Mechanics of Fibrous Structure

(TM-3051)

Dr. M Irfan
Department of Yarn Manufacturing
National Textile University Faisalabad
 References
The lectures are based on following reference books

• J.W.S. Hearle. " Structural Mechanics of Fibres Yarns and Fabrics"

• (2004)
• A.E. Bogdanovich, C. M. Pastore. "Mechanics of Textile and Laminated Composites"
(1996)
• B. Strong. "Plastics (Materials & Processing) (2001)
• Ferdinand, P. Beer, E. Russell Johnston Jr., John, T. Dewolf. "Mechanics of Materials"
(2004)
• Jinlian, Hu. "Structure and Mechanics of Woven Fabrics" (2004)
• Thormen H Courty. "Mechanical Behavior of Materials" (2005)
• E.J.Hearn. "Mechanics of Materials" (2001)
• P. Schwartz " Structure & Mechanics of Textile Assemblies" (2003)
• W.E.Morton. " Physical properties of Textile Fibres" (2002)
• W.A. Hanton. " Mechanics for Textile Students" (2007)

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 Mechanics of Materials
• “Mechanics of materials is a branch of applied mechanics that deals
with the behavior of solid bodies subjected to various types of
loading”.
• The main objective of the mechanics of materials is to determine
stresses, strains, and displacements in structures and their
components due to the loads acting on them.
• The complete picture of mechanical behavior of materials (or
different structures made of materials) can be obtained if we can
find these quantities for load values up to the point of failure.

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 Importance of Mechanics of Materials
• Mechanics of materials is an important subject in many engineering
disciplines as understanding mechanical behavior of materials under
various forms of loading is essential for safe and secure design of any
kind of structure.
• These structures may include buildings, bridges, machines, airplanes,
aerospace structures etc.
• Mechanics of materials deals with mechanical behavior of real bodies as
it determines stresses and strains within bodies of finite dimensions that
deform under load.
• Physical properties of the materials as well as numerous theoretical laws
and concepts are used to determine stresses and strains in the materials.

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Importance of Mechanics of Materials
Failure may happen due to wrong
material selection and design,
manufacturing and design faults

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 Development of mechanics of materials
• Historically, mechanics of materials has been developed as a blend
of theory and experiment.
• Theories are used to derive formulas and equations for predicting
mechanical behavior of materials.
• These theoretical expressions can not be used in practical designs
unless physical properties of materials (experimentation) are
known. These properties can be determined after carrying careful
experiments. In addition, theoretical analysis may not be applied to
all practical problems thus necessitating physical testing

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 Studying mechanics of materials
• While studying mechanics of materials, the learning efforts of
students are divided into two parts
– Understanding the logical development of the concepts:
this is accomplished by studying the discussions,
derivations and examples in the subject
– Applying these concepts to practical problems: this is
accomplished by solving numerical problems

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 Fundamental concepts: stress and strain
• The most fundamental concepts in mechanics of materials are
stress and strain
• Stress: Stress can be defined as force per unit area of a material. It
is denoted by Greek letter σ (sigma)
σ = 𝑃/𝐴
• SI unites of stress are N/m2 or Pascal
Example:
Take a prismatic bar (a prismatic bar is a bar with uniform cross
sectional area) which is under axial load (a force directed along the axis
of the bar)

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 Fundamental concepts: stress and strain
• Suppose the axial force P is the only force acting
at the ends of the bar
• the original length of the bar is denoted by the
letter L, and the increase in length due to the
loads is denoted by the Greek letter δ (delta)
• mn is the cross section perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis of the bar
• Under the load, the bar is under continuously
distributed stresses acting on the cross section
mn with axial force P as the resultant of those
stresses
• The resultant P is equal to the magnitude of the
stress times the cross-sectional area MAIrfan, PhD
of the bar,
 Fundamental concepts: stress and strain
• Normal Stresses: in case the stresses act in a direction
perpendicular (normal) to the cross section of the bar, these are
called normal stresses.
• When the bar is stretched by the force P, the stress is called tensile
stress
• If the bar is compressed, the stress is known as compressive stress
• Tension force will tend to lengthen the bar, while compressive
stress will tend to shorten the bar
• tensile stresses are considered positive and compressive stresses as
negative
• Applied load can be static or dynamic

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 Fundamental concepts: stress and strain
• Strain:
– Change in the dimensions of an object occurs under the
influence of an external load, the ratio of this change to the
original length of the object is known as strain
– Change in dimension means becoming longer under tension or
shorter when in compression
– In the previous example of the bar, δ represents the elongation
of the bar under tension, then the strain (represented by Greek
word ε, epsilon) is given by the equation ε = δ/𝐿

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 Fundamental concepts: stress and strain
• Strain:
– When the bar is in tension, the strain is called a tensile strain that
tends to elongate the bar
– When the bar is in compression, the strain is called compressive strain
that tends to shorten the bar
– The strain associated with normal stresses is known as normal strain
– Since strain is ratio between two lengths, it is dimensionless and has
no units
– Strain can be expressed as a percent
– Tensile strain is usually taken as positive and compressive strain as
negative.

