Laboratory work № 3

LOCAL HYDRAULIC RESISTANCES

Purpose: experimental determination of local resistances’ coefficients of simple shapes

pipelines.

Theoretical background

Local resistances are the pipeline sections with a sharp change in the configuration of
the channel. This takes place when mating pipes of various diameters, when cornering, at
the points of connection of taps, valves, flaps, throttles, etc. (Figure 3.1).

Figure 3.1 – Types of local resistances

When a fluid passes through such sections, its energy is expended when the direction
and redistribution of velocities change, with vortex formation and flow disruption. This is
accompanied by rapid movement of the layers and an intensive exchange of momentum.
Any hydraulic system has a number of devices (local resistances) that regulate the flow,
pressure, direction of movement, etc.
The question of determining the specific energy loss in local resistances is as important
as the question of energy loss along the length of pipelines.
Losses of specific energy (pressure losses) to overcome local hydraulic resistance is
determined by the Weisbach equation
V2
hll  ll , (3.1)
2g
where hll – is a specific energy that is spent in a given local resistance, m;
ll – is a dimensionless coefficient of local losses;
V2
– specific kinetic energy of the life cross section of the flow before or after local
2g
V2
resistance (taken greater than the value ), m;
2g
𝑉 – average velocity of a fluid flow, m/s.
 As can be seen from the equation, the local losses coefficient is the ratio of the lost
energy to the kinetic one.
h
ll  2 ll .
V 2g
Loss of specific energy can be represented in form of pressure losses:
V 2
p  ll .
2
The fluid flow through local resistances is a very complex phenomenon and in the vast
majority of cases cannot be determined theoretically. Therefore, often in order to establish
the value of the coefficient ll , one has to conduct experiments.
In investigations of local resistances, it was found that the value of the local resistance
coefficient ll generally depends on the geometrical shape of the device, the regime of fluid
motion and the Reynolds number.
ll  f  shape, Re 
The issue of local resistances under turbulent conditions has been studied most
thoroughly. It is established that in this case, changes in the coefficient of local resistance
depending on the Reynolds number are insignificant and can be neglected. Therefore, in
practical calculations in the field of turbulent regime, this coefficient is considered
dependent only on the geometric shape of local resistance.
ll turb  f  Re 
For example, for a case of sudden expansion (Figure 3.2)
2
 1
 se  1   ,
 n
S2
where n  .
S1
For a channel with a sudden contraction (Figure 3.3) the local resistance coefficient
can be determined by the equation
1 1
 sc  1   ,
2 n 
that is, in this case, the energy losses will be less than in the previous one.

H=hse
S2

1
2
x S1

x
1
2
Figure 3.2 – Pipeline sudden expansion Figure 3.3 – Pipeline sudden contraction
 With a sudden turn of the pipeline (bend) (Figure 3.4), the local resistance coefficient
bend depends only on the angle of rotation 𝛿 and can be found on the graph (Figure 3.5).

bend

1,0


0,5

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 
Figure 3.4 – Pipeline sudden turn Figure 3.5 – Determination of bend loss
(bend) coefficient

Losses during rotation can be reduced if the channel does not turn suddenly, but
gradually, along the bend (connector bend) (Figure 3.6). In this case, the coefficient is
calculated by the equation (𝛿 = 90°)
d
cbend  0,051  0,91 ;
R
where 𝑅 –is a turning radius along the midline of the channel, m.

R


Figure 3.6 – Pipeline gradual rotation (connector bend)

It should be noted that in all these cases, only additional energy losses from local
resistance are calculated, and friction losses are calculated as losses along the pipeline
length.
In laminar motion, vortex loss plays a lesser role than in turbulent ones.
Patterns in this case are more complex and less studied.
In laminar mode, the pressure loss should be considered as the sum
 hll  h fr  hvtx (3.2)
where h fr – are pressure losses caused by the direct action of friction forces in a given local
resistance (proportional to the viscosity of the fluid and velocity in the first
degree), m;
hvtx – pressure losses caused by flow separation and vortex formation occurring in the
local resistance itself or behind it (proportional to the speed in the second
degree), m.
Taking into account the law of resistance in the laminar regime, adjusted for the initial
section, the same amount can be represented as follows:
A V2 V2
hll  B (3.3)
Re 2 g 2g
where 𝐴 and 𝐵 – are the dimensionless coefficients depending on the form of local
resistance and the Reynolds number.
After dividing the equation by the velocity head, we obtain the general equation for the
local resistance coefficient:
A
 ll  B (3.4)
Re
In local resistances, where there is a narrow channel, the length of which greatly
exceeds its transverse size, and the outlines of the inlet and outlet are smooth
(Figure 3.7 (a)), the pressure losses are mainly determined by friction and the law of
resistance is close to linear. The second term in the formulas in this case is small in
comparison with the first.
If in the local resistance the friction is very small, for example, due to the presence of
a sharp edge (Figure 3.7 (b)), and flow separations and vortex formation appear, and the 𝑅𝑒
numbers are quite large, then the pressure losses are proportional to the velocity
approximately to the second degree.

