Vade-Mecum Sept2010 AllChapters

CEMENT
Cement Process
Engineering
Vade-Mecum
Version September 2010

Cement Process Engineering Vade-Mecum
© Lafarge SA, 1990-2010.
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belong to Lafarge SA. Lafarge SA reserves the right to exploit this report or not and to freely
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This report along with its content is of a confidential nature. In particular, it may not be
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Direction des Performances Cimentières (DPC), except for reproduction by or for
affiliated Lafarge companies.
.
LAFARGE CEMENT
DPC Direction des Performances Cimentières
www.lo.lafarge.com
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING VADE-MECUM
Foreword
This latest version of Vade-mecum has now become a true Lafarge Cement Division
document, having been produced by worldwide collaboration of all Technical Centres
and DPC, with the involvement of several departments: Process, Quality, Refractory,
Industrial Ecology and Industrial Knowledge. Existing chapters have been extensively
updated and several new chapters added. The first version of the booklet was produced
in 1990 by CTS. Although it was produced by a single Technical Centre it has become
so popular that over the years it has become the accepted reference for the whole
Cement Division.
“Vade-mecum” is a Latin expression that means “Something that goes with me”. The
purpose of this handbook is to provide process engineers with a tool to overcome
technical problems and lead to good process recommendations. It is not intended to
deeply explain the theory, but only to give the main points, reminders, rules of thumb,
equations and reference values. Many documents “How to”, “Process Tools”, Technical
Agenda Studies, etc are already available in the Cement Portal going into details of
specific subjects and these should be consulted for a deeper understanding. A list of
relevant references is given at the end of each chapter.
The booklet will only be made available on the Cement Portal (and EASI Plus!) to allow
updating and addition of new chapters on a more frequent basis than the hardcopy
booklet permitted. In the event a hardcopy is required each chapter can be printed in A5
booklet format and stored in a ring binder to allow replacement of old chapters following
any updates, please only print if absolutely necessary.
As you know, sharing of experience and knowledge is key to the success of Lafarge
and you are actively encouraged to participate in the further development of this already
excellent tool, so please feel free to send your ideas or suggestions or challenge some
of its content to your Technical Centre contact, or to the Process Network via the COP
discussion forums on the Cement Portal or email directly to DPC.
Have a sound utilization of this booklet and improve plant performances.
Colin Paxton Jacques Denizeau

Senior Process Manager – DPC Director Process & Automation – DPC
email: [email protected] email: [email protected]
© Copyright 2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved.

INTERNAL USE ONLY Version September 2010
Table of Contents
1-1 Ball Milling Including Separators

1-2 Vertical Raw Mill
2-1 Combustion & Fuels
2-2 Alternative Fuels
3-1 Kiln Heat & Mass Balance
3-2 Volatile Cycles & Control
3-3 Kiln Systems
4 Product Quality & Development
5 Environment
6 Fluid Flow
7 Process Control
8 Refractories
9-1 Mathematics
9-2 Statistics
9-3 Thermodynamic & Chemical Data
9-4 Unit Conversion

CHAPTER 1-1 – BALL MILLING INCLUDING SEPARATORS
1-1. Ball Milling including

Separators
© Copyright 1990-2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved. BALL MILLING incl. SEPARATORS – Page 1/25
Table of Contents
1. Ball Mill General ............................................................................... 3
1.1. Comparison of Grinding Equipment ................................................................3
1.2. Mill Design .......................................................................................................3
1.3. Percent loading of mill .....................................................................................3
1.4. Mill Critical Speed ............................................................................................4
1.5. Retention Time ................................................................................................5
1.6. Mill Throughput ................................................................................................5
1.7. Required air velocities for mill ventilation ........................................................5
1.8. Optimum filling ratio: ........................................................................................5
2. Ball Charge and Internals ................................................................ 6

2.1. Largest Ball ......................................................................................................6
2.2. Grinding Balls Data..........................................................................................6
2.3. Other internals .................................................................................................7
2.4. Mill Internal Inspection Sheet...........................................................................7
3. Ball Charge Design (Finish Mill) ..................................................... 8

3.1. Recommended volume loading .......................................................................8
3.2. Ball charge design for new mill without pre-existing experience.....................8
3.3. Polysius Design ...............................................................................................9
3.4. Slegten Model ................................................................................................10
3.5. Fineness in Finish Mills:.................................................................................11
4. Grinding Laws ................................................................................ 11

4.1. Absorbed Power of a Mill...............................................................................11
4.2. Charles, Bond, Kick & Rittinger Laws............................................................12
5. Grindability Measurement ............................................................. 13

5.1. BB10 Test ......................................................................................................13
5.2. Bond Test.......................................................................................................13
5.3. Hardgrove Test ..............................................................................................14
5.4. Parameters Affecting the Clinker Grindability................................................14
6. Mill Performance Benchmarking .................................................. 15

6.1. Performance Indicator Finish Mills Absorbed (PIFMA) .................................15
6.2. Benchmarking Ball Mills with Bond Wi ..........................................................16
7. Separator ........................................................................................ 17
7.1. Circulating Load (CL).....................................................................................17
7.2. Tromp Curve ..................................................................................................17
7.3. Indicators for Cement Milling and Typical Values .........................................19
7.4. Recommended Sizing for a HES...................................................................20
8. Grinding Aid ................................................................................... 21

9. Other Data....................................................................................... 22
9.1. Sieve Sizes ....................................................................................................22
9.2. Bulk Densities ................................................................................................22
9.3. Residue Conversion Chart ............................................................................23
10. References...................................................................................... 24
1. Ball Mill General
1.1. Comparison of Grinding Equipment

The priority study cement grinding shop compares the full shop power consumption using the 3 main
types of technology, see the table below:
Closed Circuit Vertical Mill Roller Press

Ball Mill *(Integral Grinding)
Power Consumption kWh/t 40.2 27.4 26.9
Relative Consumption 1.0 0.68 0.67
* Integral grinding is not used for cement grinding due mainly to quality issues with the narrow particle
size distribution of the product. Hence semi-integral grinding using a closed circuit roller press and
closed circuit ball is more common with a circuit power consumption of around 30 kWh/t.
1.2. Mill Design

General L/D ratio
• Raw mills: 1.5 < L/D < 3.2
• Finish / cement mills: 2.5 < L/D < 3.0
L/D vs specific power consumption for different

volume loads
The optimum specific energy and the highest

output for cement grinding is reached with an L/D
ratio of 2,5 to 3.
Length of first Compartments relative to total mill length

• Raw mills: First compartment length equals 35 – 45% of total mill effective length.
• Cement mill: First compartment length equals 30 – 35% of total mill effective length.
• When L/D>1.5, classifying liners might be used.
• The lower the L/D, the higher the circulating load needs to be (see below).
1.3. Percent loading of mill

2π 0.9
αr 2 − r sin α (h − r ) h/d
• % volume load = 360

0.8
πr 2
0.7
where:
r is the radius 0.6
h is the free height
h−r 0.5 0
α (degrees) = arccos
10 20 30 40 50%

r % volume load
Rules of thumb
• % vol. Load = 111.87 – 123.98 (h/d), 25 – 50%: error max 0.6%.
• It is estimated that material increases the actual ball filling ratio by about 2%.
• Another method (quick but not as accurate) consists in counting the number of visible shell liner
plates (n) and to divide by the total number of shell liner plates per circumference (N): Angle α =n
x 360 / N.
Values of angle h/d ratio in relation to the ball load (% filling degree)
Ball load (%) h/d n/N Ball load (%) h/d n/N
20 .7459 .667 31 .6516
21 .737 32 .6434 .590
22 .7281 .653 33 .6352
23 .7193 34 .627 .580
24 .7106 .639 35 .6189
25 .702 36 .6109 .569
26 .6926 .625 37 .6028
27 .685 38 .5948 .558
28 .6765 .611 39 .5868
29 .6682 40 .5789 .549
30 .6598 .601 41 .5709
42 .563 .539
1.4. Mill Critical Speed

Gω 2 r
C • C = mω 2 r =
g
m
P where:
r
G = Weight of grinding ball in kg
G
Ž
ω = angular velocity of mill tube (rad/sec)
n = rev per minute
C = centrifugal force kg
• P = G * sin ∂
(P is the resulting force of gravity)
• To maintain the ball in this position on the mill wall, it is
necessary that C ≥ P.
60 2 g 42.3
• Mill critical speed: nc = = with D in meters
4 π2 r D
% Critical speed:
• Practically, mill speed between 68 and 82% of critical speed.
• % critical speed is the mill actual speed in RPM divided by nc.
Example:
3.98 meter mill with rotational speed of 15.6 rpm then nc = 21.2, % critical speed = 73.6 %.
1.5. Retention Time

Rules of thumb:
• Retention time in mill: Open circuits: ~ 12 min
Closed circuits: ~ 5 min
• Feed is pushing the material through the mill, If mill throughput increases: retention time decreases:
C
8< < 12 where: C is the ball charge weight, M is the material weight
M
Fluoroscein Tracer test:
• 2g/t of mill production. Prepare the fluoroscein with 800-ml alcohol and impregnate 2 kg of mill feed
material (in a plastic bag).
• Put the material at mill inlet, start the time and sample every 30 s during 30 min. (others use salt).
1.6. Mill Throughput
• Using elevator power and after calibrating we have:
(kW − kW0 ). 3600 .η
Where:
A= A = Material flow (mtph)
9,81. H kW = Actual elevator power
kW0 = Elevator power empty
η = Elevator efficiency
H = Inter axis elevator height
1.7. Required air velocities for mill ventilation

Rules of thumb
• Recommended 1.5 m/s above the ball charge:
- inside the trunnion: 22-25 m/s.
- partitions: 8-14 m/s (<20 m/s).
- hood: <5 m/s to prevent dust from being sucked up (dust pick-up is proportional to speed^2).
- dropout box: <2 m/s.
• 0.3-0.5 Nm3/kg cement
0.6-0.8 Nm3/kg raw mix (depending upon drying needs)
• Wet bulb temperature should be at least 25°C higher then dew point temperature.
• False air at mill outlet is usually >25%. Consider high false air volume in heat balance and in mill
ventilation design.
1.8. Optimum filling ratio:

• U= (volume of powder in the mill)/ (volume of voids in the charge): between 60% and 110%, optimum
around 90%.
• In practical terms, material level should equal ball level in the first compartment
• In practical terms, material level should be higher than ball level in the second compartment
• The expansion of the ball charge due to the material in between would not exceed 3% in an
optimised mill (measurement of the ball charge level of the empty and the filled mill)
• The material filling in the first compartment can be adjusted with flow control devices in modern
diaphragms. (scoops, flaps)
2. Ball Charge and Internals

2.1. Largest Ball
Bond Formula
- K is a constant (350 for a dry mill open or close circuit,
d Wi ρ 300 for wet)
• d KMAX = 20.17 20 .3 - ρ is the specific mass of material (g/cm3)
K Ψ. Du
- Wi is the Bond work index (kWh/t)
where:
- d KMAX is the largest ball diameter (mm) - Du is the mill inside diameter (m)
- d 20 is the sieve dimension (µ)
- Ψ is the ratio between the actual / critical speed (%)
with 20% retained
Quick evaluation Grinding Ball vs Clinker Size

• For clinker: 100
Optimum Ball Diameter (mm)

B = 24 d 80
(Other formula exist that result in value differences
of ± 5%)
- B = ball dimension (mm)
- d 80 is the sieve with 80% passing
10
.1 1 10 100
Clinker Size d80
2.2. Grinding Balls Data

Grinding Ball dimensions
Diameter Weight Surface Number of balls per Weight of 1 m3 Specific surface

2
mm inch (g) (cm2) metric tons of balls (kg) (m / mt)
100.00 ± 4" 4,001.153 314.159 250 4560 7.854
90.00 ±3½" 2,916.841 254.469 343 4590 8.728
80.00 2,048.590 201.062 488 4620 9.812
77.00 ±3½" 1,826.658 186.265 548 10.207
70.00 1,372.396 153.938 729 4640 11.222
64.00 ±2½" 1,048.878 128.680 954 12.276
60.00 864.249 113.097 1,157 4660 13.085
50.00 ±2" 500.144 78.540 2,000 4708 15,708
40.00 256.074 50.265 3,905 4760 19.628
38.00 ±1½" 219.551 45.365 4,555 20.664
35.00 171.549 38.485 5,830 22.437
31.75 ±1¼" 128.061 31.669 7,809 24.730
30.00 108.031 28.274 9,257 4850 26.173
25.00 ±1" 62.518 19.635 15,996 4894 31.408
23.00 48.682 16.619 20,542 34.139
22.22 =7/8" 43.895 15.511 22,782 35.337
20.00 ±3/4" 32.009 12.566 31,242 4948 39.259
17.00 ±5.8" 19.658 9.079 50,870 4989 46.185
(Unit weight and specific surface of MAGOTTEAUX grinding media)
Quick calculation:
• Ball diameter (mm) = 3 250 P (P = weight in g)
785 2
• Specific surface of balls of diameter = m / mt (d = diameter in mm)
d
Wear rates:
In the 1st compartment the wear rate is correlated with the average ball weight (positive correlation),
whereas in the 2nd compartment it is correlated with the ball charge surface area (positive correlation as
well). Below are general guidelines for raw as well as cement grinding wear rates:
Raw grinding
• Raw mix with free silica (quartz) content <5%: 30-60 g/t
• Raw mix with free silica (quartz) content >5%: 50-100 g/t
Cement
• CEM I, clinker >90%, 300 m2/kg : 30-60 g/t
• CEM I, clinker >90%, 450 m2/kg: 60-100 g/t
• CEM III, slag 70%, 300 m2/kg: 60-120 g/t
• CEM III, slag 70%, 450 m2/kg: 120-200 g/t
• Suppliers would typically guarantee <40 g/t for CEM I
Bulk density for ball load

(Coarse to medium ball size distribution):
• Chamber 1: 4.3 – 4.5 t/m3
• Chamber 2: 4.5 – 4.65 t/m3
• Single Chamber mill: 4.5 – 4.55 t/m3
2.3. Other internals

Partitions
• Total slot area: 10 to 20 cm²/tph production:
Slot Size Central Part Discharge Part
FM 7 mm ± 1 mm 9 mm ± 1 mm Max opening: ½ min ball size
RM 10 mm ± 1 mm 12 mm ± 1 mm
Liners
• Liners replaced when 60% of their effective lifting height has worn away:
- Reduction 8 to 10 % production
- reference points to measure lifting height are the lowest point on the liner to the highest release
point (contact points between grinding ball and liner plate)
• American Lorrain pattern: diameter (ft)*2=# bolt holes/row, 18.8” centre to centre.
• DIN pattern: diameter (m)*10= # bolt holes/row, 31.4 cm centre to centre.
• Classifying liners if L/D>1.5 and volume load<35%.
• Without classifying liners, keep a maximum of 3-4 ball sizes.
2.4. Mill Internal Inspection Sheet
Shell Liner Thickness Ball Charge Remarks – sizes, shape,

contamination, breakages
Shell Liner Lifter Thickness Ball Coating Remarks
Shell Liner Remarks – crack, gaps…. Ball Classification Remarks
Inlet Head Liner Thickness Discharge Grate Slot Size-Average
Inlet Head Liner Remarks Discharge Grate Slot Size-Maximum
Inlet Opening Remarks Discharge Grate Metal Thickness – gaps etc.
Height Liner, to Balls – Average Discharge Grate Percent Blinded
Width Across Balls – Average Discharge/Centre Screen Percent Blinded
Calculated Percent Fill – mill ran out Height of Material relative to media
Build up on water injection lance Calculated Percent Fill – mill crash stopped
Presence of material nibs
3. Ball Charge Design (Finish Mill)

3.1. Recommended volume loading
(see “How to Optimise Ball Charge”)
Recommended Volume Loading
1st Compartment 2nd Compartment 3rd Compartment
1
Minimum kWh/t 26 – 28% 28 – 30% 28 – 30%
Maximum Production 32 – 34 % 34 – 36% 34 – 36%
(Ball level in the trunnion should not be higher than 50 to 75 mm.)
3.2. Ball charge design for new mill without pre-existing experience
Closed circuit finish mill
Chamber 1 Chamber 2
Coarse charge Fine charge Coarse charge Fine charge
Ball size (mm) Ball size (mm)
% % % %
40 (transition
90 40 21 10
zone)
80 29 38 30 25 15
70 19 25 25 25 15
60 12 16 20 20 30
17 20 40
Average ball Average ball
1.83 1.63 47 34
weight (kg/ball) weight (g/ball)
Specific surface
32 37
(m2/t)
Note: With high circulating loads, as with oversized separators the coarser grading in the 2nd chamber is
more suitable to help maintain charge permeability
1
The recommended volume loading for minimum kWh/t is based on an acceptable compromise with production. For
minimum kWh/t the volume loading can be as low as 22% in the second compartment. Due to risk of breakage the
minimum volume loading in first compartment shall not underpass 25%.
Open circuit finish mills
Chamber 1 Chamber 2
Coarse charge Fine charge
Ball size (mm) Ball size (mm) %
% %
90 40 21 30 10
80 29 38 25 10
70 19 25 20 20
60 12 16 17 60
1.83 1.63 30
Specific surface
39
(m2/t)
Raw mills
Chamber 1 Chamber 2
Coarse charge
Ball size (mm) % Ball size (mm) Fine charge %
%
90 40 60 20
80 29 50 30 30
70 19 40 30 30
60 12 30 20 40
1.83 260 186
Specific surface
18 21
(m2/t)
Note: Up to 50% 90 mm are used in some mills
3.3. Polysius Design

• As a rule of thumb, it suits raw mills and especially mono-chambers very well, especially if no
classifying liners are used.
⎡ D ⎤
ln ⎢
9.6 ⎥⎦
• D = 9.6 e −013.x ⇔ x = ⎣
− 0.13
where:
- D = Ø ball (cm)
- x = effective mill length (m)
• Process step-by-step, calculating each effective length starting from the input and with the largest
ball:
1. Calculate effective lengths and the ball sizes you plan to use.
2. Double the first effective length which is both the first interval width and the first cumulative
length.
3. Calculate each succeeding interval width by taking the effective length and subtract the
preceding cumulative length and doubling it. Add this value to the previous cumulative length to
get the new one.
4. If an interval overlaps with the partition divide the interval at the point of overlap. The excess is
carried over to the next compartment. At the end of the mill, the interval is truncated at the point
of overlap.
5. Once the intervals have been adjusted for compartment lengths as described in step (4), divide
the adjusted interval by compartment length and multiply by 100. This is the percent weight for
each size to be used in the compartment.
Slegten Model
• Compatible mostly with classifying linings in the second compartment.
First Compartment – Crushing

• Same number (n) of balls in each size range.80, 70 and 60 mm Ø and then add some 90 mm Ø to
deal with oversize clinker. This equilibrium charge will not change as you add 90 mm Ø make-up
balls to maintain volume load.
Ø Ball (mm) % of Weight (x) % of Weight Number/ 10 t of Charge
90 100-5x 20.0 670
80 2*4x 38.4 1820
70 1.6x 25.6 1820
60 X 16.0 1820
- x = is taken to be the number of balls in the last size.
• In recent years, Slegten has favoured a 3-ball size distribution in first compartments over a 4- ball
size as shown in table above.
Transition Zone
• This is the start of the second compartment and its job is to crush any oversize that penetrated the
diaphragm
• The design for this area is to use "n" balls of 50 and 40 mm.
Ø Ball (mm) Number/ 10 t of Charge
50 1820
40 1820
• The largest ball size used in this transition zone can be identical to the smallest ball size used in the
first compartment.
Second Compartment – Fine Grinding
• The envelope curve for the balls smaller than 40 mm follows the following formula:
• D = 3.3e −010.x
where:
- D = Ø ball (cm)
- x = distance from transition zone finish (m)
• The 30 mm balls start at the completion of the transition zone and the exponential curve follows.
Rule of thumb:
• The smallest ball size should, as a minimum, be at least twice the width of the slots in the grates (ex.
≥16 mm balls if slots are ≤8 mm wide). For this reason, it is generally recommended to use ¾” (19
mm) balls as the smallest size in Finish mills. 5/8” balls are fine when the grates are new but often
become problematic as the grate slots enlarge.
Example: Comparison Slegten & Polysius
1st compartment useful length = 3.81 m, 2nd compartment useful length = 7.66 m
Using an average ball weight of 1.65 kg per ball and 3 ball sizes in the first compartment for
the Slegten model.
Ball size and % Polysius Slegten
compartment load design design
1st compartment 3 ½” 31.0% 32.1%
3” 31.2% 43.1%
2 ½” 37.8% 24.8 %
2nd compartment 2” 2.31% 7.67% Transition zone
1 ½” 23.73% 2.94%
1 ¼” 34.05% 10.08%
1” 2.57% 48.18%
¾” 37.34% 31.13%
5/8” - (Some)1
A limited amount of 5/8” balls should theoretically be added but the designer decided to
use ¾” as the smallest ball size.
3.4. Fineness in Finish Mills:

In the first compartment before intermediate diaphragm
• 95% passing of 2.365 mm (2360 μm or 8 mesh) for the material leaving the first compartment
• Particle size distribution recommended on other sieves:
- 86 – 92 % passing 1.0 mm (1000 μm or 18 mesh)
In the second compartment before discharge diaphragm
• 95% passing 0.5 mm (500 μm or 35 mesh)
• 70 - 80 % passing 0.2 mm (212 μm or 70 mesh)
4. Grinding Laws
4.1. Absorbed Power of a Mill
• Only 5-10 % of the energy is used for grinding, 90% is wasted into heat, wear, noise…
• With similar ball charge gradation and similar liners' lifting effect, the absorbed power is related to:
- Tonnage of balls
- Mill rpm
- % volume load
- Mill diameter
Slegten formula
1.27
⎛ rpm ⎞ π
• P = W * ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ * K j * K Fr and W= * Fr 2 * L * J * d
⎝ Vcr ⎠ 4
where:
- P : the motor absorbed power (kW) - J : the ratio between the apparent ball
- W : the weight of the load (T) volume and the internal volume
- Fr : internal diameter (inside liners) (m) - rpm: is mill speed (rpm)
- d is the apparent density of load (t/m3)
#1 comp : d = 4.5
#2 comp : d = 4.65, if fine ball size distribution (average ball weight < 40 g)
d = 4.6, if coarser ball size distribution (average ball weight > 40 g)
Average : d = 4.6
⎛ 42.3 ⎞
- Vcr is the critical speed inside liners= ⎜ ⎟ , L : the useful length of mill (m)
⎜ F ⎟
⎝ r ⎠
K j = 1.36 − 1.2 J , K Fr = C.Fr
0.379
-
- K Fr is the influence of the location of the center of gravity for the moving ball charge vs. the mill
center (C is a constant depending on the material and the liners).
- C= 11.262 for Clinker mill closed circuit with Slegten equipment
10.7 for clinker + slag, 12.16 for raw mix, 10.1 for slurry
1.27
⎛ rpm ⎞ π
• P = L * ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ * J* K j * * Fr2.379 * d * C
⎝ cr ⎠
V 4
Simplified formula
⎡ RPM ⎤ 100 Fr
• P =T *⎢ ⎥* *Kj * * 9.5
⎣ Vcr ⎦ 75 1.366
Kj Function of Volume Load
Volume load Kj
40% 0.9
30% 1
20% 1.1
Rules of Thumb
• One metric tonne of balls increases the mill power draw by 10 kW.
• Usually, 8 to 12 kWh/t is absorbed in the first compartment for clinker grinding (approximately 1/3 of
the mill power)
4.2. Charles, Bond, Kick & Rittinger Laws

General Law: Charles
• dW = cx −n dx
- If W = Comminution work, x = Size of
particles (initial, final)
Value of n
Energy Law Value of n: Applies well over range of:
Rittinger 2 10 – 1000 μm
Kick 1
Bond 1.5
Normalized Blaine fineness equation

• Fineness equation, generally accepted within Lafarge:
n
⎡ SA ⎤
W2 = W1 ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎣ SA 1 ⎦
- n = 1.3 for high efficiency separator (HES) circuit, n = 1.4 for second generation separators, n =
1.5 for Sturtevant separators, bearing in mind that 16’ and 18’ Sturtevant separators are more
efficient than the larger 20’ and 22’ Sturtevant. n = 1.6 for open circuit mills
- W1 and W2,are the initial and resulting specific power consumption kWh/t, W is inversely
proportional to production rates.
- SA1 and SA2 are the initial and final product surface areas m2/kg
0.43( SA1 − SA2 ) / 1000

• Proposed by Polysius: C 2 = C1 * e
where C2 and C1 are production capacities
• Rene’s Study: +1% passing at 10µm: +10.8 SSB [m²/kg]
Rules of thumb
• Raw material: 10-16 kWh/t (mill motor) target fineness: passing 200µm>99%, passing 90µm>88%
depending upon burnability of raw mix)
• Clinker: 45 ± 15 kWh/t at 350 m2/kg (mill motor). For a pure cement (95% clinker) at <400 m2/kg, the
mill motor consumption should be <40 kWh/t.
5. Grindability Measurement
5.1. BB10 Test

Idea:
Correlate the number of revolutions of a lab mill for a given fineness with the industrial energy
to obtain the same fineness. The material is crushed to everything passing 3.15 mm. The
number of mill revolutions is measured to obtain a given fineness. Revolutions are converted
to industrial power consumption.
Lab Mill Characteristics:

Diameter: 40 cm Material load: 1kg
Length: 12 cm Balls: 20-25 mm : 2.5 kg
Speed: 55 rpm 20-35 mm : 3 kg
Ball volume load: 14 % 50 mm : 4.5 kg
Ball weight: 10 kg
Lafarge Data
• 60 clinkers. Typical results are 48-60 kWh/t 3500 m2/kg.
BB10 for 250 m2/kg for 300 m2/kg for 350 m2/kg for 400 m2/kg
kWh/t kWh/t kWh/t kWh/t kWh/t
Minimum 21 30 39 49
Average 29.2 39.8 51.8 65.3
Maximum 43 56 68 83
Remark: An average CEM I 32,5 at 300 m²/t can be ground with 28kWh/t related to the mill main drive.
The additional energy for finer grinding should not exceed the Normalized Blaine fineness equation
described in chapter 4.2.
5.2. Bond Test

Lab Mill Characteristics
Diameter: 30.5 cm
Length: 30.5 cm
Ball weight: 20 kg
Material quantity: 700 cm3
Speed: 70 rpm
Formula
44.5 dp100 is the sieve with 100% passing feed material
Wi = dp80 80% feed material
⎛ 10 ⎞
d p 100 0.23 • P 0.82 * ⎜⎜ ⎟
10
− ⎟⎟
df80 80% finish material
⎜ d p 80 d f 80 P is the production (g/rev of mill) of product at the level the
⎝ ⎠
circulating load is requested.
Wi is the Bond work index kWh/short ton.
• Developed to predict energy requirements of 2.44m diameter, wet, closed circuit, ball mill at a
fineness of either 65 mesh (220 µm) or 100 mesh(150 µm).
• Pre-crush feed to #6 (3.35 mm). Maintain 700g sample in test mill. Turn mill 100-150 rev.
Calculate the theoretical power consumption at a standard surface of 300 m2/kg by:
P
T 300
=
1
MF
(
• X C • SPC C + X G • SPC G + X S • SPC S + X A • SPC A + X P • SPC P + X L • SPC L + X O • SPC O )
P
T 300
1
( )
= • 0.8829 • 28 + 0.0347 • 10 + 0.0168 • 43 + 0.0656 • 10 = 26.4 kWh / t
1
Next calculate the theoretical power consumption at the actual product surface area using:
fs
⎛ SA • (1 − 0.1 * ( X G + X A + X P + X L )) ⎞
P = P •⎜ ⎟
T T 300
⎝ 300 ⎠
1.3
⎛ 369 • (1 − 0.1 * ( 0.0347 + 0.0656)) ⎞
P = 26.4 • ⎜ ⎟ = 34.2 kWh / t
T ⎝ 300 ⎠
Finally calculate the PIFMA
P
PIFMA = A = 35.6 = 1.04
P 34.2
T
6.2. Benchmarking Ball Mills with Bond Wi

Bond is most useful for assessing the power consumption of ball raw mills and coal mills since both target
product particle size rather than surface area:
The power consumption for a new mill can be estimated from the Bond Equation:
⎛ 10 10 ⎞⎟
Where:
Ws = FB • 1.102 • Wi • ⎜ − Ws – calculated industrial mill shaft power kWh/t
⎜ P 80 F80 ⎟⎠ P80 – Product 80% passing size µm
⎝ F80 – Feed 80% passing size µm
FB - Bond Factor for dry grinding normally 1.3
The 1.102 is the conversion from kWh/short ton to kWh/t (metric)

.
For grinding finer than 70µm Bond proposed a fine grinding correction factor, calculated from:
⎛ 10.3 + P80 ⎞
FP = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 1.145 • P80 ⎠
The Bond equation can also be used for benchmarking existing mills in conjunction with actual mill shaft
power consumption (WSA kWh/t) to compute the Bond factor:
WSA
FB =
⎛ 10 10 ⎞⎟
1.102 • Wi • ⎜ − •F
⎜ P 80 F ⎟ P
⎝ 80 ⎠
• Remove undersize (dp100 – 65 or 100 mesh) and replace with fresh feed (300 – 400 g). 1st cycle is
now completed. Repeat procedure until steady state is reached. Typically 6-8 cycles so that 200 g
are removed at each cycle, which equals 250% circulating load or 30% of “P”.
• The Work index expresses the specific net energy needed to grind a material from indefinite feed size
to dp80 =100 µm
• Wi for Raw materials for cement plants are usually in the range of 8 – 16 kWh/st
Typical Values for Wi for common materials:

Wi kWh/st* ρ (g/cm3)
Clinker: 13.49 3.09
Limestone 10.18 2.68
Shale 16.40 2.58
Slag 15.76 2.93
Sand stone 11.53 2.68
Silica sand 16.46 2.65
Coal 11.37 1.63
Clay 7.10 2.23
Gypsum 8.16 2.69
Kiln feed 10.57 2.67
*Clearlythe Wi can vary significantly from these figures depending upon the nature of the materials and material testing is
necessary for each particular case when assessing a mill.
5.3. Hardgrove Test

The Hardgrove test was originally developed for determination of coal grindability, using a laboratory
scale ring ball mill. Feed size is prepared in the range 600 – 1180 µm. The mill is charged with 50g of
feed and operated for 50 revolutions. The result is calculated from the proportion of material passing
75µm. The figure is meant to compare the grindability with a standard American coal with an index of
100.
Bond gave the following equation to convert HGI into a Bond Wi:
435
Wi =
HGI 0.91
Other similar relationships can be found in the literature. Ranges of HGI found in cement plant raw
materials are given below:
Material HGI*
Clay 130 – 160
Coal 35 – 90
Limestone 60 – 120
Shale 60 - 170
Silica Sand 30 - 100
*Clearlythe HGI can vary significantly from these figures depending upon the nature of the materials and material testing is
necessary for each particular case when assessing a mill.
5.4. Parameters Affecting the Clinker Grindability

1 point increase of Î produces a CaOl D75 alite Alite C3S
variation of C3S Exc SO3 /tot.alk. (%) (%) (µm) x100
W250 (kWh/t @ 250 m2/kg ) -0.3 4 -0.9 0.1
W300 -0.5 4 0.1 -0.1
W350 -0.6 5 0.2 -0.2
W400 -0.7 5 0.2 -0.3
6. Mill Performance Benchmarking
6.1. Performance Indicator Finish Mills Absorbed (PIFMA)

The PIFMA is used to benchmark finish mill performance:
PA Where:
PIFMA = PA – actual specific power consumption mill drive
PT PT – quasi theoretical specific power consumption,
calculated from standard grindability figures
An efficient mill will have a PIFMA close to unity
The theoretical power consumption at a standard surface of 300 m2/kg calculated by:
P
T 300
=
1
MF
(
• X C • SPC C + X G • SPC G + X S • SPC S + X A • SPC A + X P • SPC P + X L • SPC L + X O • SPC O )
Where:
XC, XG, XS, XA, XP, XL and XO are the weight fractions of clinker, gypsum, slag, flay ash, pozzolan,
limestone and other components in the product.
MF is the mill type factor = 1 for a ball mill, =1.6 for a Horomill, = 1.7 for Vertical mill and 1.8 for a roller
press
SPC refers to the standard grindability kWh/t of the components at 300 m2/kg. The standard figures
used are:
SPCC Clinker 28 SPCA Fly Ash 2

SPCG Gypsum 10 SPCP Pozzolan 10
SPCS Slag 43 SPCL Limestone 10
Note the low figure used for fly ash is to adjust for it’s initial surface
The theorectical specific power consumption at 300 m2/kg is then corrected to the actual product
surface area SA, by the following equation:
fs
⎛ SA • (1 − 0.1 * ( X G + X A + X P + X L )) ⎞
P = P •⎜ ⎟
T T 300
⎝ 300 ⎠
Where:
fs = Factor Separator (1.6 for open circuit, 1.5 for first, 1.4 for second, 1.3 for third generation separator, 1.0
for roller press, 1.10 for vertical mill & 1.05 for Horomill)
Subtraction of the term 0.1*(XG+XA+XP+XL) from the surface area is meant to correct for over-grinding of
the softer components.
The resulting PIFMA will be influenced by the mill efficiency and by the grindability of the cement.
Therefore especially in cases of high PIFMA (>1.15) the grindability of the components and the condition
of the milling system will need to be investigated to find improvement potential.
Example Calculation of PIMFA

Determine the PIFMA of a closed circuit ball mill with 3rd generation separator produces 86.2 tph
@ 369 m2/kg with a power consumption at the main motor of 35.6 kWh/t. The product
components are 88.29% clinker, 3.47% gypsum, 6.56% limestone and 1.68% blast furnace slag.
Values of less than 1.3 would normally indicate an efficient mill.

