Ethics: BSN 2nd year 1st semester MIDTERM 2021

DIVINE COMMAND CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE

Divine Law Theory- St. Augustine Immanuel Kant
He is also called as Saint Augustine of Hippo One of his works left a German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was an opponent of
lasting influence – the City of God was widely read in Augustine’s utilitarianism. Immanuel Kant argued that the supreme principle of
time and throughout the Middle Ages and still demands attention morality is a standard of rationality that he dubbed the “Categorical
today. Imperative” .
The City of God
HYPOTHETICAL IMPERATIVES VS CATEGORICAL
was written in response to pagan claims that the collapse of Roman
IMPERATIVES
Empire by barbarians was one of the consequences of the abolition of
pagan worship by Christian emperors. The collapse of Roman Empire  Categorical Imperative states that doing good is an obligation.
gave rise to Christianity to become the official religion. St. Augustine We are doing good because we must! (GOOD as a DUTY). It is
responded by asserting, to the contrary, that Christianity saved the the product of rational insight and as rational agents we can
city from complete destruction and that Rome’s fall was the result of understand and know them as the great truths that they are.
internal moral decay. Moral law consists of entirely of categorical imperatives. Hence,
DIVINE COMMAND THEORY moral statements/actions falling under categorical imperative are
it proposes that an action is morally good if it is commanded by God. universal. It is an absolute act that needs to be followed without
The theory asserts that what is moral is determined by what God exemptions.
commands, and that for a person to be moral is to follow his  Good Will A moral agent have to act from good will. To act
commands. That the source of Morality is God. God is Moral and from good will is to act with a desire to do your duty for duty’s
Good. sake. Regardless of the consequence. Actions without good will
The Euthyphro Problem has no moral worth.
This problem or dilemma presents two questions to ponder. Categorical Imperative: Duty & Good Will
1. Is an action morally right because God commanded them? Simply put, moral action must be understood as in the nature of duty
2. Is an action commanded by God because it is morally right? and done out of good will. It must be done, regardless if it will
NATURAL LAW THEORY benefit the moral agent or not. In categorical imperative, the nature of
Thomas Aquinas is also known as the “Angelic Doctor” He lived at a a man is rational, as he is aided by reason. The rational man’s goal is
critical juncture of western culture when the arrival of the to do his DUTY. In doing so, these moral acts must fall under
Aristotelian corpus in Latin translation reopened the question of the categorical imperatives. Thus, it must adhere to the 3 formulations as
relation between faith and reason morality is a set of Maxims or Axioms. (Constant Principles)
- NATURAL LAW THEORY A theory which believes that the The Three Axioms
nature of man is Good. Accordingly, “Good” is the natural goal 1.Principle of Universalizability- An action is right, if and only if you
of man and that our actions are driven towards this “Good”. could rationally will it to be universal. One must, “Act only on that
What is consistent with the Natural Law is right and what is not maxim through which you can at the same time will that should
in keeping with the Natural Law is wrong .Hence evil deeds are become universal law without contradiction”
unnatural and immoral.The goal of man is to exercise the nature Act becomes a Maxim = Rule and/or a principle of action
of being “Good” by following his nature. Maxim as universal law, means to have everyone in a similar
HOW DOES A MAN UNDERSTAND HIS NATURE? Aquinas situation to always act according to the same rule.
believed that God imbued everyone with the right scope of 2.Principle of Humanity- – Ends in Themselves
knowledge to fully tackle life and understand our nature. These are Act as to treat humanity/man as an end, not as a means only. It is
the instinctive knowledge that promotes good because God about treating people (& ourselves) as end in themselves – as a being
supposedly promotes good. We are provided “reason”, for us to act of intrinsic value, NEVER MERELY as THINGS or TOOLS to be
and pursue the good. used for your own purpose or satisfaction.
Laws of Nature are discernable by human reason. Thus, humans are 3.Principle of Autonomy- When a moral agent acts, he must
morally obliged to use their reasoning to discern what the laws are understand that he is not only a follower of universal law (moral
and to act in conformity with them. law). He is also a giver of universal law. Every single act is a
Humans have a natural drive to eat, drink, sleep and procreate. These permission to universalize it and to become the moral law. Hence if
actions are in accord with a natural law for species to survive and you cheat on an exam, you are allowing it to be the act of all, which
procreate. Thus activities in conformity with such a law are morally makes cheating morally right.
good. Activities that work against that law are morally wrong. UTILITARIANISM
BASIC GOODS - John Stuart Mill was the most influential English
•LIFE language philosopher of the nineteenth century. He was a
•REPRODUCTION naturalist, naturalist, a utilitarian, utilitarian, and a liberal,
•EDUCATING OFFSPRING liberal, whose work explores the consequences of a
•SEEK GOD thoroughgoing empiricist outlook.