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 How to analyze mechanical behavior of materials
• The usual way to analyze how materials
behave when they are subjected to different
loads is to do tensile testing on tensile test
machine
• Sample is gripped between jaws of the
machine and load is applied. The deformation
under load is recorded
• For comparison of different results, the test
method (specimen size, load application
method) should be standardized
• One of the major standards are ASTM
standards (American Society for Testing and
Materials)
• Compression tests are also carried. For
example, concrete is mostly tested under
compression
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 Stress-strain curves
• The results obtained from the testing machine (load applied and
resulting deformation) are converted to stresses and strains.
• The load can be applied under various modes, for example static
or dynamic load
– Static load: non fluctuating load, that is the rate of loading is
not of interest, usually caused by gravity
– Dynamic load: alternating load, can be in cyclic manner, the
magnitude and sign of the load changes with time

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Types of loading

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 Stress-strain curves
In the example of a test bar, the axial stress in the bar is
calculated by dividing the axial load P by the cross-sectional
area A
The obtained stress is called nominal stress if initial area of
the bar is used in the calculation
The stress is called true stress if it is calculated by using the
actual area of the bar at the cross section where failure
occurred

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 Stress-strain curves
• The average axial strain ε in the test specimen is found by dividing the
measured elongation δ between the gauge marks by the gauge length L
(δ /L)
• The length of the specimen between the gauge marks (between the
machine jaws) is known as gauge length L
• If the initial gauge length (length of the specimen before test) is used in
the calculation, the obtained strain is known as nominal strain
• Since the distance between the gauge marks increases as the tensile load
is applied, we can calculate the true strain (or natural strain) at any value
of the load by using the actual distance between the gauge marks
• In tension, true strain is always smaller than nominal strain

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 Stress-strain curves
• After performing a tension or compression test and determining
the stress and strain at various magnitudes of the load, we can
plot a diagram of stress versus strain. Such a stress-strain diagram
is a characteristic of the particular material being tested and
conveys important information about the mechanical properties
and behavior of the material
• Strains are plotted on the horizontal axis and stresses on the
vertical axis
• A typical stress-strain curve for mild steel is shown in the next
slide
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 Stress-strain curves
• Figure shows a stress-strain
curve when a steel circular
bar of uniform cross-section
is subjected to a gradually
increasing tensile load until
failure occur
• When loaded, the change in
length is recorded by
extensometer and graph of
stress and strain is
produced

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 Stress-strain curves
• The diagram begins with a straight line from the origin O to point A,
which means that the relationship between stress and strain in this
initial region is not only linear but also proportional
• Beyond point A, the proportionality between stress and strain no
longer exists; hence the stress at A is called the proportional limit.
• The slope of the straight line from O to A is called the modulus of
elasticity. Because the slope has units of stress divided by strain,
modulus of elasticity has the same units as stress
• For a short period beyond this point the material may still be elastic
in the sense that deformations are completely recovered when load
is removed. The limiting point B for this condition is termed the
elastic limit, but for most practical purposes the point A and B are
considered coincident

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 Elastic region
• Hook’s Region

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 Stress-strain curves
• Beyond the elastic limit plastic deformation occurs and strains are not
totally recoverable thus leading to permanent deformation or permanent
set
• Point C is termed as upper yield point and point D is termed as lower yield
point
– upper yield point corresponds to the load reached just before yield starts
– lower yield point, which corresponds to the load required to maintain yield
• For some materials upper and lower yield points may coincide while for
some other materials yield point may not exist at all
• Beyond the yield point some increase in load is required to take the strain
to point E on the graph
• Between D and E the material is said to be in the elastic-plastic state, some
of the section remaining elastic and hence contributing to recovery of the
original dimensions if load is removed, the remainder being plastic

