FOUNDATION:

Note: In some book deep foundation are given as Df/B>1.

TYPES

SPREAD FOOTING
• A spread footing also called as isolated footing, pad footing and individual footing is provided to
support an individual column.

• A spread footing is circular, square or rectangular slab of uniform thickness.

• Sometimes, it is stepped to spread the load over a large area.

STRAP FOOTING
• A strap (or cantilever) footing consists of two isolated footings connected with a structural strap
or a lever.

• The strap connects the two footings such that they behave as one unit.

• The strap is designed as a rigid beam.

MAT/RAFT FOOTING
• A mat or raft foundation is a large slab supporting a number of columns and walls under the
entire structure or a large part of the structure. A mat is required when the allowable soil
pressure is low or where the columns and walls are so close that individual footings would
overlap or nearly touch each other.

• Mat foundations are useful in reducing the differential settlements on non-homogeneous soils
or where there is a large variation in the loads on individual columns.
PILE FOOTING
• Pile is a slender member with small area of cross-section relative to its length. Pile foundation
are used when:

• The load is to be transferred to stronger or less compressible stratum, preferably rock.

• The granular soils need to be compacted.

• The horizontal and the inclined forces need to be carried from the bridge abutments and the
retaining walls.

PIER FOUNDATION
 • Pier foundation are underground cylindrical structural member that support heavier load of the
structure which shallow foundations cannot resist. Unlike pile foundation, pier foundation can
only transfer load by bearing. Pier foundation are shallower in depth than the pile foundation.
Pier foundation are used when:

• The top strata is a decomposed rock underlying as sound rock strata.

• The soil is a stiff clay that occurs large resistance for driving the bearing pile.

WELL FOUNDATION
• The term caisson refers to box or a case. These are hollow inside and are usually constructed at
the site and sunk in place into a hard bearing strata. As they are expensive in construction, they
are usually restricted to major foundation works. Well foundation are suitable when the soil
contains large boulders obstructing the penetration during installation of pier or pile
foundations. Caissons are used for bridge piers, abutments in rivers and lakes and other shore
protection works. They are used to resist heavy vertical and horizontal loads and are used in the
construction of large water front structures as pump houses.

FLOOR
• Floor are the horizontal elements of a building structure which divide the building in to different
level for the purpose of creating more accommodation within a restricted space one above the
another.

• It also provides support for the occupants, furniture, equipments.

Types of floor:
• Solid Ground floor & Suspended Ground floor

SOLID GROUND FLOOR

• In this floor there is no gap between ground level and plinth level.

• The gap between ground level and plinth level are completely filled with solid materials.

FEATURES:

• It is much simpler & cheaper.

• It consists of solid concrete built in to the ground.

• It can hold more weight than a suspended floor.

 • It provides no cavity in which animals make a home.

SUSPENDED GROUND FLOOR

• It is a timber floor that isn’t touching the ground level and it is suspended above the ground.

• In this floor certain air gap between the ground level and the plinth level is maintained.

• Ventilation is provided in the wall to keep air circulation and floor becomes dry.

• Mostly used in dancing hall, stage, auditorium etc.

• Allows home owners to run electrical wires and other such elements under the floor boards.
TYPES OF FLOOR FINISHING
• Mud Wood or timber

• Bricks Asphalt

• Stones Rubber

• Concrete Glass

• Terrazzo Plastic or P.V.C

• Tiles

• Marble

• Granite

ROOF
• Roof may be defined as a covering provided over the top of a building with a view to keep out of
rain, snow, sun & wind and to protect the building from the adverse effects of those elements.

FUNCTIONS:
• To keep out rain, wind, snow, dust.

• To keep excessive heat loss in winter.

 • To keep the interior of the building cool in summer.

• For strength, durability and stability of building

• Provide resistance to the passage of sound

• Safety to occupants

REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD ROOF

• Should have adequate strength to carry the superimposed loads.

• Should effectively protect the building against rain, Sun, wind etc.

• Should be durable against the adverse effects.

• Should be water proof & have effective drainage arrangements.

• Should be fire resistant

• Should provide insulation against external sounds.

TYPES

PITCHED/SLOPPED ROOF
• Most commonly form of roof and is almost constructed in wood or steel.

• Consists of a system of rafters and purlins arranged in the form of a triangular shaped support
known as truss.