•LIVE IN SOCIETY Utilitarianism It states that that the Good should coincide with the
•AVOID OFFENSE Common Good, or that that which gives benefit for man, man, both
•SHUN IGNORANCE for individual or in certain groups. both for individual or in certain
BASIC GOODS WITH REASON groups. This theory follows the Principle of Utility.
•PROHIBITION Principle of Utility - moral actions are those which would produce
•POSITIVE INJUNCTION the greatest good for the greatest number of people. It likewise
Prohibition The Basic Good Positive Injunction promotes the greatest number of pleasure for the greatest number of
Do Not Kill Life Promote life people and the least amount of pain for the great number of people.
Do Not Prevent reproduction Procreate Utilitarianism is both hedonistic and consequential.. Consequential,
Reproduction because the intention in in doing the act is immaterial so long as the
 Ethics: BSN 2nd year 1st semester MIDTERM 2021
result of the act produces greatest good for the greatest number of Cultivating a virtuous character is something that happens by
people. practice. Aristotle compares the development of the skill of virtue to
Hedonistic, because hedonism puts emphasis on how man is a the development of other skills. He says that “...men become builders
pleasure seeking animal by nature–– driven by what is pleasant for by building” and “... we become just by doing just acts”. We might
his well-being. Its goal is to attain Ataraxia or bliss thus man decides know that a brick must go into a particular place but we are good
or act based on his indulgent pleasure i.e. i.e. attaining what is builders only when we know how to place that brick properly.
pleasant. Building requires practical skill and not merely intellectual
Act Utilitarian vs. Rule Utilitarian knowledge and the same applies to developing virtuous character
Act Utilitarian – An act is morally right if it produces at least as traits. Ethical characters are developed by practical learning and
much happiness as any other acts that that the person could perform habitual action and not merely by intellectual teaching.
at that that time. SHORT TERM time. Eudaimonia and Virtue
Rule Utilitarian–– An act is morally right if it conforms to a rule Aristotle uses the Greek term eudaimon to capture the state that we
that that leads to the greatest good in in the long run, run, hence the experience if we fully achieve a good life. According to Aristotle,
correctness of the rule is determined by the amount of good it t brings eudaimon is the state that all humans should aim for as it is the aim
about when followed. LONG TERM and end of human existence. To reach this state, we must ourselves
Virtue Ethics act in accordance with reason. Properly understanding what Aristotle
Aristotle (384–322 BC) was a scholar in disciplines such as ethics, means by eudaimonia is crucial to understanding his Virtue Ethical
metaphysics, biology and botany, amongst others. It is fitting, moral position. Eudaimonia has been variously translated and no
therefore, that his moral philosophy is based around assessing the perfect translation has yet been identified. While all translations have
broad characters of human beings rather than assessing singular acts their own issues, eudaimonia understood as flourishing is perhaps the
in isolation. Indeed, this is what separates Aristotelian Virtue Ethics most helpful translation and improves upon a simple translation of
from both Utilitarianism and Kantian Ethics. happiness.
The Function Theory (Telos) Aristotle concludes that a life is eudaimon (adjective of eudaimonia)
Aristotle was a teleologist because he believed that every object has when it involves “...the active exercise of the mind in conformity
what he referred to as a final cause. The Greek term telos refers to with perfect goodness or virtue”. Eudaimoniais secured not as the
what we might call a purpose, goal, end or true final function of an result exercising of our physical or animalistic qualities but as the
object. Aristotle claims that “...for all things that have a function or result of the exercise of our distinctly human rational and cognitive
activity, the good and the ‘well’ is thought to reside in the function”. aspects. According to Aristotle, virtues are character dispositions or
Aristotle’s claim is essentially that in achieving its function, goal or personality traits. Thus, Aristotelian Virtue Ethics is about an
end, an object achieves its own good. Every object has this type of a individuals character rather than following a set of rules. It is about
true function and so every object has a way of achieving goodness. being rather than doing.
Human has an essence and we must adhere to the function of being a ALTRUISM or popularly known as SELFLESSNESS.
human and develop it in the process of being virtuous. Aristotle ALTRUISM – ETYMOLOGY THE WORD ALTRUISM CAME
identifies what the good for a human being is in virtue of working out FROM THE LATIN WORD “ALTER” MEANING “OTHER” AND
what the function of a human being is, as per his IT WAS COINED BY “AUGUSTE COMTE”
Function Argument. Altruism for Auguste Comte can simply be summarized by “living
•An object is good when it properly secures its telos. for the other” in other words it’s about the “selfless concern for the
Given the above, Aristotle directs his thinking towards human beings welfare of the other”
specifically. ETHICAL ALTRUISM
•The telos of a human being is to reason. FOR ALTRUISM THE MORAL ACTION IS THE ACTION THAT
•The good for a human being is, therefore, acting in accordance with IS DONE DIRECTED TO OTHERS. Actions that directly benefitted
reason. the “other” are the actions that are good.