Typical values determined for specific mill types grinding cement raw materials are:
1. Bucket elevator ball mill 1.2 – 1.3

2. Tandem Hammer / Airswept mill 1.4 – 1.5
3. Airswept Mill 1.4 – 1.55
4. Double Rotator Mill (Central discharge) 1.2 – 1.3
The Bond equation is also useful to assess the potential impact of changes to mill feed or product size.
7. Separator
7.1. Circulating Load (CL)
Junction with Three Streams
A • A, R, F are the feed, rejects and fines of the separator
- ai , ri , f i are the cumulated % passing at a defined sieve(i).
- da, dr, df are the % retained corresponding to the sieve interval dx.
- A=R+F
- A da = Rdr + Fdf
R F
R df − da F dr − da
With: da = a i + 1 − ai , = , =
A df − dr A dr − df
Drawing CL calculation
• Plot ( f i − a ) vs ( f i − ri ) • Using the least square line calculations,
If the mill circuit is steady, the graph has to with α = 0
be a straight line:
( f − a) = α + β( f − r ) Quick CL calculation
- α should be close to 0 • With one set of results of sieving:
R R f −a
- β is the most probable value of =
A F a−r
- The circulating load is defined as:
R β
=
F 1− β
7.2. Tromp Curve

a) Creating the Tromp Curve
• On the Gauss-logarithmic paper, let's plot the probability for a given particle of a certain size entering
dr( x )* R
the separator to go to the rejects = with:
da( x )* A
n
∑
( f i − ai )( f i − ri )
R i =0
=
A n
∑
( f i − ri ) 2
i =0
• The Tromp curve can be divided into Tromp Curve Representation OSEPA N1500
two straight lines
• The higher sieve fractions have a 99.8
99.5
slope which is representative of the 99
98
separator efficiency (a perfect one
95
would be vertical).
% Probability of Rejection
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
5
1.0 10.0 100.0 1000.0

Particle Size
b) Imperfection
• d 75 − d 25 where:
I= - d25 is the size of the particle which has 25 % chance of going to
2 * d 50 rejects
- d50 is the size of the particle which has 50 % chance of going to
rejects
- d75 is the size of the particle which has 75 % chance of going to
rejects
Imperfection vs Circulation Load

0.44
Imperfection
0.42
0.40
0.38
0.36
0 100 200 300 400
Circ. load (%)
c) Acuity Limit
• AL is the abscissa of the intersection of the two Tromp curve lines.
• It’s the size at which selection is initiated
d) Bypass
Definition:
• By-pass is the ordinate of the intersection of the two Tromp curve lines.
• The bypass is the lowest percentage of feed that will go to the separator rejects.
Bypass vs. feed rate – Sturtevant Bypass vs. feed rate O’Sepa/Sturtevant
• The following graph shows the Bypass of an
18’Sturtevant versus its feed rate. 80
100
70
Sturtevant
60
80
Bypass (%)
50
Bypass (%)
60 40
30
40
20
O-Sepa
10
20
0
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
0 Qf/Qa (kg feed/m3 separator sweep)
50 100 150 200 250 300
Feedrate to Separator (t/h)
40
QF/Qa vs. bypass
• If Qf is the separator feed rate (kg/h) and Qa 30
the separator ventilation (m3/h),
Bypass (%)
• Qf/Qa is an important ratio for the separator 20
efficiency.
⎛ Qf ⎞ 10
⎜⎜ − f1 ⎟
Qa ⎟⎠
• Bypass = 1 + e ⎝
0
- f1: coefficient for the separator 0 1 2 3 4
Qf/Qa (kg/m3)
7.3. Rosin Rammler Number (RR#) RRnumber vs. Feed to Air Ratio
•
1.20
The steeper the particle size distribution (RR#
high) the more efficient the grinding and
Rosin-Ramler Number (n)
1.15
separating process.
1.10
• Raw mix RR# are usually lower than those for cement 1.05
grinding
1.00
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Qf/Qa (kg/m3)
Separator Performance
• Rate of recuperation in the fines of particles smaller than a given dimension.
F f
r= *
A a
7.4. Indicators for Cement Milling and Typical Values
Slope Rosin Rammler 1.1 – 1.4 for HES
fines: 0.85 – 1.0 for 1st generation separators (Sturtevant, Raymond)
1.2 for second generation separators
% recovery, 45 μm: 45 to 55% for Sturtevant and >65% for HES
Acuity: 20 – 30μm for Sturtevant and <0.30μm for HES
Imperfection: <0.35 for HES
0.45 – 0.6 for Raymond separators
0.6 –0.7 for Sturtevant separators
Bypass: 5 – 10% range for HES
Circulating load: 150 –200 % with HES
HES Qf/Qa: 1.5 – 2.0 range
% Passing 45 μm: 93% minimum (45 μm = 325 mesh)
7.5. Recommended Sizing for a HES
Parameter Recommended Possible (Min/Max) Industrial Range
Cage loading 20-23 t/h/m2 less than 30 11-36 t/h/m2
Qf/Qa 2 kg/m3 less than 2,2 0,7-3,0 kg/m3
Radial velocity at the inlet of

3,6-4,3 m/s x 2,9-4,5 m/s
the cage
Ratio Am3/h/m2 13000-15000 10500-16300
14 000 Am3/h/m2
Gas volume / Cage Area Am3/h/m2 Am3/h/m2
Circulating load 100%-250% x 45%-270%
1,0 m/min
less than 1,2 m/min
Filtration Velocity Pulse jet H.P.
0,8-1,3 m/min
or Air to cloth ratio 1,1 m/min
less than 1,2 m/min
Pulse jet L.P.
a) Fan and Bag House Sizing

• Use the production rate (T/h), Qf/Qa (kg/ Am3) and circulating load (%) to specify the air flow.
• Most separators can operate at +/- 20% of nominal.
• Only a margin of 5 - 8% above the separator airflow is recommended for the BH.
• Margin of 5-10% is recommended on top of the BH for the fan.
• Correctly specifying the static pressure:
- Pressure drop can be estimated by the dP of the separator (2.5 – 3 kPa), Dust Collector (2 – 2.5
kPa), ducting. (1-1.5 kPa) and if present, silencer (250 – 500 Pa).
- The recommendation is 6.5 kPa with a minimum of 600 kPa.
• Include in the circuit design, the possibility for recirculation of up to 80% of the separator airflow.
8. Grinding Aid
Type of Products
• Surface active agents tend to saturate the free valence and inhibit the pack-set. Typical surface-
active agents are:
- ligno-sulphonates
- polyoils
- amines
- organic acids
• Polar compounds (water, ammonia) are known to have some action on such bonds through their
polar moment. However, their practical use as surface agents is limited by their other impacts on the
cement properties.
• Other agents, particularly coal dust, have been used in the past.
• Commercial products available as grinding aids are essentially (60-800 g/t ck):
- Triethanolamine
- Polypropylene glycols and polyethylene
• HEA2, DDA& and other products cause a definite reduction of pack-set but do not prevent
agglomeration or lump-formation problems that are caused by:
- Alkalis ( K 2 SO4 )
- Moisture
The effect of grinding aid on milling process:

- Enhances the flowability and prevents agglomeration
- Prevents coating on liners and grinding media
- Lower effect on coarser product (below 320 m2/kg)
- Reduces contraction
- Increased production (5-7%)
9. Other Data
9.1. Sieve Sizes
Sieve Screen Micron Iso alter Screen Micron Iso alter
#400 37 38 #14 1400
#325 44 45 #12 1700
#270 53 53 #10 2000 2000
#230 63 63 #8 2360
#200 74 75 #7 2800
#170 88 90 #6 3350
#140 105 106 #5 4000
#120 125 125 #4 4750
#100 149 150 #3.5 5600
#80 177 180 1/4" 6350 6300
#70 210 212 5/16" 8000 8000
#60 250 250 3/8" 9510 9500
#50 297 300 7/16" 11200 11200
#45 354 355 1/2" 12700 12500
#40 420 425 5/8" 16000 16000
#35 500 500 3/4" 19000 19000
#30 595 600 7/8" 22600 22400
#25 707 710 1" 25400 25000
#20 850 1"1/4 32000 31500
#18 1000 1000 1"1/2 38100 38100
#16 1180 2" 50800 50000
9.2. Bulk Densities

Bulk density kg/m3
Sand 1387
Sand 1679
Iron 2629
Bauxite 1980
Brick 1502
Gypsum 1677
Fluid coke 926
Limestone (crushed) 1803
Silica fume 1024
Bottom Ash 1241
Cement T I-II 1234
T 10 1207
T III 1054
Clinker 1575
Clinker (underburnt) 1400
Raw mix 1041
9.3. Residue Conversion Chart
CONVERSION OF
% residue at 90μm
SIEVE RESIDUES
70
50
40
30
355 μm
20
250 μm
12.0%
10
200 μm
180 μm
7
5
150 μm
4
3
125 μm
106 μm
0.7
0.5 90 μm
0.4
80 μm
0.3
14.22%
63 μm
0.2
75 μm
56 μm
% residue
12.0%
50 μm
45 μm 25 μm
0.1 0.7 1 2 3 4 5 7 10 20 30 40 50
10. References
¾ Cement Portal Grinding Domain

How to manage the ball charge level
How to check the airflow through the mill
How to do a routine stop inspection
How to do a mill crash stop inspection
How to optimise a ball charge
How to manage liner wear in a ball mill
How to conduct a ball mill audit
How to remove scrap from a ball mill circuit
How to check the separator efficiency
Procedure for audit of Ball Mill Circuits
Global mixing grinding media recommendations
Technical agenda study – formalisation of knowledge on grinding aids
Guide – ball mill optimisation Post Sevilla module 5
Priority study cement grinding workshop
Priority study – separators
My notes:
CHAPTER 1-2 – VERTICAL RAW MILL
1-2. Vertical Raw Mill
© Copyright 2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved. VERTICAL RAW MILL – Page 1/11
Table of Contents
1. Raw Mill Parameters ...................................................................................3

1.1 Feed Size........................................................................................................ 3
1.2 Table Speed ................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Grinding Pressure........................................................................................... 3
1.4 Bed Depth....................................................................................................... 5
1.5 Dam Ring Height ............................................................................................ 5
1.6 Nozzle Ring & External Recirculation............................................................. 5
1.7 Gas Flow......................................................................................................... 6
1.8 Mill Temperatures ........................................................................................... 6
1.9 Mill Pressure Drop .......................................................................................... 6
1.10 Gas Speeds .................................................................................................... 6
1.11 Material Load at Separator Outlet .................................................................. 6
2. Table & Roller Liners Wear.........................................................................7

3. Performance of Lafarge Vertical Raw Mills...............................................7
4. Vertical Mill Parameter Optimisation.........................................................9
5. References .................................................................................................10
1. Raw Mill Parameters
1.1 Feed Size

The largest particle size should be maximum 3 - 4% of the roller diameter
Typical feedsize distribution:
100% passing 100mm
95% passing 60mm
Maximum 10% passing 1mm
Reducing feedsize can increase production, but avoid excessive fines which can increase vibration
1.2 Table Speed

The table speed of a vertical mill is defined as:
C
Nc =
Dt
Where: Dt table diameter m

C is constant (ranging from 40 – 55) specific to each mill design (check if we have values
from other suppliers)
Typical speeds for different suppliers:
% critical
Polysius 81
FLS & Loesche 84
Pfeiffer 70
Raw mills have fixed speed drives, a faster turning table will tend to be more sensitive to fine feed material than
a slower one.
1.3 Grinding Pressure

Typical operating values for nominal production are:
1. Polysius : 130 – 150 bars
2. Loesche : 80 – 90 bars
3. Pfeiffer : 120 -150 bars
4. FLS Atox : 110 – 120 bars
5. FLS FRM : 75 – 80 bars
Grinding pressure is not directly comparable between different suppliers due to hydraulic system (e.g
cylinder size number cylinders, etc) and grinding roller arrangement
Calculation of grinding forces (for track guided rollers):
d
Grinding Force Applied
α Static load Ls= W x g kN
Dynamic load Ld= 100 x P x N x π x (D2-d2) x Cos α kN

4
Total load applied Lt = Ls + Ld
Where
W total roller weight including carriers t
P P grinding pressure bars
N number hydraulic cylinders
D D cylinder diameter m
d piston rod diameter m
α cylinder inclination from vertical degrees
Lt
Specific load applied Lsl = KN/m2 where Ar is projected roller
surface area Ar
Typical installed specific loads for suppliers are :

Pfeiffer 450 kN/m2
Loesche 880 kN/m2
FLS - FRM 880 kN/m2
FLS - ATOX 800 kN/m2
Polysius – RMK 1100 kN/m2
Calculation of grinding force for LOESCHE type mills:

Static load:
Ls = ( W1 + 0.6* W2 ) *g
With
W1 : weight of the roller
W2 : weight of the roller shaft
NB: coefficients for W1 and W2 are estimated from available drawings
Weight of the roller arm is neglected
Dynamic load:
Ld = F * K * N
with:
F: force applied by one cylinder
K: lever ratio (ratio supplied by LOESCHE: 0.838 for FR_SPL_LM 46 2+2)
N: number of cylinder per arm
F = π /4 ∗ ( ( D2 – d2 ) * P – D2 * p ) *100000
with:
D: cylinder diameter (m)
d: cylinder rod diameter (m)
P: grinding pressure (bar)
p: counter pressure (bar)
Specific load calculation:
Specific load = Lt / (( D + d )/2 * L )
D
l
d
1.4 Bed Depth

Bed depth is normally in the range of 50 – 80 mm
Optimum bed depth can be defined as the lowest possible bed depth that keeps the mill vibrations in a
safe range.
1.5 Dam Ring Height

Usual range for dam ring height: 2.5 – 4.0 % of table diameter, but varies according to table design, wear,
feed materials, etc….
Dam Ring
Height
Table Segment
Grinding
Table
1.6 Nozzle Ring & External Recirculation

• Gas speeds for nozzle rings vary depending upon the capacity of the external recirculation system:
• 25 – 60 m/s for recirculation of 50 –100 % fresh feed
• 70 + m/s with no recirculation
• Nozzle ring -
inclined at 60° to direct larger material back to the table
Blades inclined at 60° to give some pre-separation
• External Re-Circulation -
Some mills (Polysius) are designed 100% recirculation relative to mill feed.
A maximum operation level of 50% external recirculation is recommended to keep mill stability.
Note:
Nozzle ring velocities based upon free area of the nozzle ring perpendicular to the nozzle ring guide
vanes.
Direction of table rotation
nozzle Dam Ring
Grinding
Table
Air guide cone
Gas Flow
Direction
1.7 Gas Flow

Typical gas flow measured at mill outlet : 2 – 2.5 m3/kg (or 400 to 500 g/m3).
Benchmark false air level < 15% mill fan volume
1.8 Mill Temperatures

Mill outlet temperature:
• Typical 80 - 110 °C depending upon feed moisture
• Mill outlet temperaure +20 - 30°C above dewpoint
Mill Inlet Temperature:
• The maximum allowable temperature at the mill inlet = 325 - 350 ºC without insulated grinding table
• Higher temperatures can be achieved with an insulated grinding table, although some older mills are
limited due to roller lubrication
Note:
Raw materials with very high moisture requiring a high mill inlet temperature and in such cases these
mills are supplied with an insulated grinding table and modified nozzle ring. When made in special
materials, a mill inlet temperature of up to 550 ºC can reached.
1.9 Mill Pressure Drop

Mills with external recirculation 50 – 60 mbar
Mills without external recirculation 70 – 85 mbar.
1.10 Gas Speeds

Mill casing : 4.5 – 7.0 m/s (For Vertical Transport)
Separator : 4.5 – 6.0 m/s (Through the cage rotor – based on gross area)
Ducts : 18 – 20 m/s
1.11 Material Load at Separator Outlet

Separator outlet material load 500 - 600 g/m3
Separator drive speed – tip velocity 20 – 26 m/s
Vertical centre feed arrangement with raw material feed moisture > 15%
2. Table & Roller Liners Wear

Optimum liner selection (typical lifetimes + influences on wear)
• Wear resistant Chromium Steel – standard solution for low abrasive mixes
• Ni- Hard Tyres with Re-welding insitu – solution for abrasive mix
• Liners with ceramic inserts – most wear resistant option for abrasive raw mix
• Normal liner wear 2g/t raw mix, high wear up to 7 g/t
• Liner lifetime is most important to allow replacements during major kiln repairs
• Worn liners can reduce production by 10%
Vertical Mill Table Liner Optimisation Example – Switch from welding to Ceramic Liners
Write the text of the example here (the borders will be removed on the final version)
SCK Raw Mill Table Liner Wear
Outer Path Average Wear (mm)
History Inner Path Average Wear (mm)
Outer Path-Highest Wear Point
Inner Path-Highest Wear Point
Projected
70.0
8/24/2004 8/15/2005
Weld Rebuild Recentered Roll Axis, Weld
Rebuild Outer Track
60.0
1/10/2004
Replace
Standard Cast 4/19/2004
50.0 Weld Rebuild
1/10/2005 9/13/2005
Replace 100% UGM Rock
X-win Ceram ic
7/6/2007
Wear (mm)
40.0 Inner Track
7/23/2006
30.0
20.0
8/15/2006
10.0
0.0
6/28/2003
8/17/2003
10/6/2003
11/25/2003
1/14/2004
3/4/2004
4/23/2004
6/12/2004
8/1/2004
9/20/2004
11/9/2004
12/29/2004
2/17/2005
4/8/2005
5/28/2005
7/17/2005
9/5/2005
10/25/2005
12/14/2005
2/2/2006
3/24/2006
5/13/2006
7/2/2006
8/21/2006
10/10/2006
11/29/2006
1/18/2007
3/9/2007
4/28/2007
6/17/2007
8/6/2007
9/25/2007
Date
3. Performance of Lafarge Vertical Raw Mills
Reliability factor target: > 95 % Actual (2009): 24 mills from 53
Annual Incident Stops target: < 100 Actual (2005): 3 mills from 24
Lafarge Data (2005)
Requirements Too low Too high Typical level
4.
Feedrate Strategy 1 - Maximise to reduce Power Consumption
High Power Consumption Mill filling and overload
Strategy 2 - Keep pace with kiln minimise kiln upsets
Vibration Maintain at a safe level - Risk damage to mill parts 2-3 mm/s
INTERNAL USE ONLY

Bed depth Maintain at level to keep vibration at safe level High vibration low grinding efficiency 50 - 80 mm
Dam ring To be adjusted as table wears to keep bed depth under Low bed depth, high vibration Excessive bed depth and 50 - 150 mm Pol/Loesche/FLS
normal condition and high elevator power high mill power Pfeiffer 0 - 50mm
Mill Drive Power Max feed will be close to maximum (tends to increase as Mill may not be optimised risk of mill trip
table wears) 80 - 90 % installed
Hyd Press Matched to bed depth deep grinding bed, high thin grinding bed, low
circulating load and high circulating load and low
pressure loss pressure loss 80 - 90% of maximum
Airflow Maintain just above minimum (start up with high airflow) mill will fill up, potential Mill not optimised 1.8 - 2.2 nm3/kg with low
overload trip moisture
False Air Minimise false air (benchmark 15% mill fan volume). N/A Reduced production, high 15 - 25% mill fan volume

Regular checks combined with regular leak identification power consumption and
and repair possible operational issues
Nozzle Ring Velocity A low as possible, but keep rejects <50% fresh feed. Excessive rejects/ elevator High mill pressure loss and 25 - 60 m/s w recirc
Adjust airflow distribution around mill to increase at roller power high power consumption 60 - 90 m/s w/out recirc
discharge
Pressure drop Minimised by nozzle ring and dam ring adjustment Mill empty - not optimised mill filling and risk of 3.5 - 5 kPa w recirc
overload trip 6 - 10 kPa w/out recirc
Fan Speed Sufficient to maintain airflow Inadequate process control Inadequate process control 90 -95 % on a well sized system
Vertical Mill Parameter Optimisation
loop / underdesign of fan loop

Elevator Power Equivalent to 50% fresh feed Mill may not be optimised High external load can 50% fresh feed
destabilise mill and make Elevator power is normally
restarts difficult due to large calibrated as tph
pile on table
Power Consumption minimise according to operating strategy Suspect calibration of power Mill not optimised for power Mill only 5- 8 kWh/t
meters or mill feedrate consumption Total 13 -17 kWh/t
Product Residue control separator speed/ guide vanes to achieve target Excessive power Poor control, separator 10 -12 % residue 90µm
consumption, liner wear and problem and difficult <1 % residue 212 µm
high preheater dust loss burnability in kiln
Water addition Table sufficient to stabilise bed Increased vibration, difficulty Increase liner wear and 1 - 3% of mill feed
in keeping stable bed on increased mill power
table consumption
Plough (if fitted) maintain clearance from table to avoid excessive rejects Excessive material hold up Excessive rejects Pfeiffer - 250 mm feedsize 70mm
and high mill power Polysius 70mm - Feedsize 40mm
VERTICAL RAW MILL – Page 9/11


5. References
• Technical Agenda Study – Vertical Raw Mill
• Procedure "How to do on-line diagnostic of a vertical mill"
• Procedure "How to do on-stop inspection of a vertical mill"
• Procedure "How to adjust the dam ring of a vertical mill"
• Cement Portal's Grinding Domain
My notes:
CHAPTER 2-1 – COMBUSTION & FUELS
2-1. Combustion & Fuels
© Copyright 1990-2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved. COMBUSTION & FUELS – Page 1/26
Table of Contents
1. Fuel Theory – Heat Value ................................................................ 3

2. Solid Fuel .......................................................................................... 7
2.1. Coal ................................................................................................................. 7
2.2. Coke ................................................................................................................ 9
3. Fuel Oil............................................................................................ 10
3.1. Main Characteristics...................................................................................... 10
3.2. Viscosity ........................................................................................................ 10
4. Natural Gas ..................................................................................... 11

5. Typical Preheater Exit Gas............................................................ 13
6. Flame Theory.................................................................................. 14
6.1. Definition ....................................................................................................... 14
6.2. Flame Speed ................................................................................................. 14
6.3. Flame Radiation ............................................................................................ 14
6.4. Factors Influencing the Flame Temperature ................................................. 14
7. Burner Pipes................................................................................... 15
7.1. Number of Air Circuits ................................................................................... 15
7.2. Primary Air..................................................................................................... 16
7.3. Lafarge Burner Operation and Design Basics .............................................. 16
7.4. Burner Alignment........................................................................................... 20
8. Combustion Success Criteria ....................................................... 20

9. Fuel Grinding and Dosing ............................................................. 22
9.1. Solid Fuel Grindability ................................................................................... 22
9.2. Solid Fuel Fineness....................................................................................... 22
9.3. Dosing ........................................................................................................... 23
9.4. Safety Considerations ................................................................................... 24
9.5. Fuel Grinding Mills......................................................................................... 24
10. References...................................................................................... 25
1. Fuel Theory – Heat Value
Quick Energy Conversion Factors
MJ/kg = kcal/kg / 238.846

MJ/kg = Btu/lb / 429.923
kcal/kg = MJ/kg * 238.846
kcal/kg = Btu/lb / 1.8
Btu/lb = MJ/kg * 429.923
Btu/lb = kcal/kg * 1.8
List of Abbreviations
HHV high heat value or gross calorific value

LHV low heat value or net calorific value
C % weight carbon
H % weight hydrogen
N % weight nitrogen
O % weight oxygen
S % weight sulfur
A % weight ash
M % weight total moisture
VM % weight volatile matter
FC % weight fixed carbon
Cl % weight chlorine
W moisture/hydrogen water factor
Subscripts
d dry basis
ad air dried (includes inherent moisture)
ar as received (includes total moisture)
af as fired
daf dry basis, ash free
• High Heat Value (HHV)

The High Heat Value is the result obtained out of the Oxygen bomb calorimeter. It is the heat
produced by complete combustion at constant volume, with the resulting water condensed to
liquid. Per definition Sulphur remains SO2 and N is not oxidized, energy of acid formation is
therefore subtracted using the S and N content of the fuel.
The moisture of the fuel has a strong impact on the heat value, the moisture of the sample used in
the calorimeter (typically air dry) is different to the moisture at the plant firing point. To have a clear
reference HHV and LHV reported from the laboratory should be dry (except for liquid fuels, they
are reported and analyzed on wet base).
HHV dry = HHV * 100 / (100 – M)
M = Moisture of the sample analyzed in the bomb calorimeter.
• Low Heat Value (LHV) Dry basis – Lafarge Definition following ISO
In practice the water out of combustion remains gaseous and the combustion takes place at
constant pressure.
LHVdry (Low Heat Value dry) is calculated from the High Heat Value dry subtracting the
condensation energy and considering the volume change coming from Nitrogen, Oxygen and
Hydrogen in the fuel.
LHVdry = {HHVdry − 212 ⋅ ( Hdry ) − 0.8 ⋅ [(Odry ) + ( Ndry )]} (ISO)
LHVdry = Low Heat Value dry in kJ/kg
HHVdry = High Heat Value dry in kJ/kg
To have a clear defined reference, LHV reported from the laboratory should be on dry base
(except for liquid fuels).
Oxygen and Nitrogen correction as shown above have small impact in typical coals and can be
neglected if no elemental analysis is available. Should be careful with AF.
• Low Heat Value as fired (correction for moisture)– Lafarge Definition

The finally used heat value for heat consumption reporting is considering the moisture of the fuel
at the firing point (example coal moisture after mill or SSW moisture,…).
LHVasfired = LHV dry ⋅ (1 − 0.01 ⋅ Masfired ) − 24.88 ⋅ Masfired

M as fired = Moisture as fired [%], to be measured at the plant immediately after sampling.
Remark: LHV wet corresponds to LHV as fired if moisture is identical (example liquid fuels).
Remark: Alternative fuels with high moisture can have negative LHV.
Low heat Value as fired is the one to be used for heat consumption reporting.
LHV definitions from various standards – for reference

LHV results out of standards differing to the Lafarge definition above or received from older calculation
tools are acceptable as long as the difference is < 0.5% compared to the Lafarge definition result.
Examples:
ISO 1928-1995 (constant pressure and 25°C)
LHVar (J/g) = [HHVd – 212.2Hd – 0.8( Od + Nd )] x (1 – 0.01M) – 24.43M
World Coal Institute (WCI)

LHVar (MJ/kg) = HHVar – 0.212 Har – 0.0008Oar – 0.0245M
LHVar (Btu/lb) = HHVar – 50.6Har – 0.191Oar – 5.85M
ASTM 5865/3180 (constant pressure)

LHVar (J/g) = HHVar – 215.5War
LHVar (Btu/lb) = HHVar – 92.67War
Where:
War = [(Had – 0.1119 Mad) x (100 – Mar)/(100 – Mad)] + 0.1119Mar
Or in cases where you have just dry and as fired results:
Waf = [Hd x (100 – Maf)/100] + 0.1119Maf
(substitute War with Waf)
• Example of HHV - LHV and LHV as fired gap

The difference between the HHV and the LHV will vary with fuel type. The greater the proportion
of hydrogen in a fuel, the lower the resulting LHVdry.
The higher the as fired moisture the lower the LHV as fired compared to LHV dry.
Fuel %H HHVdry LHVdry % Moisture LHV as fired LHV as fired

(MJ/kg) (MJ/kg) as fired (MJ/kg) as % of HHV
Coal* 5 27.91 26.83 1% 26.31 94%
Coke* 4 32.56 31.70 0.5 % 31.41 96%
Waste Fuel 10 20.93 18.78 10 % 14.41 69%
HHV wet LHV wet
Fuel oil 10 44.19 42.04 - 42.04 95%
Natural gas 25 53.50 48.11 - 48.11 90%
* Remark: if significant dust in gas used for coal/coke drying, e.g. preheater gase with no / inefficient
cyclones, be careful to make adjustment when converting coal analysis to as fired basis. Can use
difference in measured ash (corrected for CO2for greater accuracy) to assess dust capture.
Heat Value Estimation

Combustion Equations
• C + O2 → CO2 + 32778 kJ / kg C • S + O2 → SO2 + 9265 kJ / kg S
1
• H 2 + O2 → H 2 O + 11990 kJ / kg H
2
Estimating Heat Value Calculation

• If HHV was not determined and proximate + ultimate analysis is available it is possible to estimate
calorific values for certain fuels.
• For COAL:
⎡ Oar ⎤
LHVar (kJ/kg) = ( 80.8C ar + 22.45S ar + 287 * ⎢ H ar − − 6M ) x 4.1868
⎣ 8 ⎥⎦
HHVd (kJ/kg) = ( 80.8C d +22.45S d + 339.4 H d − 35.9Od ) x 4.1868
For TDF
HHVd (kJ/kg) = 40,924.8 x (100 – Ad)/100 x 0.97
• Valid for North American TDF (North American and European tires differs in composition)
For plastics and paper:

= HHVar (MJ/kg)
= 1.934766H+1.229411C+0.931257N+0.85302O+11.756341Cl +0.506425S-0.345919FC+0.557784M
+0.581401A-86.338211478
• All parameters are as received basis
• Model based on regression of plastics paper and plastic resins analysis
• Valid if ash < 4%

