% efficiency improvement over the static solar
module. Hence implementation of this technique in building solar systems will
greatly improve the utility performance.

V.FUTURE WORKS:

This idea could be expanded in the future by combining other sources of renewable
energy such as wind and hydro-power for generating and storing electricity to meet
the future demands due to the increasing population of the world and to reduce the
carbon footprint in the atmosphere. This system can be used as a stand-alone
system or grid connected system or for complete generation of electricity, they can
used to generate power in rural, remote and hilly areas where the erection of
transmission poles is difficult. They can be used for a wide range application such
as domestic purpose or a standalone system.

53
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