• Slope of roof varies from 10 to 70 degree according to the span, climatic conditions, the nature
of roof covering material and other similar factors.

• Generally regarded as the cheapers alternative for covering a structure.

• Single roof, double roof, triple roof, mansard roof truss and so on

FLAT ROOF
• Roof laid at an angle of less than 10 degree to the horizontal is known as flat roof

• Difficult to construct and expensive in cost, but also replacing pitched roof.

ADVANTAGES

• It can be conveniently used as terrace for placing, gardening, sleeping

• Better fire resistance

 • Good insulating properties

• For multistoried building it is considered to best choice.

DISADVANTAGES:

• Self wt is considerably high which makes construction expensive

• Difficult to trace & rectify leak in flat roof.

• Initial cost is high than that of pitched roof

• Progress of construction of flat roof is slower with that of pitched roof.

DOORS
• It may be defined as the framework of wood, steel, almunium, glass or a combination of these
materials secured in an opening left in a wall for the purpose of providing access to the uses of
structure.

• Parts: Frame & Shutter

Functions:

• Admit light & ventilation Physical Safety

• Weather control Privacy

• Visual Distinction

• Acts as barrier to noise

TYPES

LEDGED DOOR:
• It is made up of timber boards or battens fixed in position by horizontal members known as
ledges.

LEDGED & BRACED :

• It is ledged door which consists of a diagonal member known as brace to fixed the battens in
position.
 PANELLED DOOR:
This type of door is widely used in all type of buildings and consists of timber framework of steel, rails
& panels.
 GLAZED DOOR:
• This type door is provided in both residential and public buildings where additional natural
lighting & visibility from one room to the adjacent room is required.
 SWING DOOR:
• Hinged

• Swing in to the house

 REVOLVING DOOR:
• This door is used in places where frequent opening & closing of door is to be avoided such as
libraries, museums.

• Such door provide entrance to one and exit to the other person simultaneously.

• It has center pivot and it may be fixed on the top & bottom and can rotate whenever used.
WINDOWS
• It may be defined as openings made in a wall for the purpose of providing day light, vision and
ventilation.

PURPOSES:

• Admits light

• Provide fresh air and ventilation

• Beauty

• Energy

• View

TYPES

BAY WINDOW
• The window projecting outward from external wall.

• Wide and decoratively impressive allow for 180 view.

• Commonly used in cold country, where snow often falls.

 FIXED WINDOW:
• Glass panel/glazed shutter is permanently fixed in the opening of wall.

• Used where light & vision is needed but not the ventilation.
PIVOTED WINDOW:
• Shutter rotate about a pivot fixed to window frame.

• Shutter can rotate horizontally/vertically depending upon the position of pivot.

 SLIDING WINDOW:
• Shutter moves on roller and can slide horizontally/vertically

CASEMENT WINDOW:
• Shutters open like doors.

• Common type of windows widely used in buildings.

 LOUVERED WINDOW:
• Grooved to receive a series of louvers.

• Louvers may be of glass or wood or other material.

• Economical angle of inclination of louvers is 45

• Louvers slope downward to the outside to run off rainwater.

• Provide ventilation & light but not vision.

WALL
• Wall is a structural element which encloses or divides space and provide the support.

• FUNCTIONS:

• Sound insulation Durability

• Thermal insulation Strength

• Fire resistance Improves apperance

• Stability

TYPES

LOAD BEARING WALL:

• The wall which is designed to carry superimposed load in addition to its self weight is called load
bearing wall.

NON LOAD BEARING WALL

• The wall which is designed to carry only its self weight is called non load bearing wall

OTHER TYPES OF WALL:

• Panel wall : It is a thin internal wall which is used to divide space within the building in to rooms
or areas.

• Curtain Wall: It is a self supporting wall which carries no other vertical load but subjected to
lateral loads.

• Panel Wall : It is the external non-load bearing wall used in framed structures.

STONE MASONARY
• The construction of stones bonded together with mortar is termed as stone masonry where the
stones are available in a abundance in nature, on cutting and dressing to the proper shape, they
provide an economical material for the construction of various building components such as
walls, columns, footings, arches, lintels, beams etc.