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 Stress-strain curves
• Beyond E the cross-sectional area of the bar begins to reduce
rapidly over a relatively small length of the bar and the bar is
said to neck
• This necking takes place whilst the load reduces, and fracture
of the bar finally occurs at point F
• The nominal stress at failure, termed the maximum or
ultimate tensile stress, is given by the load at E divided by the
original cross-sectional area of the bar. This is also known as
the tensile strength of the material of the bar. Owing to the
large reduction in area produced by the necking process the
actual stress at fracture is often greater than the above value.
Since, however, designers are interested in maximum loads
which can be carried by the complete cross-section, the stress
at fracture is seldom of any practical value
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 Stress-strain curves
• If the actual cross-sectional area at the narrow part of the
neck is used to calculate the stress, the true stress-strain curve
is obtained
• The total load the bar can carry does indeed diminish after the
ultimate stress is reached (as shown by curve DE), but this
reduction is due to the decrease in area of the bar and not due
to a loss in strength of the material itself
• In reality, the material withstands an increase in true stress up
to failure
• Because most structures are expected to function at stresses
below the proportional limit, the conventional stress-strain
curve OABCDEF, which is based upon the original cross-
sectional area of the specimen and is easy to determine,
provides satisfactory information for use in engineering design
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 Stress-strain curves
• After undergoing the large strains
that occur during yielding , the
steel begins to strain harden
• During strain hardening, the
material undergoes changes in its
crystalline structure, resulting in
increased resistance of the
material to further deformation.
Elongation of the test specimen in
this region requires an increase in
Strain hardening
the tensile load, and therefore the
stress-strain diagram has a positive
slope in this region
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 Stress-strain curves
Another example of typical stress-strain curve for steel
Not drawn to scale
Drawn to scale
True stress

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 Stress-strain curves
• The presence of a clearly defined yield point followed by large
plastic strains is an important characteristic of materials like
structural steel
• Metals such as structural steel that undergo large permanent
strains before failure are classified as ductile
• A desirable feature of ductile materials is that visible distortions
occur if the loads become too large, thus providing an
opportunity to take remedial action before an actual fracture
occurs
• Materials exhibiting ductile behavior are capable of absorbing
large amounts of strain energy prior to fracture
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 Stress-strain curves
• Some materials, for example aluminum
alloys, typically do not have a clearly
definable yield point
• they do have an initial linear region with
a recognizable proportional limit
• For such material that does not have an
obvious yield point and yet undergoes
large strains after the proportional limit
is exceeded, an arbitrary yield stress may
be determined by the offset method
• it should be distinguished from a true
yield stress by referring to it as the offset
yield stress

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 Stress-strain curves
• Stress-strain curves for rubber:

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 Stress-strain curves
• Stress-strain curves for rubber:
– Rubber maintains a linear relationship between stress and strain up
to relatively large strains as compared to metals
– Beyond the proportional limit, the behavior depends upon the type
of rubber
– Some kinds of soft rubber will stretch enormously without failure,
reaching lengths several times their original lengths
– The material eventually offers increasing resistance to the load, and
the stress-strain curve turns markedly upward
– although rubber exhibits very large strains, it is not a ductile
material because the strains are not permanent. It is, of course, an
elastic material
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 Stress-strain curves
• The ductility of a material in tension can be characterized by its
elongation or by the reduction in area at the cross section where
fracture occurs. The percent elongation is defined as follows:
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (𝐿1 − 𝐿𝑜)/𝐿𝑜
where Lo is the original gauge length and L1 is the distance between
the gauge marks at fracture
• The percent reduction in area measures the amount of necking
that occurs and is defined as follows:
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = (𝐴1 − 𝐴𝑜)/𝐴𝑜
in which Ao is the original cross-sectional area and A1 is the final
area at the fracture section
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 Modulus of elasticity: Hook’s law
• Most engineering structures are designed to undergo relatively small
deformations, involving only the straight-line portion of the corresponding
stress-strain diagram. For that initial portion of the diagram, the stress σ is
directly proportional to the strain ε and is known as Hooks’ Law
𝛿 = 𝐸𝜀
The coefficient E is called the modulus of elasticity of the material involved, or
also Young's modulus
• modulus E is expressed in the same units as the stress namely in pascals,
and in psi if U.S. customary units are used
• The largest value of the stress for which Hooke's law can be used for a given
material is known as the proportional limit of that material
• In the case of ductile materials possessing a well-defined yield point, the
proportional limit almost coincides with the yield point

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 Modulus of elasticity: Hook’s law

• large variations in the yield

strength, ultimate strength and
final strain (ductility) but same
modulus of elasticity and
stiffness