• Model excludes PVC
• Model excludes specialty plastics (e.g. Dupont butacite)
For Biomass
= HHV (in kJ/g)
= 0.3491C +1.1783H - 0.1034O - 0.0211A + 0.1005S -0.0151N
Reference: S.A. Channiwala 1992 Indian Institute of technology
Volatile Matter
Volatile matter is the loss in weight, corrected for moisture, of a sample heated to 900oC
(ISO) in the absence of air.
Ignition Temperature vs. %VM • The volatile matter gives an indication of
800 the reactivity of the coal – a higher volatile
matter ignites at a lower temperature
750
700
• The graph shows ignition temperatures for
coal dust in air
Temperature, deg C
650
Probable Ignition
600 Temperature
550
500
450
400
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
source: Polysius
Coal %VM
Ash
Ash is the inorganic residue remaining after burning solid fuel heated to 815oC (ISO) in an
oxidizing atmosphere until there is no weight change. It is composed chiefly (95-99%) out of
oxides of Si, Al, Fe, and Ca; Mg, Ti, S, Na, K, and trace elements can also be present.
CAUTION: Coal ashes contain sulfur, the total S of the fuel is analyzed and reported
separately. The laboratory therefore has to subtract the Sulphur and report ash content as
well as ash analysis Sulphur free.
For ultimate fuel analysis the Carbon dioxide in ash needs to be subtracted as well.
Fixed Carbon
The proximate analysis, giving the fixed Carbon, gives some indication of the fuel.
FC = 100 – (A + M + VM)
FC…% Fixed Carbon

A…% Ash Content
M…% Moisture
VM…% Volatile Matter
Ultimate Analysis
The ultimate analysis is the complete elemental analysis of the fuel. It is required for heat
balances and process calculations like exit gas calculation or volatile balances.
The ultimate analysis gives in addition to the heat value the complete elemental analyze
of the fuel: C, H, N, S, Cl as well as ash. Ash composition should be analyzed if ash
content is > 5% (ash then calculated S and CO2 free).
Oxygen is often calculated out of total – in ideal case separate Oxygen analysis is
available but needs to be corrected for Oxides in ash.
The ultimate analysis should be reported from the laboratory on dry base for solid fuels
and is then converted to as fired for process calculations.
%Casfired = %Cdry ⋅ (1 − 0.01 ⋅ % Masfired )
C as fired = % Carbon as fired
C dry = % Carbon dry
M as fired = % Moisture as fired
Calculation is identical for all elements.
Liquid fuels are directly reported wet, corresponding to as fired.
2. Solid Fuel
2.1. Coal
Lafarge Business Reference System (BRS) definitions:

High quality coals, according to the BRS are:
1. >22.5 GJ/t or 9673 Btu/lb
2. 12% < VM < 36%
3. Pyritic sulfur < 1%
Low quality coals, according to BRS are:
1. <22.5 GJ/t or 9673 Btu/lb
2. VM <12% or VM >36%
3. Pyritic S >1%
High quality cokes, according to the BRS are:
1. Total S < 5.5%
2. HGI > 45
Low quality cokes, according to the BRS are:
1. Total S > 5.5%
2. HGI < 45
For coke, if only one parameter is met, Sulfur takes precedence. Pyritic S in coal is not systematically
measured. In such cases the pyritic S criteria can be ignored.
Classification of Coals by Rank
Typical analysis (reminder: “every coal is different”)
Anthracite Coal Lignite

Moisture after mill[%] 0.3 1.1 6.3
Volatiles [%] 4 21.9 45.2
LHV [kJ/kg] 30000 23555 21000
Ash [% dry] 10 22.2 16.4
Carbon [% dry] 79.5 65.3 59.2
Hydrogen [% dry] 1.8 2.9 5.8
Oxygen [% dry] 6.6 7.2 15.1
Nitrogen [% dry] 1.6 1.7 0.5
Chloride [% dry] 0.01 0.008 0.003
Sulphur [% dry] 0.5 0.6 2
2.2. Coke
• Coke is the solid, cellular, infusible Delayed Coke Fluid Coke
material remaining after LHV MJ/t 34 300 31 000
carbonization of coal, pitch, %C 88 – 90 87 – 88
petroleum residue and other
%H 3.9 – 4.5 2–3
carbonaceous materials. Thus, its
oxydation takes more time: 1 to 2 C/H Ratio 21 35
seconds. %S 2–6 5–8
ASH content (%) 0.5 – 1.5 2–8
Volatile matter (%) 10 – 15 5 – 10
Granulometry (mm) 0 – 50 0–8
Moisture content (%) 7 – 10 5 – 10
Ignition Temperature 220 - 250 230 – 250
Hard Grove (HGI) 90 – 100 10 - 30
Refer to ‘How to Burn Petcoke’ in Cement Portal
3. Fuel Oil
3.1. Main Characteristics
Comp Nº1 Nº2 Nº4 Nº6 FO Nº6
C 86.4 87.3 86.47 87.26 84.67
H 13.6 12.6 11.65 10.49 11.02
O 0.01 0.04 0.27 0.64 0.38
N 0.003 0.006 0.24 0.28 0.18
S 0.09 0.22 1.35 0.84 3.97
Ash <0.01 <0.01 0.02 0.04 0.02
C/H ratio 6.35 6.93 7.42 8.31 7.62
Specific Gravity 0.849 0.902 0.965
Flashpoint (min. 38 or 38 or 55 or 60
specification) °C legal legal legal
− 131.5 ( for SG < 1)

141.5
• Api Gravity =
Specific Gravity
No. 1, 2, 3 are called distillate fuel oils, distillate, light or diesel oils
No. 1 is similar to kerosene
No. 2 is diesel fuel or heating fuel
No. 3 is rarely used
No. 4 is a blend of distillate and residual oils – No. 2 and No. 6. Confusing as No.4 can
be classed as diesel, distillate or residual fuel oil
No. 5, 6 are residual fuel oils or heavy fuel oils – the remains after lighter fractions have
been extracted. Mostly No. 6 is produced
No. 5 is a mix of 75%-80% No.6 + balance No. 2.
No. 6 may contain some No.2 to meet specifications
3.2. Viscosity
Theory
• The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its internal resistance to flow. Viscosity is the opposite of
fluidity.
absolute viscosity is absolute viscosity, μ measured in cp (centipoise);
kinematic viscosity is kinematic viscosity, C measured in cs or cSt (centistokes)
absolute viscosity in cp = kinematic viscosity in cs * specific gravity
1 poise = 100 cp = 1 dyne.s/cm2+ = 1 g/s*cm, 1 stoke = 100 cs = 0.000 1 m2/s

Viscosity - temperature information for selected fuel oils
• The far right-hand columns list temperatures required to reduce the oil viscosity to levels often
required for easy pumping (440cSt) and for atomization (20.7cSt).
• Required:
Viscosity: 20-25cSt, filtration<125μm (abrasion and clogging: 3-stage filtration at 35, 60 and
120#)
Variation at the pump should not be higher than 5cSt
(from North American Combustion Handbook, 2nd ed. 1978, table 2.9)
Oil temperature (in C)
Type of oil Viscosity (ν) at 38C (cs) required for
pumping Atomization
#6 max 2200 59 129
#6 typical 259 30 93
#6 min 220 28 91
#5 max 165 22 83
#5 typical 67.2 8 66
#5 min 32.1 -7 50
#4 max 20.7 -17 38
#4 typical 11.7 -28 25
#4 min 6.9 -59 -3
#2 max 3.5 -- -17
WARNING: for No. 5 and No. 6 fuel oils, atomization temperatures are above the minimum flash point.
Other Viscosities (for comparison only)
At ºC Water Air Natural gas

μ (cp) 1.124 0.0180 0.011
ν (cs) 1.130 14.69 14.92
• Approximate viscosity of water at 21C is 1 cp and 1 cs
4. Natural Gas
a) Gas Characteristics
Typical example Content (%) LHV (kJ/Nm3) Sp weight (kg/Nm3)
CH4 93.93 35,822 0.7143
C2H6 2.42 63,736 1.3393
C3H8 0.26 91,251 1.9643
C4H10 (ISO+N) 0.002 118,637 2.589
C5H10 (ISO+N) 0 134,493 3.2143
S 0
CO2 0.34 1.9643
N2 3.05 1.2500
H2 0 0.0893
He 0 0.1339
O2 0 1.4286
Total 35,428 0.7533
b) Combustion
Combustion Equations for Natural Gas
• CH 4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H 2 O • C 5 H 12 + 8 O2 → 5 CO2 + 6 H 2 O
7 1
• C2 H 6 + O2 → 2 CO2 + 3 H 2 O • H2 + O2 → H 2 O
2 2
• C 3 H 8 + 5 O2 → 3 CO 2 + 4 H 2 O • S + O2 → SO2
13
• C 4 H 10 + O 2 → 4 CO 2 + 5 H 2 O
2
Neutral Combustion Air for natural gas
• If [x] is the volume fraction of x, the neutral combustion air is:
1 ⎛ ⎞
* ⎜ 2 * [CH 4 ] + * [C 2 H 6 ] + 5 * [C 3 H 8 ] + * [C 4 H 10 ] + 8 * [C 5 H 12 ] + * [H 2 ] + 1 * [S ] − [O2 ]⎟
7 13 1
0.21 ⎝ 2 2 2 ⎠
Rule of thumb
• 9.412 Nm3/Nm3gas (for the example)
c) Flammability
Limit flammability in air Temp auto flame

Inf limit (%) Sup limit (%) in air (°C)
H2 4 75 570
CO 12.5 74 610
CH4 5 15 580
C 2H 6 3 12.5 490
C 3H 8 2.2 9.5 480
C4H10 1.7 8.5 420
Many plants experience problems maintaining the flame, during start-up when lighting the main flame or
during preheating stages. During these phases, the surrounding temperature is well below the auto-flame
temperature. Meaning it is relatively easy to cool the flame to cause it to “snuff” out. Further complicating
the situation – operators must maintain the correct air/fuel mix in the flame zone. Outside the flammability
limits and the flame “snuffs” out. Recognize that above auto flame temperature, the fuel will re-ignite as
soon as it finds oxygen (so the flame can be maintained easily). The table can be used to guide
engineers to designing a more robust pilot flame.
6.3.2 Burner Diameter

• Ratio = burner outer diameter (steel, ex refractory) / kiln inside diameter (steel, ex refractory)
• Keep ratio < 12% if possible – ensures adequate space around burner for secondary air and
clinker load, & minimizes excessive radiation heat transfer to burner refractory
• Maximum: up to 14% if required for AF.
• In general increase burner diameter to:
Make room for AF lines (present and future)
6.3.3 Axial
• Main driver for impulse and flame positioning – increase axial flow = shorter overall flame length.
CAUTION: plume length may increase with increased axial – fools operator into thinking flame
length has increased – when the overall length has shortened.
• Minimum hole diameter 12 mm, smaller sizes known to cause tip erosion and accelerates tip
build-up
• Maximum hole size depends on channel width of design
• Number of holes: 16 to 24 – as symmetric as possible.
• Tip speed
> 325 m/s will cause metal erosion and tip build-up
275-325 m/s: recommended if high impulse target but some plants experience
problems
< 275 m/s preferred as long as impulse target is met
Note higher tip speed means less primary air for same impulse but at higher blower kW
and possibly increased burner wear (burner should last minimum one campaign)
• Barrel or channel speed < 20 m/s may lead to cooling problems
• Barrel or channel speed >35 m/s will cost you more blower kW and pressure.
Specific Impulse (Is)

• Is = sum of axial momentum from primary air, coal transport air and jacket tube air / energy rate at
burner
• Axial momentum includes axial air, coal channel transport air and axial vector of swirl air
• When “Is” ratio is held roughly constant, flame length is roughly constant
• Momentum impulse:
M *V where:
Is =
Q - Q = ki ln ( heat power ) inGJ .h −1
- M = primary airflow ( in the axe ) in kg .s −1
- V = Air Speed in m.s −1
Operation Rules of thumb

Specific impulse Typical
Fuel Oil 1,2 N.h.GJ-1
Coal 1,5 N.h.GJ-1
Coke and AF 1,8 N.h.GJ-1
Design: > 2.2 N.h.GJ-1
Neutral Combustion Gas Products for natural gas (example)
Nm3/Nm3 gas kg/Nm3 gas % volume % weight

CO2 0.999 1.962 9.58% 15.25%
SO2 0.000 0.000 0.00% 0.00%
H2O 1.962 1.576 18.81% 12.25%
N2 7.466 9.332 71.60% 72.51%
Total: 10.426 12.871
Natural Gas Heat Value
• kJ / m 3 = 378.1 [CH 4 ] + 666.5 [C 2 H 6 ] + 958.8 [C 3 H 8 ] .
5. Typical Preheater Exit Gas
a) Typical preheater exit gas for different fuels
Composition of typical fuels:

PET- COAL GAS FUEL SSW ANIMAL WASTE CAR
COKE OIL MEAL OIL TYRES
Analysis dry dry wet wet dry dry wet dry
C [%] 86.3 68.0 74.0 85.0 60.0 51.0 69.0 68.0
H [%] 3.8 3.0 24.4 11.1 10.7 9.8 10.5 6.0
S [%] 3.7 0.6 0.0 3.0 0.3 0.6 0.1 1.5
O [%] 1.7 7.0 0.4 0.6 11.0 7.8 17.0 3.0
N [%] 1.6 1.4 0.7 0.3 0.2 11.5 3.0 0.4
Cl [%] 0.0 0.05 0.0 0.01 0.8 1.0 0.4 0.1
Ash [%] 3.0 20.0 0.0 0.0 17.0 18.3 0.0 21.0
LHV [kJ/kg] 32000 24000 49600 40000 25000 18000 23000 28000
Moisture [%] 2.0 2.5 11.0 5.0 3.0
LHVas fired [kJ/kg] 31300 23300 49600 40000 22000 17000 23000 27100
NCA [Nm³/kg] 8.71 6.54 13.15 10.74 7.13 6.62 8.44 7.72
NCG [Nm³/kg] 8.95 6.79 14.52 11.35 7.85 7.34 9.17 8.05
NCG [Nm³/MJ] 0.286 0.291 0.293 0.284 0.357 0.432 0.399 0.297
Fuel analysis at burner level. NCA=NeutralCombustionAir, NCG=NeutralCombustionGas

Oxidation of metallic ashes are considered for tires (80%Fe) and SSW (20%Al, 5%Fe).
Typical preheater exit gas composition for different fuels:

100% 100% 100% 100% 50% 85% 50% 70%
PET- COAL GAS HEAVY COKE COKE COKE COKE
COKE FUEL 50% 15% 50% 30%
OIL SSW ANIMAL WASTE CAR
MEAL OIL TYRES
CO2 [%] 28.8 29.4 24.1 28.5 25.8 27.2 25.3 28.1
H2O [%] 5.9 6.2 14.5 10.0 9.4 7.2 8.7 6.6
N2 [%] 61.6 61.0 58.0 58.8 61.2 61.9 62.3 61.5
O2 [%] 3.8 3.4 3.4 2.7 3.6 3.7 3.7 3.7
4 stage preheater, optimized conditions, Oxygen kiln adjusted to fuel, fuel analysis from table above, fuel
mix in % of heat input.
6. Flame Theory
6.1. Definition
• The oxidation reaction is an exothermic reaction, which can be developed either slowly or quickly:
The fast reaction leads to the flame.
6.2. Flame Speed

• In stable burner flames, the flame front appears to be stationary because the flame is moving
toward the burner at the same speed that the fuel air mixture is coming out of the burner.
• Thus risk of blow off if mixture speed>flame speed.
• Natural gas flame speed in air: 0.3m/s and in Oxygen: 4 to 5m/s.
6.3. Flame Radiation

R = σ ε T4 ε: flame intensity:
σ = Boltsman constant ≈ 1 solid fuel
T = Flame temperature ≈ 0.8 – 0.95 heavy oil
≈ 0.25 – 0.70 gas
6.4. Factors Influencing the Flame Temperature

(net heat value of the fuel ) − (effect of dissociation)
• T=
( weight of comb product ) * ( specific heat of comb prodct )
• An increase of flame temperature can be obtained by:
Increasing combustion air temperature (ex: air temp: (80, 245, 470 C) gives flame temp
(1918, 1985, 2080 C)
Decrease primary air, increase secondary air
Decreasing inerts:
⇒ Avoid high excess air
⇒ O2 enrichment (ex: % O2 (21, 25, 29) gives flame temp (1995, 2135, 2274 C) in case of
coal, air preheated at 250 C)
Completeness of combustion (full low heat value to be obtained):
⇒ Optimum excess air – minimize CO without too much excess air
⇒ High rate of mixing fuel and combustion air
⇒ Optimum bed depth and kiln speed – clinkering is exothermic – adds heat to flame
• Shorten flame length
• Water vapor in the flame decreases the flame temperature.
Fuel Requirements
• To provide 1055 MJ of available heat (fuel is CH4 and excess air=2%) then for instance with air
(21% O2) it requires 4.6/2.3=2 times as much fuel when preheat temp=245C as when preheat is
800C when flue gas temperature is 1635C
7. Burner Pipes
7.1. Number of Air Circuits

For solid fuels, the number of air circuits determines the degree of control on the flame
shape.
Single Circuit Burner Pipe
Minimal control or very long lag times (sluggish control)
The solid fuel has to be carried with the air.
High velocities: Higher fan pressure requirement, higher wear in the circuit.
Required burner tip velocity is of the order of 80 m/s. Use monotube burner calculation
spread sheet for more precise estimation.
Two-circuit Burner
Swirl + high velocity transport air.
Additional control due to swirl but the problems of high pressure fan and high wear rate
remain.
Not common on kiln burners but gaining popularity for calciner burners (e.g. SPLC)
Three-circuit Burner
(swirl + high velocity axial + low velocity transport air).
The most versatile one. The solid fuel does not have to be brought at a high velocity.
Modern designs usually feature a bluff body.
Well designed burner gives good flame control flexibility

Lafarge burner is the preferred type for petcoke and high AF rates, other burner types like
Unitherm show good results as well.
7.2. Primary Air

Indirect System
The primary air is usually controlled at below 12 % of the total combustion air. Figures above
12% might be necessary in case of high alternative fuel transport air.
Direct system
No recirculation of mill exit air, the primary air can be as high as 30 to 40 % of total
combustion air. All of the air exiting the mill system enters the pyro-process.
Semi-direct system
Primary air quantity varies (usually 18 to 25 %), depending upon the incoming fuel moisture.
To keep a constant flow (10 to 15 % of total combustion air), it is possible to send the
"overflow" to the kiln hood (for the direct or semi-direct system).
Primary air impact on heat consumption
Indirect Semi-direct Direct

Primary air 8-12% 20-25% 30-35%
kJ/kg 50-90 160-200 230-280
7.3. Lafarge Burner Operation and Design Basics
Example of Lafarge Burner Tip

air gun
axial air holes

rotational circuit
2 expansion seals
coal conveying
circuit
central air
(flame catcher)
Bluff Body (center part)

• Recommended minimum: 200 mm diameter
• Go larger (300mm and more) if more space needed for AF lines – without violating the diameter
rule below
WARNING: other factors might cause “rule of thumb” values not to work. The main ones are kiln
geometry and the amount of kiln draft (determined by kiln inlet O2). To determine optimum “Is” for a
given kiln use MAP/MAS calculation and finally feedback from operation and quality parameter.
6.3.4 Swirl or Radial
• Affects flame diameter and partly flame length
• Used to optimize sulfur retention in clinker – but when improperly used can risk brick life rapidly
Where:
Rotational moment / axial moment ratio
Vry Rot. circ. velocity: Vr
- I θr = I xr t g α
- θ : tangential impulsion
I
Vrx
Iθ r r g - I xr : rotational circuit axial impulsion

rg SW = - α : swirl angle (usually between 20 and 35
I x . De degree: smaller for long dry kiln)
where: I θ r = Qmr . Vry • The gyration radius defines, on the basis of the
Ix = Σ Ix respective radius of the rotational circuit at the
i i
burner pipe tip.
- rg = 2/3 (re3 – ri3) / (re2 – ri2)
- re = external radius
- ri = internal radius
• The equivalent diameter of the flow is where:

given by: - Qm = The total mass flowrate of the air
injected
2Qm
De =
Πρ mΙχ
Ιχ - ρ m = The average specific gravity of the air
- Ιχ = The total axial impulse
Operation Basic Rules of thumb

Swirl Long Kilns Short Kilns
Fuel, coal, coke, AF 0,02 to 0.08 0,08 to 0.15
• Up to 0,2 can give good results with high S petcoke or high AF rates.
• However experience suggests that the higher the thermal load or SHC, the lower the kiln’s ability
to accept strong swirl. Or higher the SHC, requires less aggressive swirl angle (minimize risk to
brick).
• Flame shape (touching the bricks) might require swirl < 0,1 even in short kilns.
• Swirl # potential increases with increasing swirl angle. Suggested angles:

Short kilns: 30° to 35°
Long dry kilns: 20° to 25°
Long wet kilns: 15° to 20°
• Swirl MUST rotate in same direction as kiln rotation (opposite endangers brick or makes for very
sensitive swirl control)
6.3.5 Transport (coal/coke fuels)

• Tip speed:
o > 40 m/s: causes very long flame – even strong impulse may not shorten flame
o > 35 m/s: causes long flames, high operating backpressures
o 25-35 m/s: recommended
o < 25 m/s: not recommended – leads to poor fuel distribution in channel, skews
flames
• Coal channel annulus must be centred and symmetrical – otherwise flame may skew. Spacers
are critical. Suggested tolerance: channel width one side vs. channel width on opposite side must
vary < 15%
• Velocities must be steady – no pulsing. Pulsing can be detected by transport line pressure cycling
and cycling frequency should match O2 signal cycling (use variogram to prove it)
• Fuel density in transport line 3-5 kg/Nm3, up to 7 kg/Nm3 possible
6.3.6 Miscellaneous
Natural Gas Nozzles
• Generally design system such that gas does not reach sonic velocities (mach 1 occurs at lower
velocities for natural gas vs. air). If gas speeds are = mach 1, can’t control flame. (Also causes
high pitched loud noise).
Exception: The special designed Lafarge high impulse 100% gas burner is operating supersonic.
• For a given nozzle design, find a back pressure that correlates with a good gas flame. Hold to this
back pressure (approx.) as fuel rate changes by adjusting nozzle opening (where adjustment is
available)
Liquid fuel injection: use of injectors :

• MY type: 40 bars: when operation is stable.
• ZV2 (assisted pulverization): between 2 and 20 bars: when wide range of flow variation.
MAP/MAS
Developed originally for AT precalciners where draft through the kiln can strongly stretch the flame.
Caution: MAP/MAS is a calculated estimate – so ideal target value is kiln specific.
MAP = momentum air primary
MAS = momentum air secondary
Lafarge Burner Tool carries calculation requiring input of secondary air amount and temperature from a
heat balance.
Operation rule of thumb for coke flames (or low VM fuels and/or high S fuels) in short kilns
• MAP/MAS ~ 2.0-2.1 suggested target – works in most applications – good starting point if
uncertain. Has yielded good flame control, good sulfur retention in clinker, improved Alites
• MAP/MAS > 2.3 may be necessary, but take care, flame might be too short causing brick damage
– watch shell scanner closely).
• MAP/MAS < 1.5 very lazy long flames
From experience and observations (LNA)

• MAP/MAS 1.7-1.9 may be better suited for long wet kilns or kilns with high thermal loads (e.g.
production of oilwell clinker)
• MAP/MAS 1.5-1.8 may be better suited for very easy burning fuels (e.g. very high %VM coal) or
where a mix of fuels is used where one component is extremely easy to burn (e.g. fuel oil and
coal)
7.4. Burner Alignment

• Strongly recommended starting point for modern high impulse 3 circuit burner:
Burner axis should lie on the axis of the kiln (in centre of the kiln and parallel to
kiln slope)
Use laser alignment method
Flames from high impulse burner can be sharp and short. Misalignment can drive
flame into brick or material load.
Final alignment setting depends if flame needs to be centred (real objective) – e.g.
fuel channel can have a slight skew – compensate with burner alignment to keep flame
centred
Remark: Direct fired burners (most mono tube burners) do not have sufficient impulse –
therefore flame is always lazier. Such burners cannot be aligned on the kiln centreline.
Goal is to centre the flame.
Burner position inside kiln:
Design: Should at least allow flexibility to position -20cm flush to the kiln (cold) to 70 cm
inside.
Operation: Generally recommended: 0-10 cm inside the kiln
If severe snowman formation or increased thermal stress at lower transition brick -
defensive measure is to insert burner tip deeper into the kiln.
Refer to ‘How to Align Burner’
8. Combustion Success Criteria

When the indicators below are met simultaneously, good combustion is achieved. For some parameters
it will be impossible to reach with alternative fuel (example kiln inlet CO in case of whole tyre firing), still
the values below remain the reference for good combustion.
The indicators are divided in 3 categories:

+ Combustion Quality
+ Combustion Stability
+ Plant Specific
9. Fuel Grinding and Dosing

9.1. Solid Fuel Grindability
• The Hardgrove Grindability Index (HGI) indicates the ease of grinding solid fuel.
It is the % passing 74μ after grinding for predetermined amount of time
• Range for coal: 45 to 70 HGI Range for coke: 30 to 50 HGI
• HGImix = x * HGI coal + y * HGI coke.
Bowl Mill (Raymond) Capacity

100
80
Fuel Grindability (Hardgrove)
60
Passing 75um (#200)

40
90% Raymond
85% Raymond
80% Raymond
75% Raymond
20
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
Mill Capacity Factor
0.10 mill capacity factor for 5 HGI
9.2. Solid Fuel Fineness

(see also Les Cahiers Techniques Combustion and How To burn petcoke)
General guideline for fineness – minimum expectation. For other process reasons it may necessary to
grind finer but also increases safety risk.
% R at 90μ = 0.5 x VM for the main burner, and % R at 200μ = 0.05 x VM
For calciner with low residence time need to grind finer (up to %R at 45μ = 0.5 x VM)
Rules of thumb
• 5% more passing at 74μ yields to 15-20% less mill capacity.
• Addition of HES: 5% production increase at constant fineness.
Relationship: Burning Time & Particle Size

10
Burning Time (seconds)

Combustion Temp.
= 900°C
Combustion Temp.
= 1500°C
.1
.01 .1 1
Diameter of coal particle (mm)
9.3. Dosing
• Dosing should insure a regular and steady feeding of the burner. Measurement precision of +/-
0.5% obtainable with Pfister or Schenck Coriolis. Coal concentration 3-5 kg/Nm3 of transport air.
Good dosing (control) means good combustion stability. Good combustion stability is
characterized as follows (from Technical Agenda Fuel Flexibility):
9.4. Safety Considerations

• Safety practices should be implemented and maintained by Process department
• Raw solid fuel storage recommendations
4 months if VM<15% (anthracite coals and petcoke)
2-3 months if 15%<VM<25%
1-2 months if 25%<VM<36%
1-4 weeks if VM>36%
Recommendations (refer to Coal Grinding Safety Technical Agenda for details):
Measurement Low Risk High Risk Comments

Location Limit Limit
Storage Pile External 55 C 50 C
Raw Silo (lower cone) 55 C 50 C
Raw Silo (top) CO 1500 ppm 1000 ppm
Mill Inlet Temp 250-275 C 220 C Can be +/- 5 C of these limits
Mill Inlet O2 13-15 % 9-11 % German Lignite much higher risk
Mill Inlet CO 500 ppm 500 ppm Above normal operating point (from PH tower)
Mill Outlet Temp 90-100 C 80 C Can be +/- 5 C of these limits – according to res.
%H2O
Filter Differential Temp 5C 5C HIHI 10 C – determine if outlet temp > inlet
temp
Filter Outlet O2 13-15 % 9-11 % May need to add air inleakage
Filter Outlet CO 500 ppm 500 ppm Above normal operating point
Filter hopper Temp 90-100 C 80 C As per requires residual %H2O in ground fuel
PF bin (top) Temp 90 C 80 C
PF bin (cone) Temp 90 C 80 C
PF bin CO 1500 ppm 1000 ppm Also 50 ppm/min rate of rise maximum
Note: High risk fuel and/or operation are defined by volatiles >36% air dry basis or over grinding of medium volatile
fuels to less than 50% VM retained on 90μ
9.5. Fuel Grinding Mills

• Feed size: 0-50mm, moisture content: 10-15%, exhaust gases dust load: 500-600g/m3.
• Hot gases temperature 250-400C, dew point: 20-70C, exhaust gases temperature: 80-100C.
• Moisture content in the blasted fuel below 1%.
Type of grinder Hammer mill Tube mill Roller mill Ring ball mill
(Babcock)
Power Consumption 20-30 25-30 10-13
kWh/t
Lifetime wear part hours 500-1000 25000-40000 3000-5000 9000-12000
(Liners)
Drying capacity % H2O 0-15 0-15 0-20
Rules of thumb:
• Mill sweep : 1.7 to 2.2 Nm3/kg fuel
• Drying efficiency : average 1200kcal/kgH2O for a residual moisture of 0.5 to 1.5%
10. References
Cement Portal
• How to Align a burner
• How to start up & optimize a burner
• Lafarge Burner calculation Tool
• How to burn petcoke
• Technical Agenda Study Coal Shop Safety
• Combustion Manual (post Sevilla 1997)
My notes:
CHAPTER 2-2 – ALTERNATIVE FUELS
1. Alternative Fuel Categories

Name (CKHC) Common names Comments & BRS code Definition
Liquids containing one droplet of Spent co-products of petrochemical refinery, originally

LCS Solvents, Recycled Liquid Fuel
solvent as it requires similar commercialized to dissolve or extract impurities from chemicals.
(Liquids (RLF); Fuel Quality Waste (FQW),
equipment (safety issue due to low Used liquids are collected for regeneration, re-use or disposal.
Containing Combustibles Liquides de
flash point) LCS are residues from 2nd and 3rd life cycles of fresh solvents.
Solvents Substitution (CLS); G3000 (Lafarge
Paint industy, chemical & pharmeceutical, adhesives or rubber
Low flash point) Ciments France)
BRS - CR119X, CR130X, AR627X manufacturers, metalworking and cleaning services.
Unique waste market context. Often

Includes:
classified as haz waste (like solvents)
- black oils from the evacuation of thermal engines;
L Used Oil but with separate, less restrictive
Spent oils - light oils from gear boxes;
i regulations for energy recovery.
- oils used for the lubrication of cutting instruments.
q
Pure vegetal oil are reported under "Biomass ".
u CR118X, CR129X, AR626X
i
d No net recovered heat value so
s Liquids with very low or no calorific value. Includes effluents
different category from other liquids.
Waste water G2000 (Lafarge Ciments France) from industrial processes, and liquid from waste water treatment
plants.
CR157X, CR136X, AR637X
Liquid wastes, not classified as "LCS (solvents)" , "used oils"

Category to report all the rest of
nor "wastewater" . Petroleum refineries and petrol stations
Other pumpable liquids that are not reported in the
wastes (e.g. hydrocarbon sludge; refuse from hydrocarbons
Materials (High Other Liquid Alternative Fuels other 4 liquid categories.
storage; sludge from API settling tanks; emulsions); sludge from
flash point)
ultra-filtration of cutting products; kormul; cosmetics industry
(waste, spoiled products, paints); lithographic industry ink, etc.
Unique waste market context

(market, regulations) Used tyres (whole tyres, shreds or chips); rejects from the tyres
Tyres Tires
production; deformed tyres; off-spec. tyres.
SRF (Solid Recovered Fuel), ASF

Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) or CDR
(Alternative Solid Fuel), PDF Non-hazardous shredded industrial and commerical waste.
(Italy) sometimes used to indicate
(Plastic Derived Fuel), DIB /DSB Includes plastics, paper, cardboard, synthetic textiles,
(SSW) origin is treated muncipal solid waste
(Déchets Industriel /Solid Banal), construction and demolition waste (C&D), etc... Also sorted,
Solid Shredded (MSW) but no accepted naming
ASB or Fluff (Germany, Austria), dried or otherwise pretreated fraction of the household wasteor
Waste convention in literature.
PASr (Poland), ASR (Automobile MSW (muncipal solid waste). Often has significant biomass
shredder residue), RBA (Residue de content for CO2 credits
S Broyage Automobile)
o
l Processed solid hazardous fuel - a blend of "difficult-to-handle"
All other pre-treatment than the ones
(ISF) Impregnated sawdust, Resofuel, waste and absorbents. Typical input comprises pasty residues
i used for liquid or shredding/sorting
Impregnated Solid Combustibles Solides de with difficult properties (paint sludge, glue, grease, ...) and
d
Fuel Substitution (CSS), PASi (Poland). heterogeous solids (resins...) with a "carrier" solid (e.g. saw-
s CR124X, CR135X, AR632X
dust)
Tar and other solid chemicals which This category regroups all solid wastes that are not classified as
Other non do not fit into other categories "Tyres" , "Impregnated Solid fuel" , "Energetic ARM" nor as
Other solid alternative fuels
pumpable solid "Shredded Solid Waste" . An example is the TDI tar, a residue
CR125X, CR144X, AR634X whose origin is the isocyanate toluenes manufacturing process.
Category to report on the energy

If the calorific value is >12 GJ/T, not an eARM - must reported
used by the kiln from an ARM.
in another AF category. ARM whose calorific value contributes
Therefore, only the calorific
Energetic ARM eARM, Other hydrocarbons / Fossils to the plant's AF substitution. Only total calorific input (%GJ)
contribution (%) will be reported.
reported in this category, volume and gate-fee are reported
under appropriate ARM category.
CR120X
Meat and bone meal, blood meal, feather meal, poultry meal,
Animal meal MBM (Meat and Bone Meal) CR115X, CR126X, AR623X bone meal and fish meal. Animal fat is classified as Biomass
and not as Animal Meal.
All solid residues with calorific value
B Solids removed at (municipal) wastewater treatment plants
(PSR) from the Waste Water treatment
i Sewage sludge, Processed Sewage (WWTP). Final quality depends on the nature of the wastewater
Processed process.
o Pellets (PSP) and the process. It can be used in cement kilns in the form of
Sewage Residue
m sludge, filter cakes, dried material or pellets.
a
s All wastes of organic matter - husks from agricultural products
s Other 100% carbon neutral fuel. (sunflower, rice, palm tree), vegetal oils (lipix), wood wastes,
Biomass Other biomass animal fat, mycellium, moinha, spoiled seeds (with or without
CR117X, CR128X, AR625X pesticides), and natural textiles. All the waste of this category
have to be 100% carbon neutral.
© Copyright 2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved. ALTERNATIVE FUELS – Page 3/20
2-2. Alternative Fuels
Table of Contents
1. Alternative Fuel Categories........................................................................3

2. Alternative Fuels and Industrial Performance..........................................4
2.1 Lafarge Performance...................................................................................... 4
2.2 AF Performance Outside Lafarge................................................................... 4
3. AF Potential for Preheater and Precalciner Kilns ....................................5

3.1 Challenges of AF properties: .......................................................................... 5
3.2 Achieving High AF Firing Rates...................................................................... 6
4. Liquid AF......................................................................................................7
5. Sludges ........................................................................................................9
6. Solids including Biomass.........................................................................10
6.1 Tyres ............................................................................................................. 10
6.2 Solid Shredded Waste .................................................................................. 13
6.3 Biomass ........................................................................................................ 17
7. Solid AF Main Burner Firing.....................................................................18

8. Reference AF Documents.........................................................................19
2. Alternative Fuels and Industrial Performance
2.1 Lafarge Performance
Kiln Performance with >25%AF (CKHC 2009)

%
%
% LCS % Other % PSR % %
%AF % used Other % tyres %
Solvent wastew % SSW % ISF non % MBM (sewag biomas % coal % coke oil /
2009 oils pumpa eARM
s ater pumpa e) s HVF*
ble
ble
FREDONIA 93.5 93.5 2.8 2.9
PAULDING 87.8 86.7 1.2 11.5
RETZNEI 77.0 4.7 14.6 0.2 21.4 23.5 0.6 11.6 0.4 22.2 0.8
KARSDORF 67.8 19.6 15.0 8.6 24.6 32.0 0.0
CIZKOVICE 65.0 12.6 0.1 13.3 17.1 14.1 5.3 2.5 29.1 0.0 5.1
PLN 62.3 17.5 36.7 8.1 36.0 1.7
MEDGIDIA 48.9 0.6 0.0 3.9 10.3 1.1 32.2 0.9 50.7
FRANGEY 47.0 22.2 0.3 3.7 2.3 15.8 0.7 1.9 42.6 10.4
LE TEIL (White) 46.3 45.2 1.1 25.9 4.4/ 21.3*
MALOGOSZCZ 46.1 0.0 1.3 11.5 21.4 9.5 0.1 2.4 53.1 0.6 0.3
HOGHIZ 45.5 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.8 7.0 6.2 30.7 0.5 54.1
MANNERSDORF 41.3 0.4 0.1 37.6 0.4 2.9 54.8 3.2 0.6
CAULDON 40.2 30.8 1.7 7.7 53.0 6.3 0.5
WHITEHALL 38.2 27.9 10.3 0.0 42.0 15.2 4.7
WOESSINGEN 38.1 1.4 35.9 0.8 58.6 2.6
VDZ 37.7 5.8 0.3 3.6 6.1 8.4 13.5 48.4 12.0*
HARLEYVILLE 37.2 2.7 8.8 22.8 2.9 61.4 0.0 0.0
ARCOS Carriere 35.5 18.0 6.0 11.5 64.5 0.1
SUGAR CREEK 34.7 17.5 17.1 28.7 35.0
KUJAWY 33.3 3.8 16.8 12.4 0.1 0.2 42.5 23.9 0.3
SPLC 33.0 0.5 10.0 4.9 0.0 17.6 65.3 1.7
LA MALLE 33.0 14.1 0.9 6.2 7.0 4.8 63.2 2.3*
SOETENICH 31.9 0.0 1.1 26.9 3.9 60.1 0.0 8.0
DUNBAR 31.2 8.6 22.6 67.7 0.0 1.1
LE HAVRE 29.8 1.7 0.5 4.0 2.8 2.3 18.1 0.4 0.8 62.9 6.6
BULACAN 29.5 1.3 0.0 28.1 59.1* 11.4 0.1
SAGUNTO (Grey) 27.6 5.9 14.9 0.4 2.8 3.6 71.5 0.9
TULSA 25.9 16.0 3.6 6.4 50.4 19.9
2.2 AF Performance Outside Lafarge

• German cement industry average 1 (2006-08): +50%AF, (2009): 58%
o SSW (industrial+commercial) 53%, tyres 9%, sewage sludge 9%, MBM 8%, municipal 8%,
oil sludge 6%, solvents 4%, waste oil 3%
• Heidelberg ENCI Maastricht – 98%AF
o Long dry kiln, 2 stage preheater, no mid-kiln firing
o RDF, biomass, textiles, sewage sludge, MBM – all non-haz except glycol-bottoms
• Heidelberg Gorazdze (Poland) – annual 50%, sustained 83%AF
o 47% Precal (SRF, whole tyres), 36% Main (SRF)
o 6000 TPD, FLS 4-stage PH, Modified with Technip-CLE Minox RSP, bypass
• Heidelberg Beckum (Germany) – 75% AF
o Main burner : 12,5 T/Hr SSW ◊ 55% + 5% MBM, Back-end : 15% Whole tyres
o 1MTpa, PH 4 stages, bypass Cl 4%.
• PMT Wietersdorf (Austria) – 74%AF
o 50% Precal (SRF, MBM), 24% Main (SRF, PSP)
o 1770 TPD, ATEC tower, precal, bypass
• Holcim Lagerdorf (Germany) – 70%AF
o Distillation residues, MBM, RDF (high Cv, low Cv, roof felt), 100%AF in precal achieved
1
Source VDZ reports
o 4500 TPD, 3-stage, 2 string PH with inline Prepol MSC precal, Modified precal, bypass
• Dyckerhoff Lengerich (Germany) – 51%AF
o 34% Precal (MBM), 17% Main burner (MBM, SRF, RLF)
o 3700 TPD, 2 string 6-stage PH with FLS-ILC, bypass
3. AF Potential for Preheater and Precalciner Kilns

General
The quality of alternative fuels differ significantly, depending on type, origin and preparation. When using
AF with high heat value, small particle size and low Chlorine we could reach 100% AF rate in most of our
kilns, but high quality AF are becoming increasing more difficult to source or have a fuel cost similar to
fossil fuels.
3.1 Challenges of AF properties:
1) Low Heat Value Fuels:

Calciner or Preheater Back End Firing is less sensitive to low heat value fuels. In an optimised
calciner a heat value of the fuel mix down to 15000 kJ/kg (LHV as fired) can be managed, in the
back end down to 13000 kJ/kg (LHV as fired).
The main burner requires higher heat value to maintain a stable sintering zone, in an optimised
kiln firing a fuel mix down to 21000 kJ/kg (LHV as fired) can be managed.
2) Particle Size:
a) Whole tyres:
Up to 30% of total heat in an optimised preheater back end, up to 7% of total heat in a calciner
kiln (higher rates would require specific equipment like a hot disc).
b) Shredded Tyres / SSW / Biomass
Successful firing of shredded AF requires a shred size compatible with the gas velocities in the
precalciner / riser. Whilst the gas velocity at the shred injection point can be increased to
minimise the fall through to the kiln inlet, the main riser / precalciner gas velocity is a
characteristic of the plant design.
Shredded AF is more easier to burn in a vessel calciner than in a riser duct design due to the
inherently lower gas velocity and hence longer fuel residence time. However, separate line
calciners can be difficult since any fuel / ash drop out will tend to block the tertiary air duct. Firing
of shredded fuels should be made into a rising gas stream, i.e. avoid firing into downdraft
precalciner / hot spot due to drop out into the kiln inlet.
Although in general precalciner gas residence time of greater then 2-3 seconds has little effect on
the combustion of shredded fuels, a higher residence time will help to achieve NOx reduction and
burnout of CO.
c) SSW for Main Burner
A manageable size at the main burner for SSW: 95% < 30x30x2mm ;
(<25x25x1 can boost the AF rate at the main burner above typical figures as shown in the table
below ; <20x20x1 is not giving added value to agglomeration of the foils)
3) High Chlorine Fuels:

A total Chlorine input (raw mix and fuel) of 250 g/t up to 350 g/t cli can normally be managed
without a bypass. The reachable Chlorine input without bypass is plant specific, depending upon
the mastery of the process, preheater cleaning, kiln type, raw mix burnability, preheater design
and clinker granulometry. An important parameter is the Sulphur level, high Sulphur in addition to
Chlorine is critical for build up formation and reduces the manageable Chlorine input.
Chlorine input above the plant specific limit can only be managed with a bypass – the possible
Chlorine input then depends on bypass size and related dust management.
4) Other Impurities
Ash coming with AF might become a limiting factor for use. Example is Phosphorus in animal
meal. The Phosphorus in clinker typically should not exceed 0.5% due to cement quality reasons
(loss of workability and early strength). Even harmless ash like iron in tyres might become a
limiting factor in specific cases or tyre feeding interruption can become critical for clinker quality.
Compatibility of high ash AF with raw mix and clinker quality / regularity needs to be checked for
the specific case.
5) AF with high fluctuation:

Fluctuation in AF quality (mainly heat value) can be better managed in a calciner where
automatic temperature control gives a direct response and allows correction by a more stable
fuel. Fluctuation of other properties such as size or chlorine level can be very problematic to
manage.
AF used at the main burner needs to be more consistent in its properties.
3.2 Achieving High AF Firing Rates
1) Preconditions
Æ AF Permit and well mastered stakeholder relationship
Æ Well mastered plant (optimised operation, well maintained instrumentation, good process
follow up,...) and reasonable equipment (grate cooler with fixed inlet,…).
Æ Build up control on high level (meal curtain, small design improvements done, air canon
arrangement optimised, tools like Cardox and multi port air canons in place, systematic
optimisation of cleaning procedures in place, ...)
Æ Kiln Oxygen maintained on target (might limit kiln output)
Æ Well Mastered Fuel Introduction (stable and reliable fuel dosing, optimised position, good
management of fuel interruptions, ...)
Æ High level control of quality and operation parameters (hot meal monitoring, FeO clinker,
Rietveld,...)
Æ Reasonable AF market, AF input control and management of supplies
Æ High momentum kiln burner with proper jacket tube design
Æ Emissions controlled and limits kept (NOx, CO, Hg, ...)

Remark: Several of these preconditions have a time factor and need plant specific optimisation;
going to maximum AF rates for a kiln system needs a step approach of 2 – 3 years.
2) Levers to boost AF Usage

Low investment but increased operating cost:
Æ Injection of Oxygen at the main burner (KAR example).
Æ Injection of air in the kiln back end static part (Preheater kiln only, MAL and SAG example).
These options should be only used when the AF firing is already optimised. Air injection in a non
optimised system (Oxygen not on target, fuel poorly distributed, ...) might still increase AF but
with higher costs compared to optimising.
Significant investment:
Æ Better AF preparation – on site or via supplier (finer shredding, sorting facility to reduce
Chlorine, drying facility for AF, homogenisation of AF,...).
Æ Installation or upgrade of a bypass.
Æ Enlargement of calciner or kiln riser to increase residence time.
Æ Upgrade of burner or fuel dosing system.
Æ Investment in emission reduction (SNCR, SCR, Hg control by dust management)
Æ “Cadence“ air injection on the kiln rotating part (REI, TUL example).
3) Achievable AF rates (2 years in a well mastered plant) :

All figures in % of total heat
Preheater kiln (75/25 split) Calciner Kiln (40/60 split)
consumption
Main Burner Back End Main Burner Calciner
Small Size SSW or Biomass
20 - 25 8 -10 40 - 50
(<30x30x2 mm)
Medium Size SSW, Biomass or
- 10 - 20 - 20 - 50
Shredded Tyres (<50x50x8mm)
Whole Tyres - 20 - 25 - 5-7
Liquid Fuels 50 - 75 20 - 25 30 - 40 50 - 60
4. Liquid AF
• The most important characteristic for liquid AF is flashpoint, as this defines equipment and system
safety requirements. One “drop” of low F.P. solvent makes used oil a low flashpoint liquid.
• Processing (handling, blending, storage, dosing) and combustion issues and solutions are generally
similar for all types liquid AF, and independent of waste origin (solvents, oils, etc).
• Cv, moisture, %solid, solids size, viscosity and chlorine are key characteristics which indicate
potential process impact
• Characteristics for good liquid AF combustion (Ref: Fuel Flexibility TA)
o Water content < 5-30% +/-5% variation from avg
o Solid content: <45% +/-5% variation from avg, < 5mm
o Viscosity: 150 cps
Example Paulding Waste Fuel Analysis (Fuel blend to kiln) – 194 analysis (2004)
HHV Ash Visc Chlor Solid Sp. Grav Sulfur Water PCB pH Benzene
kJ/kg (%) (cps) (%) (%) (g/ml) (%) K. Fischer ppm (%)
Average 26 231 7.0 68.1 1.4 16.2 0.9 0.3 19.4 N.D. 6.3 0.7
Std 1078 1.10 28.09 0.30 4.99 0.02 0.14 1.96 N.D. 1.23 0.55
Max 29308 8.7 165 2.26 30 0.97 0.7 24 N.D. 9 1.2
Min 23725 3 8 0.69 2 0.86 0.06 12.5 N.D. 4 0.2
Zinc Chromium Barium Lead Cadmium Silver Antimony Thallium Beryllium Arsenic Mercury
ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm
Average N.D. 99.9 N.D. 146.8 6.2 N.D. N.D. N.D. 3.5 7.4 0.9
Std N.D. 101.21 N.D. 78.23 5.79 N.D. N.D. N.D. 2.64 4.49 0.68
Max N.D. 978 N.D. 529 57 N.D. N.D. N.D. 9 23 3.6
Min N.D. 27 N.D. 38 1 N.D. N.D. N.D. 2 2 0.1
• Liquid AF, especially waste solvents often contain high water, which becomes the driver for low heat
value as fired. Waste solvents @ 20%H2O = 25 GJ/T.
• Used oil is generally “cleaner” than waste solvents, as oils are usually regulated for halogens (Cl) and
sulphur content. Waste oils often have special waste legislation consideration and may or may not
be considered hazardous. Gate “cost” now often approaches or exceeds coal.
• Self sustaining flame requires LHV = 13-15 GJ/T. US-EPA (1991) 1 required >11.6 GJ/T (5000 Btu/lb)
to be considered as energy recovery and not as waste disposal.
• Energy can be recovered if combustion gas T of the AF mix exceeds the exit gas T. If AF cannot
reach the required combustion T (precal or main flame) then additional supporting fuel of higher CV
would be required but from a thermodynamic perspective heat could still be recovered
o 70% water + 30% pure solvent can obtain 1350C (main flame T)
o 84% water + 16% solvent could obtain 900C (preheater T)
• Examples Liquid AF Ultimate Analysis
WASTE OIL WASTE SOLVENTS
C [%wet] 74.9 40.0

H [%wet] 11.9 10.4
S [%wet] 0.9 0.2
O [%wet] 12.1 46.2
N [%wet] 0.1 0.1
Cl [%wet] 0.1 0.1
Ash [%wet] 0 3
LHV as fired 36 600 14 600
[kJ/kg]
1
Regulatory definition of energy recovery since changed
Solvents - Reception, Pumping
• Paulding & Fredonia: 80-95% annual substitution with high solids and 30% water content
Unloading: recessed impeller turbine pumps, gear pumps for start ups/highly viscous matter
Unloading station: No filters, only knock-out boxes to protect down stream pumps against large
contaminants (e.g. bolts, stones). Multi-step in-line grinders e.g. PDG – two step (< 8 mm, < 5
mm) ensure all solids or sludge matter is ground for liquid suspension blending. These rotating
shredding knifes are appropriate even for hard foreign bodies (such as pigments, abrasives, small
metal, etc).
Dosing: recommend recessed centrifugal pumps for transfer and dosing. Simple, robust against
any foreign bodies and solvents resistant (no elastic parts directly exposed to the flow media).
Flow-meter: Coriolis
Nozzle for solvents with high solids content
• Inner liquid pipe (up to 550 cSt viscosity) with outer compressed air (30 Bar) with swirl vanes coming
to single outlet (12 mm)
5. Sludges
• Sludge is not a CKHC AF category. Volume may be reported under “High Viscosity Fuel (non-AF)”,
“AF other pumpable material” or “PSR - processed sewage residue”. PSR includes filter cake, dried
and pellets.
• Plants are burning sewage and petroleum sludges, whose viscosity exceed conventional pumps.
• Current equipment recommendation is Putzmeister double plunger pump. Used for concrete and
other sludge applications, these pumps are not subject to normal limitations on particle size or back
pressure (viscosity, line distance or height).
• Injection location for low Cv or eARM is either onto the riser shelf which will carry the material in to
the kiln by the meal return flow into the rotary kiln or higher Cv material is best injected downwards
from the highest point (cases of an inline calciner). A nozzle designed to assist dispersion has been
successfully tested in Medgidia, Romania.
• Sewage sludges have specific health risks that need to be considered for those in the workshops.
6. Solids including Biomass

• Composition of a solid AF depends on the origin of the waste and its pre-treatment. However
combustion behaviour can be defined by a few key characteristics independent of origin: size
distribution, Cv, moisture, ash, volatile content, Cl, 2D/3D, variability). Thus similar characteristics,
similar impacts shredded tyres, construction debris, fluff, impregnated solid residues, biomass, etc
• Backend injection: Objective is to locate injection point to create longest AF particle path in presence
of high available O2; want best compromise between 2D (films, fluff) which can be carried over and
heavy 3D which will drop-out onto riser slope (high CO). See comments on tyre chip burning
o Good backend combustion is a function of particle size/ density, gas velocities and
injection location. Ideal situation is calciner gas velocity of 4-6 m/s (vessel precalciner)
which limits carry-over and 35-40 m/s at riser inlet which will re-entrain solid AF thus create
a condition of semi-suspension or recirculating fuel path.
• See “Guidelines AF Potential” and “AF Firing Main burner, SSW benchmark”
6.1 Tyres
1
Tyre Composition
• Typical Ultimate Analyses
Typical Cauldon, UK North America (CTS)

Car + light truck Car Truck
HHV (dry), GJ/T 26-36 25.3 33.0 31.8
LHV (dry), GJ/T 24-32
LHV - 0.6% moisture 31.4 30.2
LHV - 5.0% moisture 29.9 28.8
% Moisture - AF 0-5% Inside = 0.6%, Outside = 5.0%
Dry Basis
% Ash 18 - 25 % 21.5% 16.8% 20.0%
% Carbon 60 - 70 % 61.0% 73.0% 70.2%
% Hydrogen 5-7% 5.4% 6.7% 6.4%
% Nitrogen 0.3 - 0.5 % 0.4% 0.4% 0.4%
% Sulfur 1-2% 1.0% 1.3% 1.3%
% Oxygen (diff) 3 - 10 % 10.7% 1.6% 1.5%
% Chlorine 0.1 - 0.3 % 0.03% 0.3% 0.3%
Total 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
1
Higher Cv and carbon content is systematically reported in North America than Europe, due to different tyre formulation and more
tread (rubber content) on rejects. “Cauldon” data is multi-sample analysis of tyre chips (Aug 2000). CTS is combined literature and
lab analysis (3 plants, 9 samples). CTS calculated Cv from analysis (CHON + ash) and compared to lab values (+/- 3%). CTS
assumed 4.5% non-wire ash, rest of ash is wire. Wire assumed 99.5% iron.
• Typical Ultimate Analysis of Car Tyres including Ash Analysis (Europe)
CAR TYRES ASH ANALYSIS
C [%dry] 68.0 SiO2 [%] 11.0

H [%dry] 6.0 Al2O3 [%] 1.0
S [%dry] 1.5 Fe2O3 [%] 1.0
O [%dry] 3.0 CaO [%] 3.0
N [%dry] 0.4 MgO [%] 2.0
Cl [%dry] 0.1 K2O [%] 1.0
Ash [%dry] 21.0 Na2O [%] 1.0
LHV dry [kJ/kg] 28 000 Femetallic [%] 80.0
• Trace Analysis - Blic Bruxelles Basel Convention series No. 00/003

Recommended reference for stakeholder communication (general but published by an international
agency)
(Te+Sb+Se+V+Cr+Ni+Hg+As+Pb+Co+Sn) < 0.1% (1000 ppm). Cu <0.1%; Co <0.05%; Pb <50
ppm; Cd <3 ppm; Cr <100 ppm; Ni <200 ppm; PCP, PCP-PCT: Non-Detect (<0.5ppm) by w
• Trace Analysis Measurements (Cauldon, Rugby Cement 1 )
µg/g, ppm (dry basis)

Cauldon, UK Rugby, UK
Cr 19.5 53
As 1.7 8
Be 0.8
Cd 0.2 3
Co 70.7 24
Cu 298.4 100
Mn 801.9 145
Ni 31.1 9
Pb 20.8 48
Sb 3.0
Se 0.7
Tl 0.3 42
V 1.6 8
Zn 11308 15000
Sn 6.6 <1
Hg 0.1 <1
1
Jones H., Holland M., Buckley-Golder D. (2001). Environmental Health Impact Assessment - Rugby Cement, Tyre Burning
Proposal. A report produced for Rugby Borough Council. 39p.
• “Carbon Neutral” or biomass content resulting from natural rubber content:

26.7% - Italy 2007, avg of 9 analysis (CEN/TS 15440)
Agreements with European Agencies (2007-09): 26% (AUS), 27% (RO, GER), 32%(CZ, PL)
France: 13% for passenger tyres, 26% for truck tyres. Average value = 14.6% used, based on
historic waste tyre stream of 88% passenger and 12% truck tyres from study (2007) for ADEM
(French Environmental Ministry)
• Impact of Tyres on Clinker Iron content

25% tyre substitution will raise iron content of clinker by +0.5-0.7%
• Tyre weight of mixture of passenger & light truck tyre:

8.0 kg (Range: 5 - 16 kg), Weigh test of car + light truck tyres by St. Constant
9.1 kg, Standard reference used in USA from “TNRCC report”
General Comments Tyre Firing
• Tyre chips: objective of the injection point is the longest path in oxygen. Gas velocity, oxygen and T
profile of most risers and calciner is highly segregated. A 3-5m acceleration zone of 38-45 m/s will
arrest the terminal velocity of a 50x50mm chip, thus burning the majority of the chips in semi-
suspended circulation with the upwards rising gas stream becomes possible. At lower gas speed,
the most chips will fall onto the riser slope and create high CO and build-ups. Higher velocity will
carry chips to the cyclone and increase carbon in hot meal sample (build-up risk in cyclone!)
o Size & quality - 50mm clean-cut (max 10mm protruding wire) tyre to prevents “bird-nests”.
Chips of 70, 100-200, even 300mm tyre chips used but at significantly lower rates and
elevated CO, build-up issues.
• Whole tyre: objective is to roll tyre into rotary kiln towards high BZ temperature, not to fall and burn
on kiln slope which creates higher CO and related build-up issues
o tyre chute should be aligned with axis of the kiln adjacent to meal pipe,
o AS-PC and short L/D kilns will have lower max whole substitution rate than AT-PC or PH
which have higher SHC, higher inlet O2, and longer BZ residence time
o High substitution rates (25-30%) on PH kiln generally also create high tower outlet CO
• Tyre Substitution rates – Kiln process, whole vs. Chips (ref – Tyre Synthesis 2007)
%Tyres Short-term Total
Type Plant Country TDF type Injection point
(usual) %max %AF
13%
KLWT WESTBURY UK whole car tyres Mid-kiln (gate at 40%) 20% 6.7
MYKOLAIEV Ukrain whole - small & medium Mid-kiln (gate at 37%)
KGSW NORTHFLEET UK whole Mid-kiln (38% position) 18% (test)
JOPPA USA whole Mid-kiln + MAFs 12% 20% 16.5
ST CONSTANT Canada whole Mid-kiln + MAF on K1 17% 20% 27.2
KLDR
TULSA USA whole, car & truck Mid-kiln (36% position) 13% 20% 12.4
ATLANTA USA whole Mid-kiln (37% position) 12% 28%
Lepol LA MALLE France whole (car tyres only) Lepol grate 7% 15% 37.8
HOGHIZ Romania whole/shreds Kiln inlet 5% 6.0
MALOGOSZCZ Poland whole Kiln inlet / riser 20% 20% 30.8
RETZNEI Austria whole (car & truck) Kiln inlet + MAFs 24% 26% 60.0
KSPH
WHITEHALL USA whole (car & truck) Kiln inlet + MAFs 25% 30% 22.4
KARSDORF Germany whole (car & truck) Kiln inlet 6% 6%
TULA Mexico whole (car & truck) kiln inlet 10% 9 - 10%
KPAT OCUMARE Venezuela whole Kiln inlet / riser 4 - 8% 19% 7.1
CIZKOVICE Czech R whole (car & truck) Kiln inlet 16% 56.1
HARLEYVILLE USA whole (& chips in past) Kiln inlet/calciner 8% 12% 18.9
KPAS KUJAWY Poland whole (car only) Kiln inlet 4% 7% 1.6
BATANGAS Philippines whole car Kiln inlet / riser 2% 5% 15.0
ROBERTA USA whole ( car, truck) kiln inlet 3-4% 3.5
Shreds or Chips
PESCARA Italy shreds (200 mm) Lepol grate 8% 20% 33.8
Lepol VDZ France shreds (70 - 100 mm) Lepol grate 3% 7% 42.6
WOESSINGEN Germany shreds (200 mm) Lepol grate 19% 25% 38.4
KANDA Japan shreds (300 mm) Kiln inlet / riser <1% 5% 10.2
KPAS LE HAVRE France shreds (200 mm) Kiln inlet 5% 29.2
MEKNES kiln 2 Morocco shreds (50-300 mm) Kiln inlet / riser 25% 30%
shreds (100-200 mm + SSW
ARCOS Quarry Brazil Kiln inlet 18% 32.7
blend)
KPAT HOPE UK chips (50 mm) Riser 14% 20% 13.9
LA COURONNE France shreds (50-100 mm) Riser <1% 5% 8.3
BOUSKOURA K2 Morocco shreds (50-300 mm) Riser / kiln inlet 16% 16%
BOUSKOURA K1 Morocco shreds (50-300 mm) RSP, mixing chamber 8 - 10% 20% 4.2
CANTAGALO Brazil chips (40-50 mm + SSW Vessel calciner 7% 25% 21.7
CAULDON UK chips (35-50 mm) Vessel calciner (2 pts) 30% 55% 39.8
DUNBAR UK chips (50-75 mm) Gooseneck calciner 12% 28% 33.1
MATOZINHOS Brazil chips (SSW blend) Vessel calciner 12% 25% 52.6
KPAS
MEDGIDIA Romania shreds Vessel calciner 2% 5% 5.3
MEKNES kiln 1 Morocco shreds (50-300 mm) RSP, mixing chamber 12% 15% 11.5
OKKE S. Korea shreds Kiln inlet 3-7% 8% 4.3
LANGKAWI Malaysia shreds (80 x 80 mm) Calciner 8% 16%
SPLC France chips (20-30 mm) Off-line calciner 8 - 9% 15%
6.2 Solid Shredded Waste

• SSW by CKHC classification includes all non-hazardous shredded industrial, commercial or
municipal solid waste
o There is no accepted industry definition for common terms like SRF, RDF, ASB, DSB, etc
o See SSW Synthesis for description of different solid waste sources for SSW
o Characteristics (Cv, chlorine, ash, moisture, etc) are strongly dependent on the origin and
pre-treatment. Similar combustion behaviour with other solid wastes - impregnated solid
residues, biomass, etc. but can require different handling solutions.
o SSW has potential for carbon-neutral biomass (CO2) credits due to cellulose or natural
rubber content, amount depends on origin
7. Solid AF Main Burner Firing

• Also see SSW Performance Benchmark table
• Experience indicates substitution rate limitation for main burner solid AF at the main burner is
localized reducing conditions (impact on clinker microscopy) from high density 3D particles (e.g.
foams or porous particles not issue). Also see benchmark table
o max 30% solid AF (SSW+MBM+ISF+biomass)
o max 25% SSW
o max 20-25% SSW with high 3D content, higher end may require <6mm 3D
• SSW Injection Main Burner – ETC Conclusions (2010)

High impulse burner; aligned on axis of kiln; 0-15 cm into kiln (cold)
Lafarge Burner: Is =2.2, Sw =0.15, 70% axial, 30% swirl (volume)
Unitherm Burner: Pressure MAS – 200 mBar, Swirl 4-7
Injection velocity: 30-40 m/s
Injection in the centre rather than above
Recommended AF Injection Point for Main Burner (Ref: TA Fuel Flexibility)

Solvents 1st choice: 2 - The 2nd choice is from experiences, at low momentum the
2nd choice: 3 secondary air can push the flame from light fuels upwards to help
3rd choice: 4 ignite the main flame and tighten the plume.
4th choice: 5 - The 4th choice is for high LHV solvents
Used Oil 1st choice: 3 - To avoid dripping into other channels & coking
SSW 1st choice: 1, 2, 3 - Anywhere in the center is OK
2nd choice: 6 - Use of easy-to-ignite fuels such as used oil can help %rate by
3nd choice 5 sustaining flame stability.
Impregnated 1st choice: 1, 2, 3 - Anywhere in the center is OK
Solids 2nd choice: 6
Residues 3nd choice 5
Biomass 1st choice: 1, 2, 3 - Anywhere in the center is OK
2nd choice: 6
Sewage 1st choice: 1, 2, 3 - Anywhere in the center is OK
Sludge
Location 5 is of the same side as the kiln load.