TYPES
• Types of Stone Masonry: Based on the arrangement of the stone in the construction and degree
of refinement in the surface finish, the stone masonry can be classified broadly in the following
two categories Rubble masonry 2. Ashlar masonry

RUBBLE MASONARY
• In this category, the stones used are either undressed or roughly dressed having wider joints.

• This is the roughest and cheapest form of stone masonry

• The joints don’t have uniform thickness.

• It is classified under

• A) Random rubble B) Squared rubble C) Miscellaneous

ASHLAR MASONRY
• This type of masonry is built from accurately dressed stones with uniform and fine joints of
about 3mm thickness by arranging the stone blocks in various patterns.

• The course are of uniform height, all the joints are regular, thin and have uniform thickness.

• The backing of Ashlar masonry walls may be built of Ashlar masonry or rubble masonry.

• The size of stones blocks should be in proportion to wall thickness.

• TYPES OF ASHLAR MASONRY

• A) Ashlar fine tooled

• B) Ashlar rough tooled

• C) Ashlar rock faced

• D) Ashlar chamfered

• E) Ashlar block in course

• F) Ashlar facing

BRICK MASONRY
• Brick units bonded together with mortar to form different structure during construction is
termed as brick masonry.

• Brick masonry strength depends on the quality of the brick used, types of mortar and method of
bonding used in construction.

TYPES

STRETCHER BOND
• All bricks are arranged in stretcher course in this bond.

• This is the simplest and most widely used bond.

• This bond is useful for half brick wall, partition wall, cavity wall etc

• There is no header in such walls

• This bond doesn’t develop proper internal bond joint.

ENGLISH BOND
• Consists of header and stretchers laid in alternative courses.

• Strongest of all bonds.

• No noticeable continuous vertical joints in the structure built in this bond.

• Progress of work is faster

 FLEMISH BOND
• Consists of header and stretchers laid in alternative courses.

• Provides good appearance especially for all thickness of walls.

• Partly continuous vertical joints in the structure built in this bond

• Special attention is required in providing the bond

• Progress of work is slow

RAT TRAP BOND

• Rat tarp bond is laid by placing bricks on their sides having a cavity of 100mm with alternate
course of stretchers and headers .

• It is the cavity wall constructed which add thermal comfort.

• By adopting this method of masonry, approx. 20-35% of bricks and 30-50% of mortar may be
saved.

• 20% dead load can be reduced in this system so, supporting structural members can suitably be
designed.

PCC
• The cement concrete in which no reinforcement is provided is called plain cement concrete or
mass cement concrete.

• This type of concrete is strong in taking compressive stresses but weak in taking tensile stresses.

• USES: Plain cement concrete (PCC) is commonly used in for foundation work and flooring of
buildings.

FORMWORK
• The formwork of shuttering is a temporary ancillary construction used as a mold for the
structure, in which concrete is placed, hardened and matured.

• REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD FORMWORK

• The material of formwork should be cheap and suitable for reuse.

• It should be water proof so that it does not absorb water from concrete

• It should be strong to withstand loads coming on it and stiff to minimize deflection.

• It should be light.

• The surface of formwork should be smooth.

• The formwork should rest on sound, hard and non yielding support.

• The formwork should be so arranged that there is minimum leakage through the joints.

PLASTERING
• This is the process of covering rough surfaces with a plastic material to obtain an even, smooth,
regular, clean & durable surfaces.

• On the other hand we say that; A mixture of lime or gypsum, sand and water, sometimes with
fiber added, that harden to a smooth solid and used for coating walls and ceilings.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD PLASTER

• 1. Should be fire and sound.

• 2. Should provide a smooth, non absorbent and washable surface

• 3. Should adhere to the surfaces firmly .

• 4. Should be weather proof .

• 5. Should be free from volumetric changes while setting and drying

TYPES
• (a) Lime plaster

• (b) Cement plaster

• (c) Mud plaster

• (d) Stucco plaster

• (e) Water proof plaster

PAINTING
• It is the process of forming hard and durable surface by the application of paint.

FUNCTIONS:
• It should form hard and durable surface.
• It should be cheap and readily available.

• It should be dry in reasonable time.

• It should cover maximum area in minimum quantity.

• It shouldn’t form hair cracks on drying.

• It should form a film of uniform color.

• It shouldn’t be affected by atmospheric agencies.

• The color of the paint must remains for a long time.