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 Modulus of elasticity: Hook’s law
• Some of the physical properties of structural metals, such as strength,
ductility, and corrosion resistance, can be greatly affected by alloying,
heat treatment, and the manufacturing process used. For example, we
note from the stress-strain diagrams of pure iron and of three different
grades of steel (shown in next slide) that large variations in the yield
strength, ultimate strength and final strain (ductility) exist among these
four metals. All of them, however, possess the same modulus of
elasticity; in other words, their "stiffness," or ability to resist a
deformation within the linear range, is the same. Therefore, if a high-
strength steel is substituted for a lower-strength steel in a given
structure, and if all dimensions are kept the same, the structure will
have an increased load carrying capacity, but its stiffness will remain
unchanged
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stress and strain curves of different fibers

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stress and strain curves of different fibers

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 Linear elasticity
• Many structural materials, including most metals, wood, plastics, and
ceramics, behave both elastically and linearly when first loaded.
Consequently, their stress-strain curves begin with a straight line passing
through the origin. An example is the stress-strain curve for structural steel,
where the region from the origin O to the proportional limit is both linear and
elastic.
• When a material behaves elastically and also exhibits a linear relationship
between stress and strain, it is said to be linearly elastic. This type of behavior
is extremely important in engineering for an obvious reason—by designing
structures and machines to function in this region, we avoid permanent
deformations due to yielding.

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 Non Linear elasticity
• The behavior of axially loaded bar becomes non linear as
stresses exceed the proportional limit
• For purposes of analysis and design, the actual stress-strain
curve of a material can be represented by an idealized
stress-strain curve that can be expressed by a mathematical
function
• Examples of non linear stress-strain curves are shown in the
figures
• Figure a shows an initial linearly elastic region followed by a
nonlinear region defined by an appropriate mathematical
expression (some Al alloys show this behavior)
• In second figure, a single mathematical expression is used
for the entire stress-strain curve

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 Poisson’s Ratio
• When a prismatic bar is loaded in tension, the axial elongation is accompanied
by lateral contraction, that is, contraction normal to the direction of the
applied load
• The lateral strain έ at any point in a bar is proportional to the axial strain ε at
that same point if the material is linearly elastic. The ratio of these strains is a
property of the material known as Poisson’s ratio. This dimensionless ratio,
usually denoted by the Greek letter ν (nu), can be expressed by the equation
ν = − έ/ε
The minus sign is inserted in the equation to compensate for the fact that the
lateral and axial strains normally have opposite signs

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 Poisson’s Ratio
• Equation for Poisson’s ratio applies only to a bar in uniaxial
stress, that is, a bar for which the only stress is the normal stress
in the axial direction
• For most purposes, Poisson’s ratio is assumed to be the same in
both tension and compression
• Poisson’s ratio remains constant only in the linearly elastic range.
When the material behavior is nonlinear, the ratio of lateral strain
to axial strain is often called the contraction ratio. Of course, in
the special case of linearly elastic behavior, the contraction ratio
is the same as Poisson’s ratio.
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 Shear stresses and strains
• Axial loads produce normal stresses as they act in directions perpendicular
to the surface of the materials
• There is another type of stress known as shear stress
• Shear stress acts tangential to the surface of the material

• Consider a block shown in the fig.

• When block is subjected to a set of equal and
opposite forces Q, there will be tendency to
slide one layer of material over the other
• The shear stress is given by

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 Shear stresses and strains
• Shear Strain:
– When shear stress is applied to the block, the rectangular shape
of the block is not retained
– The angle of deformation ϒ is then termed the shear strain
– ϒ is taken in radians

The modulus of rigidity G of any

given material is less than one-
half, but more than one third of
the modulus of elasticity E of that
material
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 Modulus of rigidity
• For materials within the elastic range the shear strain is proportional to
the shear stress producing it

• G is known as modulus of rigidity or shear modulus

• Modulus of rigidity is comparable to modulus of elasticity, both imply ratio
of stress over strain in each case
• The properties of a material in shear can be determined experimentally
from direct-shear tests or from torsion tests. Torsion tests are performed
by twisting hollow, circular tubes and results are plotted as shear stress (τ)
verses shear strain (ϒ)
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 Deformations under axial loading
• If a bar of length L and uniform cross sectional area A is subjected
to a centric axial loading and stress (σ=P/A) produced does not
exceeds the proportional limit of the material, we can apply Hook’s
law

• OR

• Strain is given by ε=δ/L, hence

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 Deformations under axial loading
• Putting the value of ε
𝛿 = 𝑃𝐿/𝐴𝐸
• This equation may be used only if the rod is homogeneous (constant E),
has a uniform cross section of area A, and is loaded at its ends. If the rod is
loaded at other points, or if it consists of several portions of various cross
sections and possibly of different materials, we must divide it into
component parts that satisfy individually the required conditions for the
application of above formula.

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