Virtue as Moderation Altruism
Aristotle refers to virtues as character traits or psychological ◦Behavior that is normally described as altruistic when it is motivated
dispositions. Virtues are those particular dispositions that are by a desire to benefit the other than oneself for that person’s sake.
appropriately related to the situation and, to link back to our function, ETHICAL ALTRUISM
encourage actions that are in accordance with reason. For Aristotle, IS A FORM OF CONSEQUENTIALIST ETHICAL THEORY. IT
virtue is not a feeling itself but an appropriate psychological IS SIMILAR TO UTILITARIAN ETHICAL THEORY
disposition in response to that feeling; the proper response. The From the word, consequence. The result determines if the action is
correct response to a feeling is described as acting on the basis of the good or not
Golden Mean, a response that is neither excessive nor deficient. The DIFFERENT FORMS OF ALTRUISM
table below makes it more apparent. Who is benefitted by the action determines its moral value, normally
COURAGE VIRTUE an action that benefitted and is favorable to anyone else other than the
Virtues are not feelings, but characteristic dispositional responses self is good.
that, when viewed holistically, define our characters and who we are. Altruism for auguste comte
If we act in accordance with reason and fulfill our function as human ◦The Catholic Encyclopedia says that for Comte's altruism, "The first
beings, our behaviour will generally reflect our virtuous personality principle of morality...is the regulative supremacy of social sympathy
traits and dispositions. To be virtuous will help you attain the over the self-regarding instincts." Author Gabriel Moran, (professor
pinnacle of Humanity or attain Eudaimonia. Ergo: Essence = Golden in the department of Humanities and the Social Sciences, New York
Mean = Eudaimonia University) says "The law and duty of life in altruism [for Comte]
was summed up in the phrase : Live for others
Virtue as Habit ◦Living for an altruist is living not for oneself but for the other.
◦Such view is supported by Martin Luther King JR.
 Ethics: BSN 2nd year 1st semester MIDTERM 2021
in this statement ◦“Every man must decide whether he will walk in
the light of creative altruism or in the darkness of destructive
selfishness.” –Martin Luther King
EGOISM (SELFISHNESS)
Misconception on egoism
 Traditionally we see egoism as an ethical theory that must be
frowned upon.
 Being an egoist (someone who practices egoism as their ethical
theory) is someone that is bad
 Being selfish is an outlook that we must not have and we must
be an selfless.
ETHICAL egoism
THE PURSUIT OF LIVING IS STRIVING FOR THE GOAL
WHICH IS DIRECTED BY OUR SELF-INTERESTED VALUE
ONE OF THE LEADING PROPONENT OF ETHICAL EGOISM IS
AYN RAND
Rand on altruism
“Altruism declares that any action taken for the benefit of others is
good, and any action taken for one's own benefit is evil. Thus the
beneficiary of an action is the only criterion of moral value - and so
long as that beneficiary is anybody other than oneself, anything
goes.” – Ayn Rand
For Ayn Rand altruism it promotes self-sacrifice and its end goal is
death hence she sees it as evil.
ALTRUIST IS EVIL
FOR EXAMPLE – in the case of survival
◦YOU AND A STRANGER
◦ON A DESERTED ISLAND AND BOTH OF YOU ARE
HUNGRY
◦YOU HAVE A COCONUT THAT YOU CAN EAT THE
STRANGER DOESN’T KNOW ABOUT
◦WHAT DO YOU DO?
Ethical Altruism would posit that you give up the coconut to the
stranger, compromising your survival. (your death)And if both of you
with an altruistic outlook, no one would ever eat the coconut. (both
dead)
Eating the coconut would be egotistical because you would promote
yourself over the other.
 Egoism vs rational egoism
Egoism is bad in the sense that we would act in our own impulse and
acting on a whim. As a rational being one must use their rational
capability.
- RAND ON EGOISM
She claimed that as a human being that is capable of using reason it’s
only rational to be an egoist. Hence she coined the term “rational
egoism” and this is what is morally good.
HOW IS RATIONAL EGOISM GOOD?
A RATIONAL MAN WOULD HOLD HIS/HER OWN LIFE AS
THE HIGHEST VALUE, HIS RATIONALITY AS THE HIGHEST
VIRTUETHE HAPPINESS AS THE FINAL GOAL AND
PURPOSE OF HIS/HER LIFE
On man and living
“Man—every man—is an end in himself, not a means to the ends of
others; he must live for his own sake, neither sacrificing himself to
others nor sacrificing others to himself; he must work for his rational
self-interest, with the achievement of his own happiness as the
highest moral purpose of his life.” – Ayn Rand
“The purpose of morality is to teach you, not to suffer and die, but to
enjoy yourself and live.” – Ayn Rand What is ethical or morally good
is the action that would promote oneself and living with the guidance
of reason – egoism.