Solvents: If high suspended solids in LWF, the
driver could be particulates (treat as a solid fuel)
or its properties as volatile liquid with a tendency
to lifted by the SA. Momentum may be a deciding
factor. If unclear do plant trials and observe
flame.
Conveying line 1.8-2.2 kg SSW/kg air and 22-30 m/s. A
mix of 2D and 3D can ease pneumatic conveying.
SSW injection velocity: 35-40 m/s, Impregnated
residues: 26-33 m/s, Biomass: 22-29 m/s
• Typical SSW Mixture Composition (Ultimate Analysis)

Mixture of pre-treated commercial & industrial (source separated) non-hazardous, solid wastes:
Ash content depends on waste source and pre-treatment, i.e. "cleanliness of material". RDF (refuse
derived fuel) will contain "inert contamination" (stones, glass, metal, etc) which will be part of the
%ash, “Clean” = 10-20%, "Dirty" = 20-30% ash (moisture free)
Content of natural wastes (e.g. wood vs. plastics) impacts O2, Cv, chlorine.
PVC is the most common source of Cl in SSW. Often concentrated in high density 3D, this can be
reduced with air separation installed at pre-treatment facility
Moisture content has greatest impact on combustion gas volumes. Normal range: 10-25%H2O,
15%H2O is a typical value. Raw RDF from municipal waste (MSW) can exceed 50%H2O
• Typical SSW (Ultimate Analysis)
TYPICAL RANGE
EXAMPLE
C [%dry] 60.0 45-65
H [%dry] 10.7 4-12
S [%dry] 0.3 <2
O [%dry] 11.0 8-15
N [%dry] 0.2 <2
Cl [%dry] 0.8 0.5-3.0
Ash [%dry] 17.0 10-40
LHV dry [kJ/kg] 23 000 16 000-28 000
Moisture [%] 10 5-50

LHVas fired [kJ/kg] 20 500 10 000-26 000
• Estimated RDF Ash Analysis for pre-treated municipal solid waste (MSW)
o SiO2: 40-60%, Al2O3: 10-20% (partly metallic), CaO: 20-30%, Fe2O3: 5-10% (partly
metallic), Na2Oeq: 5-10%
o MgO: <3%, P2O5, TiO2, Mn2O3: each <1%.
• “ASB, Fluff, SRF” Analysis: Monthly average (2006), Retznei (Austria)
Spec. 80th Spec Annual Avg Minimum Maximum

percentile (Max) (2006) (Month avg) (Month avg)
Moisture % 10.9 6.9 17.0
HV kJ/kg 22 491 20 147 24 120
HV kJ/kg dry 25 238 24 331 26 519
Chlorine % 1.11 0.78 1.58
As mg/kg dry 10 15 1.4 0.8 2.6
Be mg/kg dry < 0,1 < 0,1 < 0,1
Cd mg/kg dry 15 25 5.8 1.4 14
Co mg/kg dry 15 20 4.2 1.8 7.5
Cr mg/kg dry 150 300 96 37 157
Cu mg/kg dry 300 500 747 144 1260
Hg mg/kg dry 0.6 1 0.11 0.04 0.38
Mn mg/kg dry 200 - 106 55 131
Ni mg/kg dry 100 200 26 13 48
Pb mg/kg dry 150 500 183 98 400
Sb mg/kg dry 20 30 68 14 140
Sn mg/kg dry 30 70 26.3 6.2 111
Zn mg/kg dry 413 141 810
Tl mg/kg dry 1.5 3 0.05 0.05 0.05
V mg/kg dry 30 70 5.1 2.7 7.5
• Solid Shredded Waste Heavy Metal Regulatory Limits (Simplified) 1

Austria (Positveliste) Germany Swiss France UK Philippines
Plastics waste timber RAL - Gütegemeinschaft Draft SFP 2008
Waste Fuel
(Exception 3) (Exception 4) Buwal regulation Guidelines
Element [mg/kg] * with 25 weekly monthly weekly monthly 80th with 25
[MJ/kg] avg. avg. avg. avg. Median Percentile [MJ/kg]
As 15 15 15 5 13 15 50 500
1
Sb 5 20 (800 ) 20 25 60 5 300 10000
Be 5 ** ** 0.5 2 5
1 2 1
Pb 200 1000 500 1500 800 70 190 200 ** 200 200 5000
Cd 2 50 27 20 15 4 9 2 +Tl < 20 1000
1 2 1 2
Cr 100 500 300 150 70 40 125 120 250 100 200 120
Co 20 100 ** 6 12 20 100
1 2
Cu 100 500 400 120 350 ** 100 300 5000
1 2 1 2
Ni 100 200 ** 25 80 50 160 100 10000
Hg 0.5 4 2 2 1 0.6 1.2 0.5 10 10 50
Tl 3 10 ** 1 2 3
V 100 * ** 10 25 100 100
Zn 400 0.1 [%] 0.4 [%] 400
Sn 10 70 20 30 70 10 200 10000
Cl 1 [%] 2.5 [%] 2 [%] ** ** 1 [%] yes
PCB 50 [ppm] ** 50
Te 3 5
Se 3 5 5
1 2 1 2
Mn 50 250 100 500 100
Ba 200
Ag 5
Hg+ Cd+ Tl 5.5 39 19 5.6 12.2 5.5 100 30
As+Ni+Co+ Se+Te+
Cr+ Pb+Sb+Sn+V 550 2085 1145 827 1150 555 2 500
1
*, ** - exceptions apply. 1) , 2): German limit depend on waste origin - H.M. limits are for Cv > 16 MJ/kg for municipal waste
and > 20 MJ/kg for product specific waste. For lower Cv limits are reduced linearly
• SSW Performance Bench Marking - (ETC 2008, SSW Synthesis 2005)

Reference - ETC Benchmarking 2008 Injection %SSW %AF LHV (GJ/t) %H2O %Cl
Plant Process SSW size point(s) 2008 total Moy Min Max Moy Min Max Moy Min Max
KAR 4 KSPH Main burner 27.2 69.6 20.1 14.7 27.2 11.2 2.7 24.4 0.7 0.10 2.1
KAR 3 KSPH Main burner 21.7 66.0 20.1 14.7 27.2 11.2 2.7 24.4 0.7 0.10 2.1
MDF KPAS 2D (chiefly) Precal 26.1 30.4 20.7 25.6 17.7 11.1 5.0 15.0 1.0
REI KSPH 2d+3d<10mm Main burner 25.0 71.5 21.7 18.1 24.4 7.7 2.4 13.9 1.2 0.50 3.1
MAL KSPH <25-30mm Main burner 17.1 41.2 19.9 15.0 23.0 13.4 8.8 21.1 0.8 0.53 1.0
CIZ KPAS <25mm Main burner 16.7 63.8 20.7 11.9 37.2 12.8 1.1 40.4 1.0 0.01 3.1
Precal - RSP
KUJ 16.0 21.7 19.5 9.6 30.5 13.4 1.2 37.8 1.2 0.09 5.0
KPAS <25-30mm (pneumatic)
WOS KPAS <20 mm Main burner 10.8 26.3 19.0 15.8 22.0 7.0 1.4 15.5 0.7 0.45 1.2
Reference - SSW Synthesis (2005) Avg/ Max
2-D : 30 mm
Mannersdorf 3-D : 15 mm Main burner 9% 39% 23.5
flakes < 18-20
Whitehall KSPH mm Main burner 17/ 25% 23% 38
Cantagalo KPAS < 75 mm Calciner 16/ 25% 20% 15-30
2-D : 30 mm Calciner & riser
Tagawa KPAS 3-D : 15 mm duct 9 / 20% 11.5% 29
75-250 mm / 50-
Le Havre KSPH 100 mm Hearth area 7/ 10% 26.5% 26.7
Kamloops KLDR < 38 mm Main burner 6.5% 6.5% 29.2
Harleyville KPAS 2-D, 50 mm Calciner 7% 15% 30.9
Richmond KPAS N/A RSP Calciner 5% 5% N/A
Kanda KSPH variable Riser duct 5% 13% 31
Pescara KGSD 20 mm Main burner 3/ 5% 31% 24.3
Kumagaya
(Taiheiyo) KPAS 100 mm Calciner 13% N/A N/A
Montalieu
(Vicat) KPAS 60 mm Calciner 10-15% 56% N/A
Antoing RSP calciner (2
(Italcementi) KPAS N/A points) N/A 60% 32.5
6.3 Biomass
The Cv of wood varies little with tree species; for dry wood (18-21 kJ/kg). Average green wood
moisture is 50-60%. Once harvested, moisture drops to fibre saturation point – from weeks to
months depending on climate. The fibre saturation point is 20-40%, mean = 30% moisture.
Drying of wood chips is relatively independent of air temperature or relative humidity. Chips (and
other biomass) stored in large piles can be dried to fibre saturation by fermentation - which can
raise internal pile temperature to 90C. 1 (but can lead to smoldering fires),
HHV 2 dry basis (in kJ/g) = 0.3491C + 1.1783H - 0.1034O - 0.0211A + 0.1005S - 0.0151N
• Biomass and some synthetic Fuels 3

HHV dry
% FC %Volatiles %Ash %C %H %O %N %S (kJ/g)
WOOD
Douglas Fir 17.7 81.5 0.8 52.3 6.3 40.5 0.10 0.00 21.1
Western Hemlock 15.2 84.8 2.2 50.4 5.8 41.1 0.10 0.10 20.1
Mango Wood 11.4 85.6 3.0 46.2 6.1 44.4 0.28 19.2
BARK
Douglas Fir bark 25.8 73 1.2 56.2 5.9 36.7 0.00 0.00 22.1
ENERGY CROPS
Eucalyptus Camaldulensis 17.8 81.4 0.8 49.0 5.9 44.0 0.30 0.01 19.4
Poplar 16.4 82.3 1.3 48.5 5.9 43.7 0.47 0.01 19.4
Sudan Grass 18.6 72.8 8.7 44.6 5.4 39.2 1.21 0.01 17.4
PROCESSED BIOMASS
Plywood 15.8 82.1 2.1 48.1 5.9 42.5 1.45 0.00 19.0
AGRICULTURAL
Corncobs 18.5 80.1 1.4 46.6 5.9 45.5 0.47 0.01 18.8
Wheat Straw 19.8 71.3 8.9 43.2 5.0 39.4 0.61 0.11 17.5
Cotton Stalk 22.4 70.9 6.7 43.6 5.8 43.9 0.00 0.00 18.3
Sugarcane Bagasse 15.0 73.8 11.3 44.8 5.4 39.6 0.38 0.01 17.3
Rice Hulls 15.8 63.6 20.6 38.3 4.4 35.5 0.83 0.06 14.9
AQUATIC BIOMASS
Kelp (Brown, Giant) - 57.9 42.1 27.8 3.8 23.7 4.63 1.05 10.8
AVERAGE 47.9 5.7 41.0 0.52 0.05 19.1
LIQUID FUELS
Methanol, CH3OH 0.0 0.0 37.5 12.5 50.0 0.00 0.00 22.7
Ethanol, C2H5OH 0.0 0.0 52.2 13.0 34.8 0.00 0.00 30.2
PYROLYSIS OILS
LBL Wood Oil 0.8 72.3 8.6 17.6 0.20 0.01 33.7
BOM wood oil 0.7 82.0 8.8 9.2 0.60 0.00 36.8
Coke-oven tar 0.3 91.8 5.5 0.8 0.90 0.80 38.2
Low Temp Tar 83 8.2 7.4 0.60 0.80 38.8
SOLID FUELS
Peat, S-H3 26.9 70.1 3.0 54.8 5.4 35.8 0.89 0.11 22.0
Charcoal 89.3 93.9 1.0 92.0 2.5 3.0 0.53 1.00 34.4
Oak char (565C) 55.6 27.1 17.3 64.6 2.1 15.5 0.40 0.10 23.1
Casuarina Char (950C) 71.5 15.2 13.2 77.5 0.9 5.6 2.67 0.00 27.1
Eucalyptus char (950C) 70.3 19.2 10.5 76.1 1.3 11.1 1.02 0.00 27.6
ORGANIC CHEMICALS
Cellulose; C6H10O5 44.4 6.2 49.4
Lignin (Softwood) 63.8 6.3 29.9
PULP & PAPER (Weyerhaeuser)
Pulper Tails 8.8 87.3 3.9 64.9 10.3 20.4 0.33 0.06 32.9
OCC Reject 9.3 85.3 5.4 69.1 9.4 16.5 0.42 0.14 33.3
Paper Sludge 19.1 68.1 12.9 31.1 7.0 48.7 0.29 0.1 12.5
1
Opportunity study, Ligneous biomass in Lafarge Nigeria, ONF International
2
Channiwala 1992 Indian Institute of technology. Average error for biomass compared to table was +/- 1.5%.
3
S. Gaur and T. Reed, Marcel Dekker, 1998
8. Reference AF Documents
• RR Guidelines 1
• Waste Model Shops (Liquid, Whole tyres, SSW backend, SSW main, etc)
• RR Synthesis – Tyres, SSW, ARM, Used Oil
• Technical Agenda Studies
o TA Fuel Flexibility
o TA Build-up
o TA Precalciner
o TA Bypass
1
The RR Guidelines were approved by all TC Directors. However, they are an internal document and not yet
approved for outside publication.
My notes:
CHAPTER 3-1 – KILN HEAT & MASS BALANCE
3-1. Kiln Heat & Mass

Balance
© Copyright 2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved. KILN HEAT & MASS BALANCE – Page 1/20
Table of Contents
1. Kiln / Preheater Exit Gas Calculation ........................................................2

1.1 Calculation of neutral waste gas out of fuel elemental analysis (as fired
basis) .............................................................................................................. 2
1.2 Calculation of CO2 and H2O from material and water spraying .................... 2
1.3 Calculation of Excess Air and Kiln Exit Gas ................................................... 3
1.4 Typical exit gas for different kiln types............................................................ 3
2. Pyroprocessing Reactions by Zone ..........................................................4

3. Cooler Efficiency .........................................................................................5
3.1 Cooler Parameters ......................................................................................... 5
3.2 Recuperation Efficiency (ρ): ........................................................................... 7
3.3 Recovery Factor (k) ........................................................................................ 7
4. Wall Losses .................................................................................................8

4.1 General Formula............................................................................................. 8
4.2 Radiation Losses ............................................................................................ 8
4.3 Convection Losses ....................................................................................... 10
5. Kiln Audit Basics.......................................................................................10

5.1 Defining the Balance Envelope .................................................................... 10
5.2 Measurements .............................................................................................. 12
6. Kiln Heat Balance Example: .....................................................................14

7. Kiln Audit Results – Preheater / Calciner Kilns......................................15
8. Kiln Simulated Optimum Parameters ......................................................16
9. References .................................................................................................18
1. Kiln / Preheater Exit Gas Calculation
1.1 Calculation of neutral waste gas out of fuel elemental analysis (as fired
basis)
Neutral Combustion Air (NCA):
Nm 3 ⎛ %C %H %S %O ⎞ 22.414
=⎜ + + − ⎟*
kgfuel ⎝ 12.001 4.032 32.064 32 ⎠ %OXYair
Neutral Combustion (Waste) Gas:
Nm 3 ⎛ %C % N ⎞ 22.414 %OXYair ⎞
+ (1 −
% H % H 2O %S
=⎜ + + + + ⎟* ⎟ * N .C. A
kgfuel ⎝ 12.001 2.016 18.015 32.064 28.01 ⎠ 100 100 ⎠
Definition:
o Neutral Combustion (Waste) Gas:
Combustion gas of a fuel or fuel mix under stoechiometric condition (0% Oxygen in the waste
gas).
o Neutral Combustion Air: Air required for complete stoechiometric combustion of the fuel.
Sulphur is typically not remaining as SO2 in the waste gas as calculated in the formula above.
All or most of it is trapped in the kiln system and finally present in clinker as SO3. For final exit
gas calculation this effect is considered in the division heat balance tool.
1.2 Calculation of CO2 and H2O from material and water spraying
CO2 from Calcination H2O from Feed or Slurry Moisture

0.786 * CaO + 1.092 * MgO SM
CO 2 = kg / kgdryRM H 2O = kg / kgdryRM
100 100 − SM
• •
0.786 * CaO + 1.092 * MgO 100 SM 100
= * kg / kgkk * kg / kgkk
100 100 − LOI 100 − SM 100 − LOI
• Typical value: 0.53 kg/kgkk • Typical value for wet lines:
0.35 kg/kg RM 0.865 kg/kgkk
1.08 Nm³/kg kk
0.27 Nm3/kgkk
An exact calculation of the material related CO2 and H2O in
exit gas requires a mass balance, crystal water analysis,
CO2 analysis of kiln feed and dust(s), especially when using
already decarbonated raw materials (fly ash, slag...). This H2O from Water Spray
calculation is done in the division heat balance tool. • WS liters/kgkk = WS kg/kgkk
In calciner and preheater kilns only a part of CO2 is present in the kiln exit; most of it is
released in the calciner / preheater.
1.3 Calculation of Excess Air and Kiln Exit Gas
Excess Air
KEGN * OXYki ln
• EA =
OXYair − OXYki ln
KEGN: Neutral Kiln Exit Gas including material CO2 and H2O [Nm³/kg]
OXYkiln: Oxygen reading kiln exit, wet
OXYair: Oxygen content in air
Definition:
o Excess Air Kiln:
Amount of air in addition to neutral combustion air kiln to achieve the Oxygen at kiln inlet (for
benchmark the defined analyzer position is inside kiln = kiln inlet seal false air excluded!).
o Total Combustion Air Kiln:
Neutral Combustion Air Kiln + Excess Air Kiln.
o Excess Air Kiln Line (preheater / calciner kilns):
Amount of air in addition to neutral combustion air kiln line to achieve the Oxygen at preheater
exit.
o Total Combustion Air Kiln Line (preheater / calciner kilns):
Neutral Combustion Air Kiln Line + Excess Air Kiln Line.
Kiln and Preheater exit (waste) gas is the sum of neutral combustion gas from fuel, CO2 and H2O from
raw material, H2O out of water spraying and the excess air.
Further impacts like a gas bypass, CO in exit gas and combustibles in raw material are considered in the
division heat balance tool.
In case of preheater / calciner kilns the calculation is done separately for kiln exit gas and preheater exit
gas.
1.4 Typical exit gas for different kiln types
KILN TYPE Nm³/kg %CO2 %H2O %N2 %O2

Wet – kiln exit 3.20 16.9 35.4 45.3 2.3
Long Dry – kiln exit 1.67 27.9 5.6 63.1 3.3
Lepol – Lepol exit 2.33 19.2 16.9 57.3 6.7
4 stage preheater – PH exit 1.54 28.8 5.9 61.6 3.8
4 stage calciner – PH exit 1.47 30.2 6.1 60.8 2.8
5 stage calciner – PH exit 1.43 30.6 6.2 60.4 2.8
Kiln exit gas for wet and long dry is considered inside kiln, without false air at settling chamber
and without water injection.
Values are with 100% petcoke firing under optimized conditions (see chapter kiln simulated
optimum parameters)..
2. Pyroprocessing Reactions by Zone
Example Preheater Kiln

Between 100° and 400°C
• H2O (l) → H2O (g), ΔH = - 2488 kJ/kg
Between 400ºC and 800ºC

• Clay loses its crystal water (dehydroxylation):
2 SiO2. Al 2 O3 . 2 H 2 O → 2SiO2 . Al 2 O3 + 2 H 2 O( g ) , ΔH ~ - 5600 kJ/kg crystal water
Required evaporation energy varies with type of clay.
• Decomposition of Magnesium carbonates:

MgCO3 → MgO + CO2 (g), ΔH = - 2932 kJ/kg MgO
• Vaporization and oxidation of organic Carbon and Sulfides:

4 FeS 2 + 11 O2 → 2 Fe2 O3 + 8SO2 , ΔH = + 13120 kJ/kg S
C + O2 → CO2 , ΔH = + 33830 kJ/kg C
(Fly ash Carbon has a higher temperature window compared to natural TOC-Carbon in clay or marl)
Between 750°C and 950ºC

• Decomposition of Calcium carbonates:
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2 , ΔH = - 3175 kJ/kg CaO

• Free lime reacts in solid phase with oxides to intermediate phases like:
2CaO + SiO2 → 2CaO . SiO 2 ,
2CaO + Al 2 O3 → 2CaO . Al 2 O3 ,
2CaO + Fe 2 O3 → 2CaO . Fe 2 O3
And finally Belite (C2S), C3A and C4AF start to form.
The reaction is exothermic.

• C 3 A and C4 AF liquefy and constitute the flux.
Belite ( C 2 S ) combines with free CaO to form Alite ( C 3 S ) in the presence of flux, forming nodules.
The reaction is exothermic.
Alite and Belite are not pure, they contain impurities (Al2O3, Fe2O3, MgO, SO3, Alkali,…).
Rietveld or microscopy results show higher Alite compared to Bogue C3S calculation.
Evaporation of volatiles overlaps the exothermic reaction in the sintering zone and transfer heat to colder
areas.
The final exothermic reaction of the clinker phases is estimated on clinker Bogue results:
3CaO + SiO2 Alite (C3S) ΔH = + 494 kJ/kg C3S

2CaO + SiO2 Belite (C2S) ΔH = + 699 kJ/kg C2S
3CaO + Al2O2 Aluminate (C3A) ΔH = - 75 kJ/kg C3A
4CaO + Al2O2 + Fe2O3 Ferrite (C4AF) ΔH = + 67 kJ/kg C4AF
Alkalisulphates need to be considered as well:

K2O + SO3 K2SO4 ΔH = + 9690 kJ/kg K2SO4
3. Cooler Efficiency
3.1 Cooler Parameters

• Basic operating principles:
Maintain a constant air to clinker ratio
Maintain a constant bed depth
Remove all excess cooling (vent) air
• Design Criteria:
Grate Loading < 45 tpd/m²
Total specific cooling air > 2.1 Nm³/kg cl
Target: clinker temperature 70°C + ambient ; k- factor > 1.6
• Blowing Density:
Expressed in Nm³/m²/s. Calculate the blowing density for every compartment using the effective
area (covered by clinker) and the cooling air blown in the compartment. Take care to consider
the grate area covered by horse shoe.
Rule of thumb for blowing density of the static grate or first chamber:
1.6 – 1.8 Nm³/m²/s for conventional grate cooler and old Fuller cooler
1.5 for IKN fixed inlet (some plants will need up to 2)
1.3-1,4 for FLS ABC inlet
Higher airflow might be required to avoid static areas of clinker that could result in snowman
formation. The objective of a fixed inlet is to ensure a good distribution of clinker on the moving
grate. The blowing density of the following chambers should show a constant decrease. Use the
Lafarge cooling air distribution spread sheet for a first assessment.
• Cooling Air:
Expressed in Nm³/kg cl. While optimizing the air in the recuperation zone often requires an
increase at the first fans, the total cooling air should be minimized to reduce power cost. Decide
on a clinker target temperature required for cement quality but do not go below this temperature.
An optimized cooler can achieve low clinker temperature with low total cooling air.
Typical figures: 1.8 to 2.2 Nm³/kg cl, old grate coolers without fixed inlet up to 2.4 Nm³/kg cl.
• Clinker Bed Height

Maximize the bed height to increase the heat exchange. Typical limit is the fan’ maximum static
pressure and the need to keep reserves to act in case of a kiln push. New conventional coolers
can maintain a bed of 500 – 700 mm. Track the bed height by measuring or set marks to
observe from inspection windows.
3.2 Recuperation Efficiency (ρ):
• heat gained by recovered gases hsa + hta

ρ= =
total usable heat input m + mta
hck ,in + hca sa
mca
Where:
hsa is the enthalpy of secondary air in kJ/kg ck, including enthalpy of clinker dust in secondary
air.
hta is the enthalpy of tertiary air in kJ/kg ck, including enthalpy of dust in tertiary air.
hca is the enthalpy of cooling air in kJ/kg ck
hck in is the enthalpy of the hot clinker from the kiln in kJ/kg ck, increased in mass flow due to dust
return.
msa=mass of secundary air in kg/h
mta=mass of tertiary air in kg/h
mca=mass of cooling air in kg/h
The calculation in the division heat balance tool is considering the exact enthalpy of the cooling air in the
recuperation zone, which is typically higher compared to the average enthalpy of the cooling air.
• This efficiency depends highly on the quantity of secondary and tertiary air. It is higher for wet kilns
(∼85%) than for dry kilns (∼70%).
3.3 Recovery Factor (k)

ln (1 − ρ )
• k=
m sa + mta
k < 0.9 ⇒ bad cooler
0.9 < k < 1.1 ⇒ poor cooler
1.1 < k < 1.3 ⇒ mediocre cooler
1.3 < k < 1.5 ⇒ good cooler
k > 1.5 ⇒ excellent cooler
The k-factor is the main indicator for cooler performance benchmark. The k-factor is independent from
the amount of secondary and tertiary air and therefore shows cooler performance independent from the
kiln system or fuel used.
Cooling Efficiency
heat lost by clinker hck,in - hck,out

• η= =
heat input in clinker hck,in
Cooler Loss
• Cooler loss = all heat not recovered by combustion air.
Cooler loss = heat content of clinker leaving cooler ( hck ,out ) + heat content of vent air including
dust + heat content of any mid air extraction including dust + cooler wall losses
4. Wall Losses
4.1 General Formula
The total heat loss from a surface is the sum of both the radiation and convection losses
QTotal = Qradiation + Qconvection
It is recommended to use the Division calculaltion tool to calculate Wall Losses, it can be found on the
Cement Portal.
4.2 Radiation Losses
Radiation losses are given by the following equation:

Qradiation= α x x σ x A x ( Tshell4 – Tsurroundings4)
Qradiation is radiation loss in W

α is the view factor, can be assumed =1 if the shell is a long distance from surrounding
surfaces
is the emissivity of the surface

σ is the Stefan Boltzmann Constant 5.6703x10-8 (W/m2.K4)
A is the surface area in (m2)
Tshell is the shell temperature in (Kelvin)
Tsurroundings can be assumed as the ambient temperature when the surroundings are a long
distance from the shell (Kelvin)
A surface in close proximity to the shell can reflect the thermal radiation back to the shell and reduce the
heat transferred. This will depend upon the size, shape, emissivity and temperature of the surface. The
size, shape and distance of the surface from the shell will affect the view factor. The view factor is the
proportion of the surface that can be “seen” by the shell. Calculation of the view factor becomes quite
complex, even for relatively simple shapes, hence assumptions have to be made to simplify the
calculation (done in the division tool).
The emissivity is a property of the material and its surface condition (see below).
Emissivity e:
Material Emissivity ∈
Bricks 0.8
Steel 0.95
Oxidized steel ∈ =0.996-2.88*10-4.(tp-100)
Dusty kiln shell ∈ =0.96-5.2*10-4.(tp-100)
Silica bricks ∈ =0.81-6.08*10-4.(tp-200)
Other data Tp ∈ tp ∈
Iron oxide 500C 0.78 Steel oxidised 40C 0.94
Zinc galvanized sheet bright 28C 0.23 Steel oxidised 370C 0.97
Iron polished 425C 0.144 Steel polished 770C 0.52
Steel dense shiny oxide layer 25C 0.82 Steel pipe 200 0.8
It is important to take care to use the correct value since an incorrect emissivity value will create a
significant error in the “measured temperature” and hence the calculated heat loss, see example.
Emissivity can be checked on static surfaces by first measuring the temperature with a contact pyrometer
and then pointing the infra-red pyrometer at the same point and adjusting the emissivity until the
temperature reads the same as that measured by the contact thermometer.
Example: Measurement Error with Incorrect Emissivity

Read temperature=65C, emissivity chosen: 1 instead of actual: 0.4
ambient temp 20°C
True temperature= t = ( 273 + 65 ).4 1 / 0.4 = 425 K = 152C

Loss calculated with read temperature = 322 W/m2
Loss with true temperature = 573 W/m2
4.3 Convection Losses
The individual formula for convection losses are too numerous depending on the flow type to be
presented here. The general formula is :
Qconvection= h x A x ( Tshell – Tambient)
Tshell is the shell temperature (°C)

Tambient is the ambient temperature (°C)
A is the surface area (m2)
h is the coefficient of heat transfer (W/m2.°C)
The convection losses are influenced by:

o The movement of air around the surfaces. The speed of the wind, kiln speed, blowing
fan change the convection losses from natural to forced convection and from laminar to
turbulent movement.
o The orientation and the form of the surface: ducts, vertical or horizontal area…
e
With h = hnat * (1+0.57 v)
hnat is the natural convection coefficient which depend of the surface orientation, and the type
of flow : laminar or turbulent For calculating hnat you need a characteristic dimension of the surface
considered: for Duct = the Diameter,
Vertical plane shell = the height,
Horizontal plane shell = the length
For example for a horizontal pipe and laminar flow:
hnat =1.18* (( Tshell – Tambient)/D)0.25
v is the speed of the air surrounding the surface (including wind, kiln speed, fans…) (m/s)
e is the exponent reflecting the impact of wind (varying from 0.5 to 0.8)
5. Kiln Audit Basics
5.1 Defining the Balance Envelope

• A kiln heat balance is a powerful tool to evaluate the actual performance of the burning line as well
as to define improvement actions. To get reliable data a kiln audit is required.
• In a kiln audit a Mass and Heat Balance is carried out for at least 24 hours reasonable stable
operation.
Σ heatin = Σ heatout
Σ massin = Σ massout
• A clear definition of the balance border around the pyro line is essential, all mass and energy flows
passing this envelope need to be considered.
A typical balance border and Heat In - Output Table of a calciner line is shown below:
gas analysor
A
new
CY07 CY09 CY11 CY13
314TC0
5 CY19 CY21
CY23 CY25
ID fan CA3
CY27 CY31
3
oil oil
burner burner
gas gas
burner burner
gas analysor
• Heat Inputs
o Kiln feed (sensible + latent)
o Fuel main burner (sensible + latent)
o Fuel calciner (sensible + latent)
o Primary air and transport air main burner
o Primary air and transport air calciner
o Cooling air
o False air
o Exothermic Heat of clinkerization
• Heat Outputs
o Clinker
o Preheater exit gas
o Preheater exit dust
o Cooler exhaust gas and dust
o Endothermic Heat of clinkerization including decarbonatization
o Heat of Water vaporization
o Wall losses
• Additional to the over all heat balance of the pyro line a sub balance is carried out for the cooler and
other areas of interest (conditioning tower, bypass,…).
5.2 Measurements
• A 24 hour truck weighing is recommended for clinker.
• To determine the preheater exit dust, truck weighing of the kiln filter dust is recommended. The raw
mill needs to be stopped one hour before and during the weighing. Coal mill should be stopped in
parallel or the amount of preheater exit gas and dust towards coal mill needs to be estimated. Any
dust source (example gas conditioning tower) should be covered by truck weighing.
• Further truck weighing is recommended for fuel if dosing is not reliable or cannot be calibrated
properly.
• The table below shows typical recommended process measurements and their frequency:
MATERIAL / ANALYZE FREQUENCY COMMENTS