a b
Figure 3.7 – The influence of the form of local resistance on its flow
In a wide range of changes in the Re number in the same local resistance, both linear
(at small Re) and quadratic (at large Re) laws of resistance are possible, and at medium
numbers, the transition region between them is possible (Figure 3.8).
 se
1
2
3
10 4
5
6
7

1,0 5...7
4
2

0,1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10 Re
Figure 3.8 – The influence of the Reynolds number on the coefficient of sudden
expansion resistance

Experimental facility description

The facility for the experimental study of energy losses in local resistances (Figure 3.9)
has a pipe 1 with a diameter of 1.8 cm, control taps at the inlet 2 and the outlet 3. The fluid
flow rate is determined using a measuring washer 4.

Figure 3.9 – Experimental facility diagram

 Local resistances are installed on the pipeline:
 sudden expansion 5 (𝑑1 = 1,8 сm, 𝑑2 = 3,6 сm),
 sudden contraction 6 (𝑑1 = 3,6 сm, 𝑑2 = 1,8 сm),
 connector bend 7 (R=14,4 сm),
 sudden bend 8 (=900).
Differential piezometers are connected to all local resistances, which make it
p
possible to determine the piezometric pressure hi  i at the input and output of local
g
resistances.
The order of the experiment

1. Open taps 2 and 3 gradually, monitoring the water level in all piezometers,
preventing their overflow.
2. Record the piezometric heights in the piezometers in the protocol: ℎ1 …ℎ10 .
3. Repeat experiment at other positions of taps 2 and 3.

Experiment results processing

1. Calculate the water flow rate according to the measuring washer readings:
Q  K HW
where ∆𝐻𝑊 = ℎ1 − ℎ2 .
2. Find the average velocity and specific kinetic energy (assuming 𝛼 = 1):
4Q
Vaver 
 d12
2
Vaver
hV  .
2g
3. Determine the pressure losses in local resistance 5, 6, 7, 8 be the equations:
'
H se  h3  h4 ;
'
H sc  h5  h6 ;
'
H cbend  h7  h8 ;
'
Hbend  h9  h10 .
4. Calculate the correction for friction losses in each local resistance:
2
le Vaver l
hse     e hV ;
d 2g d
2
lc Vaver l
hsc     c hV ;
d 2g d
2
lcbend Vaver l
hcbend    cbend hV ;
d 2g d
2
lb Vaver l
hbend    b hV .
d 2g d
 At the same time accept: 𝑑 = 1,8 cm, 𝑙𝑒 = 6 cm, 𝑙𝑐 = 16 cm, 𝑙𝑐𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑 = 30 cm, 𝑙𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑 = 28
cm, 𝜆 = 0,03.
5. Calculate the pressure loss in local resistances without friction loss:
H se  H se
'
 hse ;
H sс  H sс
'
 hsс ;
H cbend  H cbend
'
 hcbend ;
Hbend  Hbend
'
 hbend .
6. Determine the coefficients of local resistance:
H se  1 
 se   1  2  ;
hV  n 
H sc  1 
 sc    2  1 ;
hV n 
H cbend
cbend  ;
hV
H bend
bend  ;
hV
2
d 
n 1  , 𝑛 = 4 .
 d2 
7. Calculate the theoretical values of the coefficients in each local resistance using the
equations given in the theoretical background.
R
For connector bend, accept  8 .
d
Record all calculations.
Report
Table 3.1 – Experimental data
№ h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 h6 h7 h8 h9 h10
сm
1
2

Table 3.2 – Kinematic characteristics of the flow in the pipeline

№ H W  h 2  h1 Q Vaver hV
сm сm3 s сm s сm
1
2
Table 3.3 – Hydraulic resistance sudden expansion
№ Hse h se Hse se
сm сm сm
1
2
Theoretical

Table 3.4 – Hydraulic resistance sudden contraction

№ Hsc h sc Hsc sc
сm сm сm
1
2
Theoretical

Table 3.5 – Hydraulic resistance connector bend

№ Hcbend h cbend Hcbend cbend
сm сm сm
1
2
Theoretical

Table 3.6 – Hydraulic resistance bend

№ Hbend h bend H bend bend
сm сm сm
1
2
Theoretical

Control questions

1. What is the order of the experiment in determining the coefficients of local

resistance?
2. How energy losses occur in local resistances?
3. What parameters in the general case do the local resistance coefficients depend on?
4. What reasons do local losses occur during laminar motion for?
5. How to explain the difference in the coefficients of local resistances obtained during
the experiment?