LOCATION
Ambient p absolute ; T ; relative 3 / day
humidity
Kiln Feed T 2 / day
Kiln Feed Airlift flow ; T ; p 1 / audit Optional blower data
Preheater Exhaust flow ; T ; p ; O2 ; CO ; 2-3 / day Parallel stack flow + O2
Gas NO ; CO2 ; SO2 measurement recommended ;
Dust content if no truck
weighing possible
Preheater Radiation Surface T ; wind speed 1 / audit Follow how to measure wall
; ambient T losses
Preheater stages T ; p ; O2 ; CO 1 / audit Every stage exit
Primary air back end Flow ; T ; p 1 / day
/ calciner
Transport air back Flow ; T ; p 1 / day Optional blower data
end / calciner
Cooling air Preheater Flow ; T ; p 1 / day Example SNCR nozzles,…
Calciner T ; p ; gas 1 / audit Mapping or spot at main areas
Tertiary Air T ; p ; radiation 3 / day T and p at both ends
Calciner Exit Gas T ; p ; O2 ; CO ; NO ; 3 / day
CO2
Kiln Exit Gas T ; p ; O2 ; CO ; NO ; 3 / day Use water cooled lance for gas
CO2 analyze
Kiln Radiation Surface T ; wind speed 1 / audit Mark operating shell cooling
; ambient T fans – use for crosschecking
Scanner data
Hot Clinker T 5 / day Calorimeter
Temperature
Primary Airs main Flow ; T ; p 2 / day
burner
Transport air main Flow ; T ; p 1 / day Optional blower data

burner
Cooling Air Kiln Hood Flow ; T ; p 1 / day Camera,…
Cooler fans Flow ; T before and 3 / day Cross check with on line
after fan ; p before and measurement (IP21)
after fan
Cooler Exhaust Gas Flow ; T after cooler 2 / day T directly after cooler: mapping
and on flow recommended ;
measurement point ; p
Cold Clinker T 5 / day Insulated basket
Cooler Take off gas T ; p ; flow 3 / day
Cooler Radiation Surface T ; wind speed 1 / day
; ambient T
Bypass Flow, T , p of quench 1 / audit Separate heat and mass
air(s) and filter exit gas balance
; wall losses
• Typical sampling frequency is shown in the next table for materials and fuels. Standard analysis like
XRF should be carried out on every hourly sample in the plant.
The recommended additional analysis to be carried out in the TC lab like CO2, H, S2-, TOC in kiln
feed, ultimate fuel analyse, fuel ash analyse, ect are described in the kiln audit analyse template
(Pyro 2 / Kiln Audit training).
• Material Sampling:
Filter DUST (mill
Material: KILN FEED HOT MEAL (dry) HOT MEAL (wet) CLINKER BYPASS DUST
stopped)
2 samples during
Recommended sampling frequency once per hour twice per shift twice per shift once per hour once per shift
mill stopped
1 to 3 typical 1 to 6 typical
1 average sample 1 average sample average sample
sample (dry sample - same
Sample to TC: out of all hourly out of all hourly averge sample out of all audit
sampling, no air time as dry
audit samples audit samples samples
contact) sampling
• Fuel Sampling
solid shredded
Material: coal or coke liquid fuel solid biomass fuel
waste (plastic,…)
Recommended sampling
twice per shift twice per shift twice per shift twice per shift
frequency
1 average 1 average sample 1 average sample 1 average sample
Sample to TC lab: sample out of all out of all audit out of all audit out of all audit
audit samples samples samples samples
6. Kiln Heat Balance Example
The example below shows the kiln audit result of Volos kiln 5, a 4 stage calciner line. The
division heat balance tool is used for calculation.
KILN AUDIT HEAT BALANCE TOOL - COOLER BALANCE AND PERFORMANCE SHEET
Cooler input Cooler output
kg/h T°C Nm3/kgck kJ/kgck % kg/h T°C Nm3/kgck kJ/kgck %
Cooling fans 350100 27 2,14 73,86 4,1 Secondary air 73329 999 0,45 632,58 34,8
Hot Clinker 127000 1445 1605,06 88,4 Tertiary air 66303 999 0,41 572,21 31,5
Exhaust air water injection 0 0 0,00 0,00 0,0 Mill take off #1 0 0 0,00 0,00 0,0
False air 0 0,00 0,00 0,0 Mill take off #2 0 0 0,00 0,00 0,0
Clinker Dust return (SA) 5684 1445 71,84 4,0 Exhaust air 210468 245 1,29 414,13 22,8
Clinker Dust return (TA) 5140 1445 64,96 3,6 Cold clinker 122105 101,5 76,92 4,2
Wall losses 27,39 1,5
Vap. Heat 0,00 0,0
Dust secondary air 5684 999 44,36 2,4
Dust tertiary air 5140 999 40,11 2,2
Dust exhaust air 4895 245 8,01 0,4
Dust Mill take off 1 0 0 0,00 0,0
Dust MIll take off 2 0 0 0,00 0,0
Air leakage 0 0,00 0,00 0,0
Total 487924 2,14 1815,72 100 Total 487924 4587 2,14 1815,72 100
Out - In 0 0,00 0,00
Cooler Load, tday/m2 37,6
Recovery Efficiency, ρ 72,65% Air Load, Nm3/kgck 2,14
Cooling Efficiency, η 95,21% Average Blowing Density, Nm3/s/m2 0,93
Recovery Factor, k 1,52 excellent cooler Cooler Loss, kJ/kgck 526,45
0,45 Nm3/kgck 0,41 Nm3/kgck 0,00 Nm3/kgck 0,00 Nm3/kgck

999 °C 999 °C 0 °C 0 °C BLOWING DENSITY OF THE COOLER
Secondary air
Tertiary air 2,00
Mill take off #1 1,80
Blowing Density, Nm3/s/m2
Mill take off #2

1,60
Hot Clinker Exhaust air 1,40

1,20
127000 kg/h 1,29 Nm3/kgck 1,00
1445 °C 245 °C 0,80
0,60
0,40
0,20
Cold 0,00
Cooling fans Clinker 0,00 10,00 20,00 30,00 40,00 50,00 60,00 70,00 80,00 90,00
2,14 Nm3/kgck 122105 kg/h Cumulative Surface Area, m2

27 °C 101,5 °C
KILN AUDIT HEAT BALANCE TOOL - KILN SYSTEM HEAT BALANCE
System In System Out

kg/h T°C Nm3/kgck kJ/kgck heat% content kg/h T°C Nm3/kgck kJ/kgck heat %
Kiln Feed 201746 62 80,34 2,2 Preheater Exit Gas 287276 395 1,58 938,47 26,1
H2O 811 62 1,66 0,0 Gas Composition
Total Fuel 13654 0,97 3523,64 CO2 27,75% 109218 334,43 9,3
Sensible Heat 13379 11,52 0,3 H2O 4,88% 7861 47,56 1,3
Combustion 13379 0,95 3459,34 93,6 SO2 (ppm) 70 40 0,09 0,0
H2O 53 0,00 0,18 0,0 N2 63,02% 157904 519,10 14,4
TOC Combustion 182 62 0,01 48,42 1,3 O2 4,28% 12252 36,76 1,0
S-2 Combustion 40 62 0,00 4,17 0,1 CO 0,06% 156 0,52 0,0

Total False Air 44920 12 0,27 4,29 0,1 Heat Loss CO Preheater Exit 156 12,43 0,3
Total Primary Air 22759 74 0,14 13,32 0,4 Cooler Exhaust Air 210468 245 1,29 414,13 11,5
Total Cooling Air of Cooler 350100 27 2,14 73,86 2,0 Cooler Exhaust Inj. Water Vap. 0,00 0,0
Total Water Injection 0 0,00 0,00 0,0 Cooler Mill Take Off #1 0 0 0,00 0,00 0,0
SNCR 0 20 0,00 0,00 0,0 Cooler Mill Take Off #2 0 0 0 0 0,0
Clinker-Cooler Exit 122105 101,5 76,92 2,1
Clinker Dust - Tertiary Air Dedusting 0 999 0,00 0,0
Clinker Dust - Exhaust Gas 4895 245 8,01 0,2
Clinker Dust . Cooler Mill take off 1 + 2 0 0,00 0,0
Clinker Formation Heat 1697,80 47,2
Preheater Dust 8250 395 25,49 0,7
By-Pass Gas 0 0 0,00 0,00 0,0
By-Pass Dust 0 0 0,00 0,0
Heat Consumption (fuels only, no TOC,S2-): 3459 kJ/kgck By-Pass Decarbonisation Heat 0,00 0,0
Water Vaporization SNCR 0 0,00 0,0
Heat Consumption including TOC and S2- 3512 kJ/kg Water Vaporization Preheater Injection 0 0,00 0,0
Water Vaporization Feed Moisture 811 15,89 0,4
Wall Losses 404,85
Tertiary Air Duct 50,00 1,4
Preheater 168,00 4,7
Kiln 159,46 4,4
Cooler 27,39 0,8
Total Heat In 3697
Total Heat Out 3594
Difference -103
% Deviation -2,87%
7. Kiln Audit Results – Preheater / Calciner Kilns

The data below are the summary results of preheater and calciner kiln audits carried out since 2006,
using the division tool with integrated database input sheet. The audits had been validated by TC before
entering to the database. Present number of audits entered: 14 (preheater and calciner kilns, with grate
cooler)
The complete and actualized database is available on the portal – pyroprocessing domain for benchmark.
The overview below will be updated yearly.
KILN AUDIT CALCINER CALCINER

DATABASE AND KILNS
PREHEATER
STATUS 03-2010 KILNS
Number of kilns 14 7
General Unit Average Min Max Average
Spec. Heat kJ/kg 3416 2820 3804 3304
consumption (fuel)
Spec. Heat input kiln kJ/kg 87 0 482 105
feed TOC
Production t/d 3060 1390 4260 3450
AF firing % 13 0 60 7
Preheater Exit Gas Nm³/kg 1.65 1.41 1.85 1.59
Flow
Preheater Exit Gas °C 385 333 434 398
Temperature (n=13) (n=13) (n=13) (n=6)
(4 stage only)
Top Cyclone Efficiency % 91.5 87.0 96.0 91.1
False Air Preheater / % 11.1 5.5 17.8 10.2
Calciner
Thermal Load MW/m² 4.8 3.6 5.9 4.4
CO2 (total) kg/kg 0.85 0.79 0.90 0.83
Heat Loss
Distribution
Heat of Clinker kJ/kg (%) 1776 1668 1988 1789
Formation (47.9) (44.7) (54.4) (49.0)
Kiln / PreheaterExit kJ/kg (%) 946 775 1186 941
Gas (25.4) (21.7) (30.1) (25.7)
Cooler Exhaust Air and kJ/kg (%) 405 335 499 416
Mill Take Off (11.0) (8.9) (13.8) (11.4)
Wall Loss kJ/kg (%) 362 240 508 301
(9.8) (6.4) (14.0) (8.3)
Kiln / Preheater Exit kJ/kg (%) 55 26 93 60
Dust Loss (1.5) (0.7) (2.6) (1.6)
Clinker after Cooler kJ/kg (%) 104 54 143 106
(2.8) (1.5) (3.9) (2.9)
Cooler
Secondary Air + Nm³/ 0.91 0.75 1.09 0.87

Tertiary Air Volume kg
Secondary Air °C 923 827 1110 964
Temperature
Tertiary Air Volume Nm³/kg 0.45 0.20 0.58 0.45
(calciner only) (n=7) (n=7) (n=7)
Tertiary Air °C 930 832 999 930
Temperature (n=7) (n=7) (n=7)
Cold Clinker °C 133 70 178 102
Temperature
Hot Clinker °C 1427 1390 1468 1429
Temperature
Cooling Air Nm³/kg 2.1 1.6 2.5 2.1
Recovery Efficiency % 70.5 66.0 77.1 70.4
K Factor 1.37 1.22 1.60 1.42
8. Kiln Simulated Optimum Parameters

The values below are with 100% medium sulphur coke firing and typical raw mix burnability. Operation
conditions are optimized (low false air, Oxygen on target, etc.). The cooler is a modern conventional
cooler with k factor 1.5 and tertiary air take off from kiln hood.
Specific heat consumption is not considering additional heat input at the raw mill shop (example Lepol
kilns).
PROCESS WET LONG LEPOL 4 STAGE 4 STAGE 5 STAGE

TYPE DRY PREHEATER CALCINER CALCINER
General Unit
Spec. Heat kJ/kg 5400 3900 3400 3300 3300 3200
consumption
Output t/d 1000 1000 1000 3000 3000 3000
Kiln Exit Gas Nm³/k 3.2 1.67 1.35 1.26 0.49 0.49
Flow g
Kiln Exit Gas °C 200 475 (before 1000 1000 1100 1100
Temperature water
spray)
Lepol / Nm³/k - - 2.33 1.54 1.47 1.43
Preheater Exit g
Gas Flow
Lepol / °C - - 110 350 360 310
Preheater Exit
Gas
Temperature
Kiln Length / 37 33 15 16 15 14
Diameter
Kiln Speed rpm 1 1.4 1.4 2.5 3 3.5
Feed Moisture % 35 0.5 14 0.5 0.5 0.5
Heat Loss
Distribution
Heat of Clinker kJ/kg 1800 1800 1800 1800 1800 1800
Formation (%) (32) (44) (51) (51) (51) (54)
Kiln / kJ/kg 940 1220 360 810 800 675
PreheaterExit (%) (17) (30) (10) (23) (23) (21)
Gas
Cooler Exhaust kJ/kg 110 240 316 295 350 370
Air (%) (2) (6) (9) (9) (10) (11)
Wall Loss kJ/kg 700 470 300 340 250 275
(%) (12) (12) (9) (10) (7) (8)
Vaporization kJ/kg 2050 20 630 20 20 20
Feed Moisture (%) (36) (0.5) (18) (0.6) (0.6) (0.6)
Kiln / Preheater kJ/kg 20 250 20 35 35 25
Exit Dust Loss (%) (0.4) (6.2) (0.6) (1.0) (1.0) (0.8)
Clinker after kJ/kg 70 80 70 90 90 90
Cooler (%) (1.1) (1.9) (2.0) (2.7) (2.7) (2.7)
Cooler
Secondary Air Nm³/k 1.49 1.13 0.99 0.99 0.38 0.38
Volume g
Secondary Air °C 716 832 913 916 965 980
Temperature
Tertiary Air Nm³/k - - - - 0.53 0.50
Volume g
Tertiary Air °C - - - - 965 980
Temperature
Exhaust Air Nm³/k 0.61 0.97 1.11 1.11 1.17 1.21
Volume g
Exhaust Air °C 141 188 217 204 224 233
Temperature
Cold Clinker °C 90 100 90 120 120 120
Temperature
Hot Clinker °C 1390 1400 1435 1435 1450 1450
Temperature
Cooling Air Nm³/k 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1
g
Recovery % 89 82 77 77 75 73
Efficiency
K Factor 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
The next graphic shows the impact of different fuel, bypass and kiln size. Baseline is the optimized 3000
tpd 5 stage calciner line shown above – last column.
3600
kJ / kg
clinker
Influcence on specific heat consumption
3500
3430 1.500 t/d

3400
3380 5% bypass 3380 3.000 t/d
100% SSW no bypass 3330 5.000 t/d

3300 3320 3320
3.000 t/d
5 stage calciner
100% medium S coke
modern cooler
3200
3200
3100
3080 100% coal
3000
Baseline
1 Fuel Impact
2 Bypass
3 Kiln 4Size
+ 120 kJ / kg + 60 kJ / kg + 50 kJ / kg
- 120 kJ / kg - 50 kJ / kg
9. References
Cement Portal
• How to Perform a Kiln Audit
• How to Optimise a Clinker Cooler
• Lafarge Cooler Air Distribution Calculation Tool
• Calciner / Preheater Heat Balance Tool
• Wet and Lond Dry Heat Balance Tool
• Pyro-Process I & II Division Training
My notes:
CHAPTER 3-2 – VOLATILE CYCLES & CONTROL
3-2. Volatile Cycles &

Control
© Copyright 1990-2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved. VOLATILE CYCLES & CONTROL – Page 1/19
Table of Contents
1. Properties of Volatiles Elements ...............................................................3

1.1 Basic Volatile Properties................................................................................. 3
1.2 Eutectic ........................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Vapor Pressure............................................................................................... 4
1.4 Parameters Influencing the Volatilisation Process ......................................... 4
2. Volatilization Process .................................................................................5

2.1 Volatile Recirculation Model ........................................................................... 5
2.2 Salts formation:............................................................................................... 6
2.3 Evolution of Volatiles During Transitions........................................................ 6
2.4 Volatile Cycle Time ......................................................................................... 7
3. Sulfur & Build Ups.......................................................................................7

3.1 Sulfur Volatilisation ......................................................................................... 7
3.2 Build-up and Rings ......................................................................................... 9
4. Modifications to Reduce Build-up ...........................................................11

4.1 Dirty back end:.............................................................................................. 11
4.2 Meal curtain .................................................................................................. 11
5. Kiln Bypass................................................................................................11
5.1 When is a Bypass Required? ....................................................................... 11
5.2 Bypass sizing................................................................................................ 11
5.3 Probe location............................................................................................... 12
5.4 One Step or Two Step Cooling..................................................................... 12
5.5 Control of Chloride Concentration ................................................................ 13
5.6 Bypass Dust Handling .................................................................................. 13
5.7 Bypass Gas Treatment................................................................................. 13
5.8 Impact Upon Operating Parameters............................................................. 13
6. Lafarge bypass data (part 1) ....................................................................14

7. Lafarge bypass data (part 2) ....................................................................15
8. Volatile Balance Example .........................................................................16
9. References:................................................................................................18
1. Properties of Volatiles Elements
1.1 Basic Volatile Properties

• The raw mix and the fuels come with some minor elements (potassium, sodium, sulphur and
chlorides) called volatiles.
Element Compound Formula Molecular Melting Boiling Heat of Formation

Weight Point °C Point °C - ∆H°f kJ/mol
Oxide Na2O 62.0 820 d 416
Hydroxide NaOH 40.0 322 1390 427
Na Carbonate Na2CO3 106.0 851 d 1131
Sulphate 142.0 884 — 1385
Na2SO4
Chloride 58.4 801 1465 411
NaCl
Oxide K2O 94.2 887 d 362
Hydroxide KOH 56.1 410 1327 426
K Carbonate K2CO3 138.2 891 d 1146
Sulphate 147.3 1069 1689 1434
K2SO4
Chloride 74.6 776 1410 1436
KCl
Oxide CaO 56.1 2580 2850 636
Hydroxide Ca (OH)2 74.1 d — 987
Ca Carbonate CaCO3 100.1 d — 288
Sulphate 136.1 d≈ 1280 — 1430
CaSO4
Chloride 111.0 (1450) 1600 795
CaC12 772
Fluoride 78.1 — —
CaF2 1380
d=Decomposes, s=Sublimates
1.2 Eutectic
• In a multi-component-system the melt formation is governed by eutectics. Eutectic is a mixture of two
or more substances that have a melting point lower than any of the substances of the mixture.
System Concentration Melting point

(% mole) (°C)
Na2SO4 — CaSO4 52 — 48 900
K2SO4 — CaSO4 58 — 42 867
K2SO4 — Na2SO4 23 — 77 823
K2CO3 — CaCO3 60 — 40 750
K2CO3 — Na2CO3 42 — 58 710
K2SO4 — KCl 40 — 60 690
KCl — CaSO4 68 — 32 688

KCl — NaCl 50 — 50 640
NaCl — Na2SO4 65 — 35 630
KCl — CaCl2 25 — 75 600
NaCl — CaCl2 50 — 50 500
1.3 Vapor Pressure

a) Vapor Pressure for Volatile Compounds at Different Temperatures
mm Hg
760
NaOH KCl
700
600 KOH
NaCl
500
Na 2CO3
400
Na 2SO4 Caution: This graphic is for trend indication only.
300
We have no indication of the precision of the
200 K SO curves. Do not use for calculation.
K2 CO3 2 4
100 Thus, for instance, K is more volatile than
Na.
700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 °C
b) Typical Chemical Reaction

Me n (SO4 )m ↔ n MeO + m SO 2 +
m
• O2 where: Men can be: Ca, K2,Na2
2
• The equilibrium constant of that reaction has this formula: K=

[MeO] [SO2 ] [O2 ]
n m m/2
Men (SO4 )m
1.4 Parameters Influencing the Volatilisation Process

a) Influence of kiln gases on the volatility of the circulating elements
Kiln atmosphere Sodium Potassium Sulphur Chloride

vapor pressure v v v v
CO2 ⇑ ⇓ ⇓ ⇑
H 2O ⇑ ⇑ ⇑ ⇑ ⇑
O2 ⇓ ⇑ ⇑⇑
SO2 ⇑ ⇓
The sulphur over alkali ratio (SAR) has also a major impact on the sulphur volatilization when SAR>1, the
higher the SAR, the higher is the SO3 volatilisation.
2. Volatilization Process
• Volatiles will start to volatilize (evaporate) from the liquid phase as soon as the temperature
increases.
• A fraction of those elements (or compounds) will be vaporized in the burning zone and get entrained
with the gases toward the back of the kiln. The vapors will cool down together with the gas stream
and recondense before leaving the kiln or in the dust collector. The condensation takes place on any
cool surface, mostly on the dust carried by the gas.
- Fi : flux of volatile component i brought by fuel (g/kg ck)
- Mi : flux of volatile component i brought by raw mix (g/kg ck)
- Ci : flux of volatile component i going out with the clinker (g/kg ck)
- Li : flux of volatile component i lost with gas and dust (g/kg ck) ( loss)
- Ki : flux of volatile component i in the kiln load (g/kg ck)
- Gi : flux of volatile component i in the gas stream (g/kg ck)
2.1 Volatile Recirculation Model

tF +M
• Kiln load: K =
Exit gas
& dust
Gas & dust Fuel
1 − vt
1− v
Trapping Volatilization
• Clinker: C = (tF + M )
1 − vt
Raw mix Kiln load Clinker
vM +F
• Gas stream: G =
1 − vt
1−t
• Losses: L = (vM + F )
1 − vt
a) Example of volatilization and trapping coefficients
Type of kiln SO3 K2O Na2O Cl-

v T v t v t v t
Wet kiln without dust wasting 0.59 0.76 0.45 0.81 0.12 - 0.99 -
Wet kiln with dust wasting 0.72 0.63 0.53 0.51 0.24 0.68 0.99 -
Long dry kiln 0.65 0.87 0.65 0.81 0.21 0.45 0.99 -
Preheater kiln 0.80 0.90 0.69 0.96 0.26 0.79 0.99 0.99
Precalciner kiln 0.55 0.96 0.49 0.98 0.55 0.60 0.98 0.99
(Prepared from average volatile balances made within Lafarge)
b) Typical concentration factors of volatiles in the kiln load

(kiln load / raw mix ratio)
Na2O and K2O 2 to 10
SO3 4 to 20
Cl- 20 to 100
2.2 Salts formation

The empirical relation is used to calculated the priority order of appearance of salts in the kiln load :
Order of appearance / consumption

KCl
K Cl
K2SO4 NaCl
K Cl Na
S
Na2SO4 K2O r CaCl2 Na2SO4
S Na
Na S
CaSO4 Na2O r Na2O r CaSO4
From this priority order of formation of compounds, the volatilisation coefficient can be calculated for each
salt.
2.3 Evolution of Volatiles During Transitions
• If M(θ) is a step at θ = 1 then:

K ( θ ) = K1 + (K0 − K1 )(vt )θ / T
where:
- K0 : previous kiln load composition
- K1 : new kiln load composition
- θ : time (to avoid confusion with t, the trapping coefficient)
- T : the time required by a given mass of volatile to complete a cycle
- M(θ) : flux of volatile from the raw mix at time θ
- F(θ) : flux of volatile from the fuel at time θ
- K(θ) : flux of volatile in the kiln load at time θ
• Circulating kiln load: 1.7 to 2.1 kgload/kg clinker.

K =(100/(100-HotMLoi))*(1+(KD/1000))
where:
- K : kiln load composition in kgload/kg clinker
- HotMLoi : Hot meal LOI in %
- KD: Kiln dust at the kiln back end in gdust/kg clinker
Rules of thumb
• LD kilns generated dust Lafarge NA average: 0.6, (from 0.2 to 1.34).
• Preheater Kilns generated dust:: 200 - 400 g/kgck
• Calciner AS Kilns generated dust:: 100 - 200 g/kgck
• Lepol Kilns generated dust: 20 - 40 g/kgck
Also note that figures greatly depend on kiln inlet geometry, gas velocity, clinker granulometry…
Bypass dust weighing can give some indication of kiln inlet dust load.
2.4 Volatile Cycle Time

t
• C=
1−v
- t is the time between the trapping and the
burning zone
- v is the volatilization coefficient Chlorine: v = .99 5-6 days
- C is the cycling time SO3 : v = .6 5-7 hours
3. Sulfur & Build Ups
3.1 Sulfur Volatilisation
• Sulfur is found in:

- Clinker raw material (combined form of sulfur or sulphate).
- Combustibles (S in the form of organic components).
a) Sulfur Behaviour
Sulfur Input Locations to Precalciner
Feed: as SO4 , 90-95% capture

as FeS 2 , 35-60% capture
30-40%
capture
Fuel
RM Fuel: as SO 4 or S,
90-95% capt
100
Formation in the Burning zone 80

H2SO4 SO3 SO2
• The following is the thermodynamic

% of total sulphur
60
equilibrium of sulfur species in a 10%
excess air flue gas. The principal product 40
formed in the burning zone will be SO2 .
20
400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Temperature (ºK)
b) What Affects the SO2 Generation in the Burning Zone?

The composition of the kiln load
• Sulfur is preferably linked with alkalies which have a higher stability and a greater chance of being
found as alkali sulphate in the clinker ( K 2 SO4 , Na2 SO4 ) themselves being part of bigger
compounds. So if the kiln load composition has a molar excess of K 2O − Na2O available (not
combined with chlorine) vs SO3 , the SO2 generated from the load will be lower (sulfur, alkali,
molar ratio < 1.2).
The burning zone temperature
• At lower temperature, less CaSO4 or alkali sulphates will decompose to form SO2 and the SO3
level in the clinker will be higher.
The O2 level
2000 v SO 3
1.0
S
1500
O2 1400°C
pp 0.8
m 1000
0.6
500 0.4
0 0.2 1200°C
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 1000°C
0
Oxygen % 0 1.0 2.5 5.0 %O2
The residence time in the burning zone

• The longer the time the material stays in the burning zone, the higher the chance for SO2 to
volatilize.
Back-end
• If the raw mix contains sulfur compounds (i.e. FeS2 = pyrite), the combustion of these compounds
generates SO2 .
SO3 Volatilization due to the Calciner efficiency

90
SO3 volatilization (%)
80
70
60
50
40
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Combustion efficiency (%)
c) Trapping
• SO2 is stable above 900ºC but starts to be Lab experience (H. Ritzmann, Neubeckum).
trapped by CaCO3 and CaO at lower 80
SO2 trapped (% of total)

temperatures. There is a large excess of
60
CaCO3 in the preheater, which explains a
high trapping coefficient (95% "dry" 40
scrubbing).
20
0
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Temperature (ºC)
• CaCO3 + SO 2 + 1 / 2 O 2 → CaSO4 + CO 2 .
• In a precalciner kiln, the decarbonated limestone captures SO2 more actively, especially with a high
level of Oxygen and the following equilibrium is shifted to the left: CaSO4 ↔ CaO + SO2 + 1 / 2 O2 .
• For this reason, precalciner kilns are able to absorb rather high concentrations of SO2 in the gas
coming from the kiln.
3.2 Build-up and Rings
a) Limits of volatile components:
Total input, clinker basis, without Cl bypass

AS Calciner - ILC SP kiln
Usual limits Maximum limits* Usual limits Maximum limits*
Sulphur (as SO3) 1.25% 1.9% 1.5% 2.25%
Chlorine (as Cl)* 0.025% 0.035% 0.025% 0.035%
* The maximum limit is possible with reasonable clinker burnability and favourable SAR
b) Sulphur/alkali ratio (SAR)

The sulphur combines in priority with alkali as K2SO4 and Na2SO4. The excess sulphur forms CaSO4
that is much more volatile. Thus, volatilisation and build-up will be affected by both the overall quantity of
volatile and by the sulphur in excess of alkali (SAR>1.2).
SAR= (SO3/80) / (K2O/94+Na2O/62)*
*Be careful, FLS formula is significantly different.
In case of significant SO3 (>0.5%on clinker), the impact of SAR on the kiln operation is the following:
SAR<1.5 Comfort zone

1.5<SAR<2 Difficult zone
SAR >2 Challenging zone
* SAR<1 will create some quality problem. Refer to the Quality section.
In case of high chlorine, an additional parameter can be monitored: The SAR –Cl on hot meal formula
should be considered as the alkali will first react with Cl. For this reason, an increase of Cl in the system
deteriorates the Sulphur volatilisation:
SAR-Cl= (SO3/80) / (K2O/94+Na2O/62-Cl/71)
c) Hot meal (bottom stage) follow-up
In case of high volatile input and/or high SAR, hot meal should be regularly tested (SO3 and Cl) and
plotted with reference curve (plant specific) to assess the level of build-ups and act accordingly (for
instance reduce Cl if hot meal very close from the cyclone blockages plant specific level)
7
Blue - plant w ith by-pass
6 Black - plants w ithout by-pass
RED/GREEN LINE original curves for
5 build up limits.
Cl [%]
Cizkovice • Retznei Ø2009(2 strings)

4
3
Malogoszcz - K2
2 Kujawy Manner sdor f - K9
Hoghiz Malogoszcz - K1
1
Medgidia - K10
Wössingen Trbovlje
0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0
SO3 [%]
d) Build-ups mechanisms and locations
• After condensation and before solidification of the volatiles, the dust particles will be sticky and tend
to agglomerate on solid objects: kiln walls, chains or lower cyclones of preheater tower.
• The sulphur build-up usually occurs where the temperature is between 800°C and 1100°C: kiln walls
and chains for a long kiln, smoke chamber and lower cyclone for a preheater kiln. In those build-ups,
the following sulphates are most commonly found: Arcanite (K2SO4), Anhydrite (CaSO4), Glaserite
(K3Na (SO4)2), Ca-Langbeinite (K2Ca2 (SO4)3) and sulphate spurrite (Ca2 (SiO4)3 CaSO4).
• In a long kiln, the build-ups are formed below the internal exchanger. This takes place in the kiln load
so the build-ups formed this way are naturally destroyed in the majority of the cases. In small
diameter kiln, however, a sulphate ring can appear.
• Chlorine will condense in the 600°C to 700°C range, which is in the chains for a long kiln.
4. Modifications to Reduce Build-up

The following levers are used to reduce build-up for a given volatilisation: these solutions do not
necessarily reduce volatilisation but only reduce the build up.
4.1 Dirty back end

The purpose of “dirty” backend is to promote the dust generation at the kiln back end. The good dust-to
gas contact will reduce temperature and decrease the concentration of volatile in the kiln load. The lime-
rich dust will trap gaseous sulphur and chlorides.
Dirty back end can be achieved by chain, sluice gate or lifter in the kiln inlet.
4.2 Meal curtain

The purpose of meal curtain is quite similar to dirty back end, but uses stage 3 material (for a 4 stage
preheater). This material is splashed into the riser in the lowest possible location, but ensuring that all the
meal is taken by the gas (no meal bypass directly to the kiln)
For more details refer to the “Build-up Control TA study”.
5. Kiln Bypass
5.1 When is a Bypass Required?

• When the total chloride input (fuel + raw mix), actual or future, is in the range of 250 - 350 g/t clinker
a chloride bypass may be necessary to avoid operational issues with build up.
• In plants with higher levels of chloride input, a bypass may also be necessary to avoid excessive
chlorine in the clinker
• A volatile balance should be conducted to help determine the need and sizing for a bypass. In
addition, the hot meal sulfate vs chlorine graph and build up tendency will give additional sizing
information by determination the maximum Chloride/SO3 level for controlled kiln operation.(see Hot
Meal ) This graph is unique to every plant.
5.2 Bypass sizing
• Quantity of Kiln gases assumed for sizing:

• Precalciner kiln 0.5 – 0.6 nm3/kg clinker
• Preheater kiln 1.2 – 1.3 nm3/kg clinker
As a guide the size of bypass is given by:

Precalciner Kiln
Chloride Input g/t clk Bypass Size %
<250 Not required
<700 5
<1300 10
<1800 15
Suspension Preheater Kiln

Chloride Input g/t clk Bypass Size %
<250 Not required
<1400 5
<2600 10
<3700 15
The assumptions used in the table are listed below, but these need to be adjusted according to the plant
requirements:
1) Target chloride concentration in clinker 250 g/t
2) Chloride volatilisation factor for preheater kiln 99%, for precalciner kiln 98%
3) Bypass gas dust concentration 200 g/Nm3
Actual dust extraction from a bypass varies significantly from plant to plant and is normally in the range of
150 – 300 g dust /Nm3 gas. For a new bypass it is recommended that the dust transport capacity is
sized for an extraction of 450 g dust /Nm3 gas extracted, except when a cyclone is used.
The targeted maximum chloride input level is limited by the capabilities/costs for by-pass dust treatment
(adding to cement/disposal).
In correspondence the designed by-pass size shall provide sufficient low chloride levels in the hot meal to
guarantee a controlled operation. To optimize this level the mentioned chloride vs. SO3 and build up
tendency graph shall be set up, follow up period at least half a year.
5.3 Probe location

On top of smoke box on kiln side, distant from second lowest meal feed point and meal curtain to avoid
any dust mixing.
In the case of the presence of a reduction zone for NOx take care to avoid possible quench air leakage
back into riser.
Low velocity take-off is less sensitive to build up, but not so flexible for retro-fitting or re-location. Vice-
versa for the high velocity take-off design. In case of back end AF firing high velocity take-off have the
risk of sucking in unburned fuel particles.
5.4 One Step or Two Step Cooling

One step cooling to below 200°C reduces the risk of dioxin and furan formation and is recommended by
Lafarge.
Two step offers potential to reduce SO2 emissions, if diluted by-pass gas is leaving the kiln line through
or after the raw mill.
5.5 Control of Chloride Concentration

The quantity of dust collected in the bypass filter can by adjusted by use of a cyclone with an adjustable
short circuit gasflow, or adjustable collection efficiency (either by variable inlet area or adjustable vortex
finder length). The change in dust carry over also allows some control over the chlorine since it is
predominant in the finer fraction.
Normally the hot meal chloride has to be kept below 1.5% to avoid build ups.
5.6 Bypass Dust Handling

Dust is normally proportioned back into the cement mills. A global Chlorine balance is required to
estimate the maximum possible dust addition to cement, taking into account seasonality and product
portfolio. However, this solution is becoming more limited as chloride limits in cement and concrete are
becoming lower. An alternative solution that avoids addition to cement is dust washing as practiced in
Japan.
Lean phase, pneumatic conveying can be used for dust transport, for chloride content below 10%. A
simple rotary valve and feeding shoe with a well designed pipeline has been successful. A proprietary
solution using a horizontal rotary valve has also been used effectively.
Keep dust transport systems as short as possible, transport air needs to be dry (using a cooler and
dryer).
Use of mechanical transport if chloride >10%
Assuming standard dust extraction the chloride concentration in the by-pass dust after filter will be
typically below 10%.
Installations with limited capabilities to treat the extracted by-pass dust might install a de-dusting cyclone
before the filter unit and send back the dust to the kiln, increasing the chloride concentration, > 15%, in
the remaining fine dust.
The other possibility achieving a too high chloride concentration is a too low dust extraction caused by
the real dust distribution in the kiln back end. In such a case dilution with kiln feed dust improves the
behaviour in the transport line, dilution till the chloride concentration is < 10%.
5.7 Bypass Gas Treatment

Avoid a separate bypass stack.
Solutions used in Lafarge:
• Raw mill inlet, plus lime hydrate addition to lower SO2, risk of dioxins and furans
• Cooler front end, to avoid SO2 and D&F, but risk of cooler plate blockages
Use bag filter for dust collection with approach velocity 0.9 m/min. Bag design for 240 °C,, operation at
180-200 °C.
5.8 Impact Upon Operating Parameters

Fuel consumption increase
• Precalciner kilns : 10 -14 kJ/kg clinker per 1% bypass
• Preheater kilns : 20 - 28 kJ/kg clinker per 1% bypass
Power consumption increase

• 1.5 kWh/t clinker approx.
By-p ass Design (Operation )
6.
Plant Name Retznei Mannersdorf Tagawa Okke Line 4 Alexandria Beni Suef Le Havre
Kiln type KSPH KPAS KPAS KPAS KPAS KPAS KSPH
Production [tpd] 1400 2500 4200 5500 4840 4080 3600
Heat consumption [kJ/kg KK] 3400 3268 3268 4100 3430
Supplier(Engineering/Quenching) ATEC / PMT MBM (idem PMT) Taiheyo Taiheiyo FLS Kobe (FLS type) (Taiheyo / CLE)
Year commissioned 1996 2002 1993 2001
Kiln exit gas [Nm³/h] (67900) (42900) (80500) 137500 (101000) (119000) 165000
Extracted kiln gases [Nm³/h] 3700 (2818) 2400 (2200) (1200) 6876 (4126) (23700) (47600) 8250
INTERNAL USE ONLY

% of kiln exit gases [%] 5 (4.15) 5 (5.1) (1.5) 5 (3) (23.5) (40) 5
Dust amount [g/Nm³] 150 (163) < 400 (175) 200 (41) (306) (216) 300
Extraction speed [m/s] ~4,4 (3.51) (28) (4 - 7 now 20 - 22) 24.8

Quenching [-] 1 1 1
Step 1
Quenching air [Nm³/h] 22000 (18744) 20000 (18744) 3784 (3660) 397.9
Temperature(Gas exit) [°C] 230 (208) 220(208) 350 (<350) 350 (<350) 350
Quench air fan size(1) Probe Fan Probe Fan
max. flow [Nm³/h] 3784 (3784) 33540
max. press [mbar] 40 15 20
Step 2 Cold Air n.a
Cooling air [Nm³/h] n.a n.a (10080) n.a
Lafarge bypass data (part 1)
© Copyright 1990-2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved.

Temperature(Gas exit) [°C] n.a n.a (130) n.a
Cooling air fan size(2) n.a n.a Air bleed n.a
Heat Exchanger(Air2Gas) n.a n.a n.a Yes
Cooling air [Nm³/h] n.a n.a n.a 82500
Temperature(Gas exit) [°C] n.a n.a n.a 150 (140) 150° (dioxin)
Gas Reintroduction [-] inlet wet scrubber before RM Coal mill Stack After p/hFan main stack Own BP stack
Fan Flow [Nm³/h] 25 700 40 000 14948 (14948) 42766
Bypass Dust Cl- [%] (5% mix 25%KF) 3 - 7 %(4.03) (20) 15 (15-30) (6-11%) (10%) 15 - 20% (15%)
Bypass Dust SO3 [%] 9% 3.6
Bypass Dust K2O [%] 4.25% 7.04%
Bypass Dust Na2O [%] 0.53% 0.57%
Dedusting (sep./comb.) separate separate separate separate
Type bag filter bag filter bag filter bag filter EP EP Bag Filter
Size [m³/h] 50 000 40 000
Temperature [°C] 220
2
Filter Area [m ] 840
Specific area load 0.95
Dust transport type pneumatic by tankers by tankers Mech to truck Mech to truck pneumatic
Transport capacity [t/h] 2.5
Dust mixing [Y/N] N N N N
Dust type(Mix) [-] not included not included - -
2,5 probe 0,25 cyc
Dust amount(Mix) [t/h] (kiln feed) n.a.(0.5) (0.075) 0.52 (0.17) (7.25) (10.3) (0.35 then 1)
Dust storage size [m³] 500 n.a. Yes Yes
Dust amount(calc.) [t/h] 0,555 (pure) n.a.(1) (0.075) 0.52 50.17)
Storage capacity [t] n.a. 30m3 25 + 10

VOLATILE CYCLES & CONTROL – Page 14/19
7.
By-pass Design (Operation)
Plant Name Sugar Creek Kirchdorf Malogosczc Kanda Karsdorf Davenport Exshaw
Kiln type KPAS KSPH KSPH KSPH PCAS PCAS
Production [tpd] 2812 974.2 2200 3200 2842 2500
Heat consumption [kJ/kg KK] 3344 3330 3427 3330 3884
Supplier(Engineering/Quenching) (ATEC) KHD IMMB(Polish) Home Made KHD modified FLS / 1981 FLS / 1981
Year commissioned 2005 1962
Kiln exit gas [Nm³/h] 52725 (48710) (166667) 39472 41667
INTERNAL USE ONLY

Extracted kiln gases [Nm³/h] 5325 (2500) (1650) 5300 (1380) 5000 0,2 Nm3/kgKK 0,08 Nm3/kgKK
% of kiln exit gases [%] 10% (4.3%) (3.4) 5.00 (1.0) 5.00 60.00 20.00
Dust amount [g/Nm³] 200 (200) (290) < 300 300 150 160
Extraction speed [m/s] < 3 [m/s] 1 30
Quenching [-]
Step 1
Quenching air [Nm³/h] (6880) 39 700 5400 (3600)
Temperature(Gas exit) [°C] 180 (180) (338) 200 (<400)
Quench air fan size(1) Probe Cooling Fan
max. flow [Nm³/h] 5400
max. press [mbar] 10
Step 2
Cooling air [Nm³/h] n.a n.a
Lafarge bypass data (part 2)
Temperature(Gas exit) [°C] n.a Unknown

Cooling air fan size(2) n.a
Heat Exchanger(Air2Gas) n.a Yes
Cooling air [Nm³/h] n.a 29400 (19800)
Temperature(Gas exit) [°C] 180 (180) n.a 180 150
Gas Reintroduction [-] before raw mill before ID Fan before raw mill Separate stack before ID fan separate stack
Fan Flow [Nm³/h] 78 000 9000 (6000)
-
Bypass Dust Cl [%] 10% (2%) (4.2) 7.4 (4) (15-20) 7.3% 1% 0.95 to 1.3
Bypass Dust SO3 [%] 0.63% 3.6% 11%
Bypass Dust K2O [%] 2.16% 7.0%
Bypass Dust Na2O [%] 0.13% 0.6% 1.9% eq Na2O
Dedusting (sep./comb.) comb separate separate
Type Bag Filter cyclone bag filter bag filter
Size [m³/h] 40 000
Temperature [°C] 220
2
Filter Area [m ] 840 252
Specific area load 0.95
Dust transport type by tankers
Transport capacity [t/h]
Dust mixing [Y/N] N N N
Dust type(Mix) [-] not included -
Dust amount(Mix) [t/h] (0.53) (0.48) n.a. (0.25° 0,73%KK 3.55 3.3
Dust storage size [m³] n.a. Yes
Dust amount(calc.) [t/h] (1) (0.25)
Storage capacity [t] n.a. 30m3 => 6t

VOLATILE CYCLES & CONTROL – Page 15/19
8. Volatile Balance Example

Volatile Balance Example : Davenport 1997
Flow Loss of ign Moisture SO3 K2O Na2O Cl
t/h % * % % % % %
Raw mix 168.500 35.410 0.000 0.897 0.500 0.090 0.001
Clinker 105.075 0.000 0.000 0.610 0.710 0.130 0.010
Kiln load - 5.210 0.000 2.450 1.099 0.760 0.101
Recirculated dust 22.000 5.000 0.000 1.440 0.580 0.100 0.001
Injected prod 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Waste dust 3.810 5.200 0.000 11.230 2.073 0.493 0.255
Flow Ash Moisture S K2O (ash) Na2O (ash) Cl

t/h (as rec) % (as rec) % (as rec) % % % (as rec) %
Coal 8.680 10.460 5.570 1.020 2.100 0.290 0.000
Coke 3.720 0.510 4.590 3.040 1.100 2.780 0.000
Flow SO2 Dust (dry) Dust SO3 Dust K2O Dust Na2O Dust Cl Loss of ign
kg/h kg/h % % % % % *
Stack 908.18 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Mass Balance
Flow CO2 Flow CO2=0

dry t/h % t/h
Raw mix 168.5 35.4 108.83
Recirculated dust 22.0 5.0 20.90
Coal 8.2 - 1.13 ««| (Coal; Flow CO2=0: Ash + S converted to SO3 + Cl)
Coke 3.55 - 0.30 ««| (LWF; Flow CO2=0: Ash + S converted to SO3 + Cl)
Injected prod 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total inlet - - 131.17
Clinker 105.08 0.00 105.08
Recirculated dust 22.00 5.00 20.90
Waste dust 3.81 5.20 3.61
Stack 1.14 0.00 1.135 (Stack; Flow CO2=0: Dust + SO2 converted to SO3 + Cl)
Total outlet - - 130.72 ¯Inlet-outlet: 0.44 (st/h LOI=0)
Flow Rate Adjustment
Weighting Flow Flow dry Flow CO2=0 Flow CO2=0 note - data entry
t/h kg/kgkk t/h kg/kg kk • Enter weighting factors
Raw mix 0.50 168.2 1.60 108.61 1.03 in boldface
Recirculated dust 0.00 22.0 0.21 20.90 0.20 • total must equal 1.0
Coal 0.00 8.7 0.08 1.13 0.01 • all positive values 0-1
Coke 0.00 3.7 0.03 0.30 0.00
Injected prod 0.00 .0 0.00 0.00 .000
Total inlet - - 130.94 1.24
Clinker 0.50 105.3 1.00 105.30 1.00
Recirculated dust 0.00 22.0 0.21 20.90 0.20
Waste dust 0.00 3.8 0.04 3.61 0.03
Stack 0.00 1.1 0.01 1.14 0.011
Total outlet 1.0 - - 130.94 1.24
note - data entry on "Ignition loss"

*Ignition loss at: %CO2 °C • Concerns LOI determination; impacts the CO2=0 mass balance
• if %CO2; LOI is only CO2 loss
• if 1050; LOI is CO2 & moisture loss
• if 1400; LOI is CO2 & moisture & volatile loss
Kiln Audit November 1997

Volatile Balance
kiln load = 1.30 kg/kg

hypothesis clinker
SO3
Waste Dust 4.063 17.304 31.362 Combustible 5.154
= =
Stack = 10.231
Return Dust Trapping = Volatilization =

= 3.009 14.058 26.208
Raw Mix = 14.783 17.792 Kiln Load =31.850 Clinker = 5.642
Total Trapping Coefficient 0.544 Volatile Coefficient = 0.823

=
K2O
= =
Stack = 0.000

= 1.212 5.240 7.029

=
kiln load = 1.30 kg/kg

hypothesis clinker
Na2O
= =
Stack = 0.000

= 0.209 8.228 8.586

=
Chlorine
= =
Stack = 0.000

= 0.002 1.216 1.257

=
9. References
Please refer to the following reference documents on the Cement Portal for more detailed information:
• How to Burn Petcoke

• How to Control Hot Meal
• Combustion Manual (post Sevilla 1997)
• Technical Agenda Study build-up control
• Technical Agenda Study Pre-calciner
• Technical Agenda Study Gas Bypass
My notes:
CHAPTER 3-3 – KILN SYSTEMS
3-3. Kiln Systems
© Copyright 1990-2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved. KILN SYSTEMS – Page 1/18
Table of Contents
1. Kilns General .................................................................................... 3

1.1 Kiln Residence Time and Material Load ........................................................... 3
1.2 Kiln Thermal Load ............................................................................................. 4
2. Suspension Preheater & Precalciner Kilns.................................... 5

2.1 Pressure Drop and Temperature Profile ........................................................... 5
2.2 Splash Box ........................................................................................................ 6
2.3 Trapping Efficiency............................................................................................ 6
2.4 False Air ............................................................................................................ 7
2.5 Calciners ........................................................................................................... 8
3. Wet & Long Dry Kilns .................................................................... 11

3.1 Chain Design Guidelines................................................................................. 11
3.2 Lafarge Chain System Data ............................................................................ 14
4. References...................................................................................... 17
1. Kilns General
1.1 Kiln Residence Time and Material Load
Kiln Residence Time
(Peray) Residence Time with:
0.19 ∗ L L Kiln length (m)

• T= N Kiln speed (rpm)
N ∗d ∗S
d kiln diameter inside refractory (m)
S Kiln slope (m/m)
Rules of thumb:
• Calciner kilns: 30 min ; 3 – 5 rpm
• Preheater kilns: 45 min ; 2 - 3 rpm
• Lepol kilns: 60 min ; 1.25 – 1.5 rpm
• Long kilns: 2 - 4 hour, 1 – 1.5 rpm
Kiln Material Load (in sintering zone, without coating, with Peray retention time)
T *P
ϕ= *100%
1440 * A * L * ρ
ϕ– Kiln material Loading [%]
T – Kiln residence time (Peray) [min]

L – Kiln length [m]
P – Production [t/d]
A – Kiln area inside refractory [m2]
ρ – Clinker density – preset to 1.4 [t/m3]
Rules of thumb:
• Calciner kilns: 4 - 6 %
• Preheater kilns: 3 - 5 %
Be careful, results from other formulas (FLS, etc.) can differ significantly. Other formula can be
based on “as raw mix”, with or without coating or with different retention time.
1.2 Kiln Thermal Load
• Defined as main burner heat rate divided by kiln cross-sectional area (inside brick diameter).
• High heat rate can lead to premature brick failure.
• Suggested maximum limits (for short and long dry kilns):
Recommended < 5 MW/m2
Max 6 MW/m2
Some kilns (wet process) can operate above this limit but requires a much longer BZ or stretched out
flame. Care required in such cases – any effort to shorten the flame when operating above this limit will
lead to rapid brick failure.
Secondary air temperature also influences the total thermal loading to the front of the kiln. This is why
some exceptional wet kilns can operate >6 MW/m2 and some AS kilns may be highly sensitive even at
values <5MW/m2.
2. Suspension Preheater & Precalciner Kilns
2.1 Pressure Drop and Temperature Profile
• The Dp through a cyclone for a family of where:

similar cyclones with identical dust load: Dp is the pressure drop through the cyclone
Q2 r is the fluid density
Dp = cst ∗ r ∗ Q is the gas flow
D4
D is the diameter of the cyclone
- 52 mbar
310°C
• The pressure drop of a cyclone is considered

from cyclone gas entry (gas inlet just before
-40 mbar the cyclone) until the cyclone outlet (gas
outlet just above the cyclone roof).
480°C
• Typical pressure loss of a modern top
cyclone is 7 to 9 mbar and of a modern
intermediate cyclone 5 to 6 mbar.
• The pressure drop of a preheater stage is the
- 33 mbar total pressure loss cyclone + corresponding
630°C riser duct measured just below the splash
box.
• Typical pressure loss of a modern top stage
including riser duct loss is 12 mbar and of a
- 26 mbar modern intermediate stage 7 mbar.
750°C
• A typical pressure and temperature profile of
a modern 5 stage preheater after calciner is
shown opposite
- 19 mbar
860°C
The actual values for a plant can differ significantly due to higher amount of specific exit gas, false air,
ongoing combustion (example kiln feed TOC and S2- or CO calciner exit) and poor preheater efficiency
(gas or material bypass, poor meal splashing, poor dedusting efficiency,…).
Rule of thumb: An increase in specific exit gas amount (example change of fuel, etc.) by 0,1 Nm³/kg
increases the preheater exit gas temperature of the preheater by 17°C.
2.2 Splash Box
A proper splash box ensures that the meal coming from

the stage above is properly dispersed in the riser duct to
the cyclone. A good dispersion guarantees the best
possible heat exchange – the heat exchange should be
finished before entering the cyclone.
Design Criteria:
+ Meal pipe above splash box oriented 60 to 70° to the
horizontal plane
+ Free distance in meal chute of 2,5m to the flap
+ Flat bottom
2.3 Trapping Efficiency
Di − Do Where:
• ht =
Di Di is the dust load of gas at cyclone inlet
Do is the dust load of gas at cyclone outlet
• Top cyclones are designed to have high efficiency (and higher pressure loss) while intermediate
cyclones and especially bottom cyclones have typical lower efficiency (75-85%) – depending on
cyclone design and condition of the dip tube.
Exact measurement or simulation of trapping efficiency of intermediate cyclones is complex and
often impossible. Nevertheless the impact can be high – efficiency drop of the bottom stage from
75% to 60% (for example dip tube damage) increases the preheater exit gas by 10°C.
Efficiency of stage 2 has strong impact on the top cyclone efficiency.
• Recommendations for dip tube length:
Æ Cyclone 1: > 100 % of gas inlet height
Æ Intermediate Cyclones: 75% of gas inlet height
Æ Bottom Cyclone: 50% of gas inlet height
• To allow benchmark the top cyclone efficiency is directly calculated out of kiln feed, not considering
the dust coming from stage 2:
Top Cyclone Efficiency

Kf − Do Where:
• Etc = Kf is the kiln feed
Kf
Do is the dust load of gas at cyclone outlet
• The target value for the trapping efficiency of the top cyclone is 95%. A poor top cyclone efficiency
has not only negative impact on heat consumption, it impacts in addition kiln feed uniformity and
power cost.
• Most accurate measurement of the preheater exit dust is truck weighing of the kiln filter dust (and
GCT dust) during raw mill and coal mill off.
2.4 False Air

Some excess air is required for proper combustion. The Oxygen target on kiln or calciner depends
mainly on the fuel used (see fuel / burner chapter).
False air is all unwanted air entry increasing the excess air above target or reducing the
secondary/tertiary air used from the cooler.
The main sources:
• Kiln hood and kiln outlet seal false air.

Typically 3-6% of the combustion air kiln. This false air directly reduces the amount of secondary
air.
• Kiln inlet seal false air:
Typical 2-4% of kiln exit gas. For calciner kilns it directly reduces tertiary air, for other kiln types it
increases the Oxygen content.
• False air preheater / calciner.
Is given in % of preheater exit gas. A well sealed preheater can reach 3%.
False air is a major cost factor:

o False air is limiting production. For sold out plants 1% less false air could result in 1% more
production.
o False air increases the power cost (5% preheater false air Æ + 0.5kWh/t)
o False air increases the heat consumption, false air entry at bottom cyclone is more critical
compared to the top cyclone (see graphic below).
False Air vs Fuel Consumption
3200
3180 Stage 5
Stage 4
3160 Stage 3
Stage 2
Stage 1
3140
Fuel Consumption MJ/t clinker
3120
3100
3080
3060
3040
3020
3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
False Air % Preheater Exit Flow
The simple formula below gives a first assessment for preheater false air or false air between cyclone
stages. A more accurate and complex assessment taking into account further effects (example
combustion of kiln feed Carbon and Sulfur, CO, kiln feed airlift,…) is done in the division heat balance
tool. The result of this assessment can differ significantly from the simple Oxygen approach.
(%O2 − %O2Po int 1)

V = V Po int 2 * Po int 2
− %O2Po int 1)
FalseAir
(%O2 Air
2.5 Calciners
a. Calciner Types and Terminology
AT Air Through: Calciner without tertiary air duct (older design, limitation due to high excess air in kiln)
AS Air Separate: Calciner with tertiary air duct (all modern calciner)
ILC In Line Calciner: Kiln exit gas is introduced into the calciner (main calciner type, simple and robust)
SLC Separate Line Calciner: Kiln exit gas is not introduced to the calciner, fuel is burnt in tertiary air
only (can be built smaller, advantage of combustion in high Oxygen, operation disadvantage due
to risk of meal or fuel drop out into tertiary air duct). A Separate Line Calciner can have a complete
separate preheater string and ID fan or can be combined after the calciner with the kiln exit gas to
a common preheater.
Combustion Chamber (also called hot spot calciner): a part of the calciner is built as downdraft SLC with
tangential introduction of tertiary air and meal, providing a hot core for combustion. The combustion
chamber is then transferred into an In Line Calciner part. Gives advantage for petcoke but not necessarily
for coarse alternative fuel.
Vessel Type Calciner: calciner with low gas speed in the main section, around 5m/s. Promotes longer
residence time for coarse fuel, recommended type for difficult AF.
Riser or Gooseneck Type Calciner: Calciner with gas speed 10 to 16 m/s.
Orifice: high gas speed zone at the calciner bottom to prevent material and fuel fall through, 20 – 35 m/s
for ILC and 35 – 50 m/s for SLC.
b. Calciner Combustion Efficiency
Definition:
Percent of total heat input which is used in the calciner.
Heat Input: Calciner Fuels, CO from kiln exit gas.
Heat Loss: CO calciner exit, unburnt Carbon in hot meal.
Target: > 95%
The combustion efficiency is calculated in the division heat balance tool.
Unburnt Carbon in hot meal is critical for volatilization and should be below 0,1%.
c. Calciner Residence Time
The true residence time of fuel is significantly higher than the gas residence time, especially in case of
vessel type calciner.
However, fuel residence time is difficult to calculate so gas residence time is used to benchmark calciner
size.
Calciner residence time is expressed as gas residence time between orifice and bottom cyclone inlet.
Calculation is based at calciner exit gas condition.
Residence time [s] = Calciner volume inside refractory [m³] / Calciner exit gas flow [actual m³/s].
Typical recommended residence time:
Coal, gas: >2sec
Coke and AF < 5mm: >3sec
AF> 5mm: >>3sec (typical design is 6 sec)
Additional residence time of 1 to 2 sec is required in case of staged combustion and / or SNCR for NOx
reduction < 400 mg/Nm³.
For combustion chambers the residence time should be reported separately to the ILC part, for example
1,5sec combustion chamber + 4sec gooseneck.
Many existing calciners show residence times significantly below these recommendations, although
operation is still possible without excessive CO and hot meal Carbon (volatilization risk) by optimizing
calciner parameters such as fuel fineness, tertiary air temperature, etc.
d. Calcination Degree
Definition: % of kiln feed CO2 which is already calcined in the hot meal.
⎡ CO 2kf − CO 2hm ⎤
⎢ 100 * ⎥
CO 2kf
CD % = 100 * ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 100 − CO 2hm ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
CO2kf: CO2 of kiln feed

CO2hm: CO2 of hot meal at bottom stage
The result is not the real calcination degree since the measurement is impacted by the amount of kiln and
preheater dust, volatile cycles,…
The target is plant specific, typical 90 - 92 %. Alternative methods like LOI instead of CO2 or calcination
via hot meal Rietveld can be used for regular process follow up. The calcination degree should be
regularly monitored and optimised; operation control of the calciner should remain on calciner exit
temperature.
3. Wet & Long Dry Kilns
3.1 Chain Design Guidelines

Kiln Chain System design tool kit V-3.8 by S. Fujimoto 2009
Z = zone length (ratio of zone length to kiln diameter)

2 3
A = m /m
C = chain length (as percent of kiln diameter)
Zone Wet Kiln Dry Kiln
Free Z 1 to 1.5
Dust curtain A 11 to 15
C 80% to 85% < 75%
Plastic Z 1 to 4 n/a
A 5 to 8 n/a
C 55% to 70% n/a
Preheat Z 0.5 to 2.5
(lower section) A 7 to 10
C 70%
Preheat Z 0.5 to 2.5
(upper section) A 6 to 8.5
C 70% to 80%
Radiation Z 1
A 8.5 to 11
C 70% to 80%
Total Length Wet Kiln Dry Kiln

of Chain system
As no. of kiln diameters 6 to 10 5 to 8
As % kiln length 18% to 25% 17% to 22%
Total Surface Wet Kiln Dry Kiln

and Total Weight
Global m2/mtpd 2.5 to 2.8 2.3 to 2.6
Global kg/mtpd 110 to 130 105 to 110
How far down the kiln should chain be used?
Vb = [(1.0807*P)^1.5]/35.315
Where
Vb = Kiln effective volume below the chain system i.e. (m3)
P = Standard kiln clinker production + 20% t/d (metric t)
Example: Calculation of Chained Volume of Kiln

Calculate the chained volume for a kiln 4m diameter x 150m long with a nominal capacity of 814 tpd,
assume 200mm thick refractory lining:
Step 1: Calculate kiln volume =150*P*(4-2*0.2)^2/4 = 1527 m3
Step 2: Calculate Vb= [(1.0807*P)^1.5]/35.315 =[(1.0807*814*1.2)^1.5]/35.315 = 971 m3
Step 3: Calculate chained volume of kiln = 1527-971 =556 m3 (36%)
The capacity of the kiln drive would also need to be checked
Rules of Thumb
• Chain surface: 19m2/t for oval chains vs. 22-25 m2/t for round chains.
• For small kilns, ratios are always lower than for larger kilns.
• Ratios are higher for dry kiln compared to wet kiln.
• Void sections are applied along chain zone aiming to:
equalize gas temperatures
serve as a buffer area to equalize varying rates of material transportation
precipitate kiln dust
allow for installation of thermocouples
• 1500 m of installed chains reduces the exit chain gas temperature by 100oC.
• A properly designed chain system can lower the SHC by 300 kcal/kg ck.
• Heat exchange rate: 8.75 kcal/h/m2/C.
• Pressure per one meter of chain10 to 20 Pa for curtain chain and 20 to 30 Pa for Gartand chain
(note: Garland chains are abandoned due to practical considerations in maintaining hanging
pattern).
• For Gartand chain, the thermal effect is 1.5 time higher than curtain chain.
• Wear rate: Wet Kilns average 84 g/t ck- range is typically 80-120 g/t ck
Dry Kilns average 66 g/mt ck with a range as low as 17 g/t ck to a high of 133 g/t ck
Other LNA Preferences

Garland pattern not recommended
Spiral curtain recommended for wet Kilns (promotes plastic zone movement)
Zig-Zag dust curtain common for all wet Kilns
Straight curtain style (offset in Alternating Rows) - in all zones – best for long dry Kilns
One Chain length common in long dry Kilns
Wet Kiln Chain Length is variable to allow material movement – See database
19 mm thickness X 76 mm diameter rings most common
Plastic zone must be 25 mm to 38 mm thickness x 76 mm diameter or double chains per hanger
Econoliners preferred instead of refractory for much longer service life
3.2 Lafarge Chain System Data
4. References
• Preheater and Precalciner Priority Study

• Precalciner Technical Agenda Study
My notes:
CHAPTER 4 – PRODUCT QUALITY AND DEVELOPMENT
4. Product Quality &

Development
© Copyright 1990-2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved. PRODUCT QUALITY & DEVELOPMENT – Page 1/20
Table of Contents
1. Chemical Characterization ................................................................ 3

1.1. Ignition Loss .................................................................................................... 3
1.2. Silica Ratio ...................................................................................................... 3
1.3. Alumina-Iron Ratio........................................................................................... 3
1.4. Lime Saturation ............................................................................................... 3
1.5. Total Alkalies as Na2O .................................................................................... 3
1.6. Percent Liquid ................................................................................................. 4
1.7. Bogue Formulas .............................................................................................. 4
1.8. K 1450 Burnability Index ................................................................................. 4
1.9. Other Indicators............................................................................................... 6
2. Particle Size Distribution ................................................................... 7
2.1. Rosin-Rammler Number ................................................................................. 7
2.2. Specific Surface Area...................................................................................... 7
2.3. Blaine Surface Area ........................................................................................ 8
3. Sulfate ................................................................................................. 9
3.1. Clinker Sulfates ............................................................................................... 9
3.2. Sulfate Addition ............................................................................................... 9
4. Cement characteristics.................................................................... 11
4.1. Standards requirements................................................................................ 11
4.2. Cement Strength ........................................................................................... 11
4.3. Color.............................................................................................................. 12
5. 10 Basic Facts on Clinker................................................................ 13
6. Advance Indicators .......................................................................... 14
6.1. Raw mix and clinker ...................................................................................... 14
6.2. Finished products .......................................................................................... 15
7. Cement Standards............................................................................ 16
8. References........................................................................................ 19
8.1. Lafarge Quality Technical Standards (LQTS) ............................................... 19
8.2. Knowledge..................................................................................................... 19
8.3. Tools.............................................................................................................. 19
1. Chemical Characterization • KSt I ( Kühl ) =

100C
2.8S + 1.1A + 0.7 F
• In the following formulas:
where:
S = SiO2, M = MgO, A =Al2O3, K = K2O,
A includes ( TiO 2 + P2 O 5 )
F = Fe2O3, N = Na2O3, C = CaO
100 * ( C + 0.75 M )
when not specified: % is in weight in the • KSt III =
raw mix. 2.8 S + 1.18 A + 0.65 F
• Refer to the “LQTS XRF analysis” and It takes MgO into account (when MgO <
“LQTS Free lime by complexometry 2%).
method”.
1.1. Ignition Loss
LSF vs C3S
• Ignition loss = 0.786 * C + 1.092M + 120
combined H2O+ organic matter. y = 0.3367x + 71.6
110
• CaCO3 → CaO + CO2 R2 = 0.9485
100
LSF
44 90
% CO2 = × %CaO
56 80
70
1.2. Silica Ratio
60
• SR =
S
(2.3 to 3.1) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
A+ F C3S
If SR high, hard to burn, thin coating ,
poor clinker reactivity, higher specific
heat consumption. If SR low easy Δbc vs C3S
30
burning but lower clinker reactivity and 25
may cause unstable process conditions 20 y = -0.2734x + 21.552
2
R = 0.9606
1.3. Alumina-Iron Ratio 15
10
(1.3 to 2.0 )
Δbc
A
• AR = 5
Δ
F 0
If AR high with low F then lower liquid -5 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
phase, high viscosity. -10 C3S
-15
1.4. Lime Saturation -20
(On Raw Mix analyses, except C3S)
• C 3 S = 4.07 C − (7.6 Ssol + 6.72 A + 1.43 F )
1.5. Total Alkalies as Na2O
It is the potential C3S content of clinker
when the free lime is zero and • Total as Na 2 O eq = Na 2 O + 0.658 K 2 O
calculation LOI=0.
Rule of thumb
100C •
• LSF = + 0.1% Total Alkali in clinker : -0.5 to -1MPa
2.8 S + 1.18 A + 0.65 F at 28days
100 * ( 2.8 S + 1.65 A + 0.3 F − C )

• Δbc =
S + A+ F +C
It should range between –4 and +4
depending on fuel ash and quality
target.
1.6. Percent Liquid 1.7. Bogue Formulas

(On clinker bases, ref. Les Cahiers Techniques).
a) Calculation (Lea & Parker)
The formulas considered in BRS are:
@ 1338ºC
• A/F<1.38:
a) Formulas
• C 3 S = 4.07 C − (7.6 Ssol + 6.72 A + 1.43 F )
% liquid = 8.2 A − 5.22 F + M + N + K
• A/F>1.38 : • C 2 S = 8.6 Ssol 5.07 A + 1.08 F − 3.07C1
% liquid = 6.1 F + M + N + K • C 3 A = 2.65 A − 1.69 F
• Liquid at 1338C influences the clinker • C 4 AF = 3.04 F
granulation.
with:
@ 1400ºC
C1 = Total CaO for raw mixes,
• % liquid = 2.95 A + 2.25 F + M + N + K
C1 = Total CaO - Free CaO for clinkers
@ 1450ºC C1 = Total CaO - Free CaO - 0.7 SO3
for cements (CEMI)
• % liquid = 3 A + 2.25 F + M + N + K
Ssol= soluble silica (silicate form only)
• 1450 C is most frequently used within
And F may be modified as:
Lafarge.
F = Fe2 O3 − Mn2 O3
• Optimum at 1450C: 25%.
b) SO3 combination
@ 1470 ºC
Step #1:
• % liquid = 1.13 C 3 A + 1.35 C 4 AF + M + N + K
K 2O
• If < 1.176 not all SO3 combined as
SO3
b) Liquid phase impact
K 2 SO4 then SO3 in K 2 SO4 = 0.85 K 2 O
• If liquid phase too high:
Clinker porosity ↓ Step #2:
Grindability ↓ (harder) • Remaining SO3 = SO3 − SO3 in K 2 SO4
1-day strength ↓ Na 2 O
• If < 0.775 not all SO3
• If liquid phase too low: SO3 ( remaining )
C3S formation speed ↓ combined as Na 2 SO4 :
Clinker granulation ↓ SO3 in Na 2 SO4 = 1.292 Na 2 O
Liquid Phase Constituent Impact Step #3:
% free CAO
C3A C4AF K2O • CaO combined with excess SO3
14
18 % 5 % 1% = 0.7 * (SO3 − (SO3 in K 2 SO4 + SO3 in Na 2 SO4 ))
12
18 % 5 % 0%
10
5 % 18 % 1 %
8 1.8. K 1450 Burnability Index
5 % 18 % 0 %
6
a) Calculation
4
This index is representative of the ability of the
2 raw material to combine. The sample is heated
0 (1000ºC/h) in a lab furnace at 1450 ºC for 30
1250 1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 minutes. After burning, the remaining free lime
temperature °C is measured. The ability to combine is
determined by the reaction time of the following
reaction: C 2 S + C → C 3 S
If we accept that this reaction can occur only

after all C 2 S is formed: b) Parameters influencing the Burnability
8 (ref. Cahiers techniques)
6
Heat consumption
K1450 change
difference (%)
4
40
2
0 0
-2
-4 -40
-6
-80
-8 +0.1 % +0.4 % +1 % +1.3 % +0.2 % +3 %
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Lafarge K fluor sol. Na2O Ex.SO3 Fe2O3 P2O5 quartz
equiv. > 63 µ
= k [C 2 S ] • [C ]
d[C ]
•
dt
Rules of thumb
with:
• K 2 SO4 improves the burnability;
[C2S] is the C 2 S concentration at t
[C] is the lime concentration at t • +1% SO3 lowers the combination
k is a constant (function of temp). temperature by 60C;
•
[C o ]− [C ] = [C 2 S o ]− [C 2 S ] • +1% K2O increases the combination
temperature by 35C;
56 172
• increase from 2 to 3% of silica reject at 63
with: microns lowers the K1450 by 30 points (cf
[C°] is the concentration of lime at tº graph);
[C2S°] is the concentration of C2S at tº • + 0.3% CaF2 addition in the raw mix (or
0.23F in the clinker) improves the K1450 by
•
[C ] + Δc = [C2 S ] 10 to 60 points, lowering the burning temp
by 30 to 130C. Unfortunately, it lengthens
56 172 the setting time by 20 - 60min (for +0.1%F in
the clinker in normal burning conditions).
with: Δ
c
is the Δ bc relative at 100%
clinker:
⎛S + A+ F +C ⎞ Impact of fineness
• Δc = Δ bc.⎜ ⎟ • Free Lime = [C ] − 1.89 + 0.48(LSF − 100 ) +
⎝ 100 − LOI ⎠
2.84 (SR − 1.8 ) + 0.27 Q45 + 0.12C125 + 0.12 Aq 45
• K=
1
ln
⎛ [C ] + Δc C o ⎞
⎜ . ⎟
[ ] where:
3.07 Δc ⎜⎝ C o + Δc [C ] ⎟⎠ Q45 = % quartz >45 μm
with: C125 = % calcite >125 μm
o
[C ] = CaO - 1.87 SiO2
Aq45 = % non quartz, acid insoluble
[C] = The remaining free lime in a lab
test in which the raw material is burned >45 μm (excluding dolomite)
for 30 minutes at 1450ºC
Rule of thumb Rules of thumb:
K < 30: Very bad burnability • %(quartz>63μm) < 2%,
30 < K < 45: Bad burnability • %(quartz>45μm) < 2.5%
45 < K < 70: Medium burnability
70 < K < 100: Good burnability
100 < K < 140: Very good burnability
140 < K: Excellent burnability
% free CaO Effects of % 100 µm rejects % free CaO Effects of % 100 µm rejects
6 Quartz type raw mix 6 Marl type raw mix
5 25 % 5
4 4
3 3
2 10 % 2 25 %
1 1
10 %
5%
0 0
1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550
temperature °C temperature °C
1.9. Other Indicators

Burnability Factor
C3 S
• BF =
C 4 AF + C 3 A
Higher BF, harder to burn
Generally BF increases with SR
Burning Factor
• = LSF + 10 SR -3*(MgO + Na2O + K2O)
if >120 ´ harder to burn
Hydraulic Modulus
S + A+ F
• HM =
C+M
Cementation Index
2.8 S + 1.1 A + 0.7 F
• Cl =
C + 1 .4 M
Coating Index
• CT = C3A + C4AF + 0.2 C2S + 2*Fe2O3
Optimum value between 28 to 30,
if <28: light coating,
if >30: heavy unstable coating, rings, snowmen
Alkali saturation
Clinker basis calculation ´ Also refer to the “Volatilisation“ chapter (incrustation limits ´ effect of
sulphur alkali ratio and chlorine upon build up)
2. Particle Size Distribution

2.1. Rosin-Rammler Number
• The Rosin-Rammler curve mathematically approximates most powder particle size distributions:
n
⎡d ⎤
−⎢ ⎥
⎛ ⎛ 100 ⎞ ⎞
R = 100e ⎣ o ⎦ ⎟ ⎟⎟ = n (In( d ) − In( d o ))
d
or ln⎜⎜ ln⎜
⎝ ⎝ R ⎠⎠
d = particle size (μm)
R = % retained at d
do = particle size (μm) @ R = 100/e, approx. 36.8%
n = Rosin-Rammler number
• The formula allows PSD data to be represented as a straight line by plotting:
(In (In 100 )) vs. In (d)

R
n can be calculated by the slope of the least squares line.
The higher the RR number, the steeper the PSD as more particles are found into a narrow size
range.
Rules of thumb
• RR# for high efficiency separator cement: 1.1 - 1.2
RR# for Sturtevant circuit (raw or cement): 0.9 - 1.0
RR# for open circuit cement: 0.8 - 0.9,
• dO = 12-36 μm
• + 0.15 point #RR increases the water demand by 2-3% (ref. Les Cahiers Techniques)
2.2. Specific Surface Area

• The following can be used calculate the Specific Surface Area (SSA), assuming spherical particles:
4
• S i = 4πri2 M i = πri3 p
3
Si = the particle surface area
Mi = the particle weight
ri = the particle radius

ρ = the specific density of particles
• For a size distribution with n particles
4 3
Str = ni * Si = ni * 4πri2 Mtr = ni * πri ρ
3
3 ∗ M tr
Str =
ri ∗ ρ
6f 16 R j − R j +1
•
SSA =
ρ
∑d
j =0 + d j +1
j
F = Form factor (close to 1) do = 0.1 μm d6 = 4 μm d12= 48 μm

ρ = Specific density of cement (g/cm3) d1 = 0.3 μm d7 = 6 μm d13 = 64 μm
Ri = % retained at di d2 = 1 μm d8 = 8 μm d14 = 96 μm
di = Particle size (μm) d3 = 1.5 μm d9 = 12 μm d15 = 128 μm
d4 = 2 μm d10 = 16 μm d16 = 196 μm
d5 = 3 μm d11 = 24 μm
• The 0-3 μm fraction of normal Portland cement accounts for 60% of total surface.
2.3. Blaine Surface Area

• SSB = Blaine Surface Area (in cm2/g). It’s a permeability test. SSB is inversely proportional to the
ability to pass air through a bed of particles. The correlation between calculated SSA and SSB is:
SSA = 807 + 1.2 * SSB
• For cements with n=1 Anselm found:
4 where:
36.8 * 10 - do, n Rosin-Rammler distribution
SSA =
do * n * ρ - ρ = specific density = 3.2 x103 kg/m3
Rules of thumb (Les Cahiers Techniques)

• The Blaine specific surface correlates well (r2 = 0.92) with the % passing 10 µm (same for 8 µm):
+ 1 % passing 10 µm = + 10.8 m2/kg
• + 100 m2/kg SSB Î Range +4 to + 15 MPa , (Averages 2-7 days +8MPa, 1 & 28 days +6 MPa -
pure cements).
Warning:
Cement sulphate addition must be increased with SSB: +100 m2/kg Î + 0.5 to +0.6% SO3.
2% gypsum results in +10m2/kg at 370m2/kg SSB.
Warning:
The use of “weathered clinker” for cement production may significantly impact the measurement of Blaine
Surface Area. In such case the ”Blaine” result looks very fine but 45µ residues are also high. In such
case, when using weathered clinker, double checked with 45µ residue method
Graph 1 Graph 2
15 18
15
12
12
45m R
9 9
6
6
3
3 0
3200 3400 3600 3800 4000 4200 4400 4600 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Blaine Blaine
The graph1 displays an abnormal correlation between Blaine and 45µ residue. After investigation, the cause has
been identified: use of a significant amount of “weathered clinker”. Graph 2 shows a normal correlation.
3. Sulfate
3.1. Clinker Sulfates
• Possible forms of sulfates and alkalies:
as alkali sulfates (small crystals of a few µm) inserted between the clinker phases
as S and alkalies inserted in the crystal structures of silicate and aluminate phases
Clinker rich in alkalies and…
… poor in sulfates … rich in sulfates
• Little alkali sulfate • Much alkali sulfate
• Uncombined alkali: • Little uncombined alkali:
- N and K in orthorhombic C3A - Little K and N in cubic C3A
- K in C2S - Little K in C2S
• Inversed monoclinic C3S • Rhomboedric C3S
• Some sulfur in the uncombined alkali
S in silicates
and
aluminates
alkali sulfates
N and K in Cubic C3A alkali alkali
orthorhombic sulfates sulfates
C3A orthorhombic
Cubic C3A Cubic C3 A
C3A
Clinker sulfate content
Workability
problems, Increase of early-age Clinker harder
plastic strengths to grind
shrinkage
• On the basis of the content of sulfur with respect to alkalies, and the relative proportions of sodium
and potassium, alkali sulfates may be found under different forms:
Thenardite : Na 2 SO4 . This sodium sulfate is rarely seen in clinker.
Aphthitalite : Na 2 SO4 3 K 2 SO4 . Its composition may vary to (3 Na 2 SO4 K 2 SO4 ) .
Arcanite : K 2 SO4 . It is observed when the SO3 / K 2 O molar ratio ranges between 1 and 2.
Calcium langbeinite: 2 CaSO4 K 2 SO4 . This phase is encountered when the SO3 / sodium
equivalent* molar ratio is greater than 2 and the sodium percentage low vis-à-vis potassium.
Anhydrite: CaSO4 . It shows up only when the SO3 / sodium equivalent* molar ratio is greater
than 3.
Note:
Calcium langbeinite form can be also found in sintered clogging/coating after falling from the pre-heater
or kiln wall.
3.2. Sulfate Addition

• Gypsum and/or anhydrite - sulfates are added to control the setting process of the cement, primarily
the rapid setting of the C3A component.
a) False set
• Early development of stiffness without the evolution of much heat. It can be dispelled and plasticity
regained by further mixing without the addition of water [also called "grap set", "premature stiffening",
"hesitation set", "rubber set"].
b) Flash set
• Early development of stiffness usually with considerable evolution of heat. It cannot be dispelled nor
plasticity regained by further mixing without adding water [also called "quick set"]. Reaction is:
C 3 A + nH 2 O + C → C 4 A(H 2 O )n .
c) The Chemistry of False and Flash Set

Components
• Hemihydrate and the anhydrites are the dehydrated forms of gypsum.
Gypsum CaSO4 . 2 H 2 O
β -hemihydrate (plaster of Paris) CaSO4 .0.5 H 2 O
Soluble anhydrite ( CaSO4 .III) CaSO4 .( 0.001 _ 0.5 ) H 2 O
Insoluble (natural) anhydrite CaSO4
• They react differently than gypsum when added to cement.
Reactions
4.5
4
Sulfate solubility
3.5
100
3 Gypsum
Hemihydrate
SO3 solution
2.5 Soluble Anhydrite 80

2 Natural Anhydrite
60
% Dehydr.
(g/l)
1.5
40
1
20
0.
0
0
1 2. 6 1 2 3 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Time - Minutes Temp. °C
• Dehydration in the milling process can be thought as beginning at about 80 °C. However, gypsum
dehydration is also a function of the time and % humidity of the surrounding atmosphere.
Hemihydrate reacts differently than gypsum or anhydrite when water is added to cement, due to the
differences in solubility. In the case of too much hemihydrate, which dissolves very quickly and in
substantial quantities in the mix water, false set will occur. While too much hemihydrate will cause
false set, not having enough SO3 available in solution will cause much more serious flash set.
• How to determine the % of gypsum dehydration? Do refer to the National standards.

Example of calculation
% dehydration = 172.17 * LOI 250/ 36.04 (based on the molecular weights)
LOI at 250 degree Celcius
Available Hydration time Type

The following table gives sulphate in of
schematic diagrams of the solution 10 min 1 hour 3 hours set
structure development of cement.
The lattice work represents the Low Low Normal
ettringite crystallization, the set
C3A SO3
platelets - tabular monosulphate
and the rectangles - secondary workable workable set
gypsum.
High High Accelerated
C3A SO3 set
workable set set
High Low Flash

C3A SO3 set
set set set
Low High False

C3A SO3 set
set set set
Optimum sulfate
• S = 1.2(% sol Na 2 O equiv .) + 0.2 (% Al 2 O3 ) + 6.2 10 −3 (BSS ) − 0.7 .
• The sulfate content roughly corresponds to the optimum for 3-day strengths.
• How to conduct “Optimum sulfate trial?”? ´ Refer to the procedure, job aids and experience sharing
Use of grinding aid
• The Technical Agenda on “Grinding aid” provides key solutions / levers for optimizing the setting
process when relevant
4. Cement characteristics
4.1. Standards requirements
• In each country, there are National Standards that shall be strictly applied according to the National
Certification rules. Standards requirements are not negotiable!
• Some Lafarge BUs due to Export markets shall comply with several Certification systems. For
example, Langkawi plant in Malaysia shall comply to Malaysian, Indonesian, Nepalese and European
standards. All those standards requirements are mandatory and not negotiable!
There are at least 2 worldwide “product” standards systems: ASTM and ISO-EN., see extracts - section 8
4.2. Cement Strength

• Theoretical water required to totally hydrate the cement: 35% weight of cement.
• How to perform Compressive strength measurement? Refer to the corresponding LQTS (Lafarge
quality technical standard).
Parameters influencing the cement strength :
A variation of X MPa 1 day 2 days 7 days 28days

StrengthÎ is produced by
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
an increase of 1 point of:
Sol Na2Eq (%) 10 10 Compressive strength (MPa)

80
Tot Na2Eq (%) -10 C3S
70
C3S (%) 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.6
60 C2S
C2S(%) 0.5
50
C3A (%) 0.5 0.3 0.7
40
Hydration of pure phases
C4AF (%) -0.5 according to Boque and Lerch
30
MgO (%) -1.1 -1.0 -0.8 -0.6
20
C12A7
SO3/totAlk Excess 1.1 1.3 1.5 C3A
10
FCaO (%) 1.1 C4AF
0
7 28 90 180 360 days
D75Belite (μm) -0.2 -0.2 -0.3 -0.3
4.3. Colour
If % Fe 2 O3 is combined with Blaine specific surface (m2/kg), it is possible to explain 97% of the
observed color variations. MgO content will also impact cement color as well as the reducing condition
during the burning will give lighter color of the cement
5. Ten Basic Facts on Clinker
Warning:
Here, MPa is European standard (1.45 EN MPa= 1 US/Can MPa)
1) Raw mix rejects The reduction of raw mix rejects reduces the burning temperature and the cement
grinding energy:
100 µm R in raw mix: 20% Ô 10% ´ - 4 kWh/t on both raw mix & cement grinding.
This is particularly the case for siliceous rejects. This action is also rather favorable to
strengths.
2) Heat profile A short profile helps grindability and strength development. Slow cooling adversely
affects strengths and workability.
Clinkering level: 30 min. Ò 60 min. ´ - 3 to - 10 MPa in the laboratory.
3) Burning atmosphere Production uniformity requires an oxidizing atmosphere because a reducing
atmosphere promotes volatilization ´ "cyclic" operation, sulfate and alkali fluctuations,
thus a non uniform clinker:
SO3 variation in clinker from 1 to 4 % ´ variation in % alkali sulfates ´
possibility of large strength variations at 1 day.
4) Free lime content An increase in clinker free lime content reduces both initial and final setting times
+ 1 % free CaO (up to 1.5%) ´ - 50 min on average (- 10 à - 100 min
depending on clinker).
Similarly, the addition of lime shortens both initial and final setting time.
5) Clinker C 3 S content An increase in clinker C 3 S content (to the detriment of C 2 S ) improves strengths at
1, 2, 3 and 7 days:
+ 10% C 3 S ´ + 2 to + 5 MPa
At 28 days, the increase is less noticeable since there is also a contribution from
C2 S .
6) Clinker C 2 S content At constant Blaine specific surface, grinding energy increases with C 2 S content.
Inversely it reduces with an increase in C 3 S :
+ 10 % C2S ´ + 5 kWh/t for 350 m2/kg SSB

7) Clinker alkali content Alkali always works against 28-day strengths no matter what form they are:
+ 0.1 % Na2O equiv. ´ - 1 MPa
8) Clinker alkali and At optimum sulfate content for early ages, soluble alkalies, in particular in the form of
sulfates sulfates, improve early strengths:
+ 0.1 % Na2O equiv. ´ + 0.5 - 1.5 MPa
Strengths improve with an increase in the C3 A content.

9) Alkali saturation Alkali molar saturation by clinker SO3 facilitates control over workability:
Alkali saturation ´ Ô water demand and Ò fluidity and early-age fc.
10) Excess Sulfate / If clinker SO3 is increased beyond alkali molar saturation, increased clinker fineness
alkali
and higher grinding energy can be observed.
+ 1 % excess SO3 ´ + 4 to 5 kWh/t.
6. Advance Indicators
6.1. Raw Mix and Clinker
ADVANCE E D C B A
N
∑ (C 3 S i − C 3 ST )2
1
KFUI = or
N
i =1
N >30 20-30 14-20 10-14 <10
∑ (LSFi − LSFT )
5
KFUI =
2
N i =1
σ SO3
KSUI = × 100 >30 20-30 12-20 8-12 <8
1 + x SO3
σ fCaO 1.5- 1.2- 1.0-
fCaO.UI = >2 <1.0
0.1 + 0.2 × x fCaO3 2.0 1.5 1.2
Others
N
CUI .(clkC 3S ) = ∑ (C 3 S i − C 3 S average )2
1
< 16
N
i =1
Focusing on Uniformity
Do also study the fluctuation of other key parameters such as Silica modulus, Alkalies, MgO and kiln feed
fineness.
Experience sharing ´ in 2007, a bad performance on kiln reliability was closely related to …K2O
fluctuations! The cause was linked to the use of several clay sources. KFUI was “B/C”!
6.2. Finished products
ADVANCE E D C B A
Strength EN basis 3.0- 2.5- 2.0- <
>3.0
uniformity standard deviation 2.5 2.0 1.6 1.6
28 days ASTM basis and others 2.5- 2.0- 1.7- <
>2.5
Standard deviation 2.0 1.7 1.4 1.4
Calculation Interpretation
Addition For each product: Range of variation is fully independent from
product type and product mix; Variation from
Saturation Addition % Pr oduct − MIN addition %of s tan dard
ASX ( P ) = ×100 0 to100% for any product type.
Index MAX addition % − MIN addition % of s tan dard <0%: not reaching the standard lower limit
requirement
ASX
0%: no benefit is drawn from this product
Products mix of the entity (production site, BU, Region) type
Weighed average with the corresponding volumes for the global portfolio 100%: full benefit is taken from the product
type
>100%: means over passing the standard
limit requirement
Potential For each product:
Free PFK ( P ) = (% Clin ker present − % Clin ker MINimum in the s tan dard ) × Volume of Pr esently produced binder (t / y )
Clinker Add up directly the values of PFK(P) in the entity for all products to get the PFK for a given entity
PFK Results reported in tons/year

Interpret result as the quantity of clinker that can potentially be saved for the same binder volume or used to produce additional
cement
Maximum For each product compute the PFK as

described above but with ASX=100% then
Potential Total present volume of Binder produced (t / y )
MPCK ( E ) = × 100 compute the PFK at entity level then
C/K Total present volume of clin ker used (t / y ) − PFK ( E ) compute MPCK(E) by entity
Result reported without unit
MPCK(E)
COMPARISON OF PORTLAND CEMENT SPECIFICATIONS
ASTM C 150-09, AASHTO M 85-09 & CSA A3001-08
INTERNAL USE ONLY

Updated October, 2009 NORMAL MODERATE HIGH EARLY LOW HEAT SULFATE RESISTANT
CHEMICAL REQUIREMENTS ASTM / AASHTO CSA ASTM/AASHTO CSA ASTM / AASHTO CSA ASTM / AASHTO CSA ASTM / AASHTO CSA
I GU GUL II II (MH) MS MH MHL III HE HEL IV LH LHL V HS
Al2O3, max, % 6.0 6.0
2 3
Fe O , max, % 6.0 (k) 6.0 (h,k) 6.5
MgO, max, % 6.0 5.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 5.0 6.0 5.0 6.0 5.0 6.0 5.0
7. Cement Standards
SO3, max,%,(j) when C3A < 8% 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.5 3.5 3.0 2.3 2.5 3.0 2.3 2.5
C3A > 8% 3.5 3.5 3.0 3.0 4.5 4.5 3.0 3.0
Loss on Ignition, max, % 3.0 3.0 (e) 10.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 10.0 3.0 3.0 (e) 10.0 2.5 3.0 10.0 3.0 3.0
Insoluble Residue, max, % 0.75 1.5 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 1.5 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75
C3S, max, % 35 (h)
C2S, max, % 40 (h)
C3A, max, % 8 8 8 8 15 (c) 7 (h) 6 5 (k) 5
Heat Index, C3S+4.75(C3A) (s) 100
C4AF+2(C3A)) or solid solution
25 (k)
(C4AF+C2F), as applicable, max, %
NaEq(Na2O+0.658K2O), max, % (d) 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60

Limestone, min-max, % 0.0 - 5.0 (a) 0-5 5 - 15 (b) 0.0 - 5.0 (a) 0.0 - 5.0 (a) 0-5 0-5 5 - 15 (b) 0.0 - 5.0 (a) 0-5 5 - 15 (b) 0.0 - 5.0 (a) 0-5 5 - 15 (b) 0.0 - 5.0 (a) 0-5
Inorganic Processing Addition, max, % 5.0 (v) (g) (g) 5.0 (v) 5.0 (v) (g) (g) (g) 5.0 (v) (g) (g) 5.0 (v) (g) (g) 5.0 (v) (g)
Organic Processing Addition, max, % 1.0 (w) (g) (g) 1.0 (w) 1.0 (w) (g) (g) (g) 1.0 (w) (g) (g) 1.0 (w) (g) (g) 1.0 (w) (g)
PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS
Setting Time, Vicat Test
Minimum, minutes 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45
Maximum, minutes 375 375 375 375 375 375 375 375 375 250 250 375 375 375 375 375
Setting Time, Gillmore Test (d)
Minimum, minutes 60 60 60 60 60 60
Maximum, minutes 600 600 600 600 600 600
Compressive Strength, MPa (psi) (q)
1-day, min 12.0 (1740) 13.5 13.5
3-day, min 12.0 (1740) 14.5 14.5 10.0 (1450) 10.0 (1450) 14.5 14.5 14.5 24.0 (3480) 24.0 24.0 8.5 8.5 8.0 (1160) 14.5
7-day, min 19.0 (2760) 20.0 20.0 17.0 (2470) 17.0 (2470) 20.0 20.0 20.0 7.0 (1020) 15.0 (2180) 20.0
28-day, min 28.0 (4060) (d) 26.5 26.5 28.0 (4060) (d) 28.0 (4060) (d) 26.5 26.5 26.5 38.0 (d) 17.0 (2470) 25.0 25.0 21.0 (3050) 26.5
current version of the applicable Standards for the full and accurate reference.
91-day, min (d) 33.0 (d)

1-day, max (d) 36.0
3-day, max (d) 32.5 32.5 32.5 43.0 32.5
7-day, max (d) 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0
28-day, max (d) 51.0 51.0 51.0 60.0 51.0
3-day, min (p) 7.0 (1020)
7-day, min (p) 12.0 (1740)
28-day, min (p) 22.0 (3190)
28-day, C.V., max, % (p) 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0
*The data contained in the following tables is intended for information purposes; please consult the

PRODUCT QUALITY & DEVELOPMENT – Page 16/20
COMPARISON OF BLENDED HYDRAULIC CEMENT SPECIFICATIONS
ASTM C 1157-08a and C 595-09, AASHTO M 240-09, and CSA A3001- 08
Updated December, 2009 ASTM C1157-08a ASTM C 595-09 and AASHTO M 240-09 CSA A3001-08
ASTM /
ASTM / AASHTO ASTM / AASHTO ASTM Ternary
BLENDED CEMENT PROPORTIONS GU HE MS HS MH LH AASHTO Binary
IS (< 70) IP IT Quaternary
IS (≥ 70)
INTERNAL USE ONLY

<70 70-95 <95 max. 70%
Slag content / content variation, % (q) max. 60% *
± 5.0 ± 5.0 ± 5.0 ±5
<40 <40 max. 40%
Pozzolan content / content variation, % (q) max. 60% *
This performance specification covers hydraulic cements for both general and ± 5.0 ± 5.0 ± 2.5
max. 15%
Silica fume content / content variation, % (q) special applications, There are no restrictions on the composition of the cement max. 60% *
± 1.5
or its constituents. max. 50%
Fly ash content / content variation, % (q) max. 60% *
± 2.5
Limestone, max, % 5.0 (w) 5.0 (w) 5.0 (w) 5.0 (w) 5 (w)
ASTM /
ASTM / AASHTO ASTM / AASHTO
AASHTO
IS (< 70)(a) IP (a)
IS (≥ 70) (a)
CHEMICAL REQUIREMENTS GU HE MS HS MH LH N FA (F, CI, CH) S SF (SF, SFI) Ternary
ASTM ASTM ASTM
IT (P<S<70) IT (≥70) IT (P>S)
SiO2, min, % (b) (b) (b)
Al2O3, max, % (b) (b) (b)
CaO, max, % (b) (b) (b)
6.0

MgO, max, % The chemical composition for the cement is not specified. However, the cement
SO3 (CSA) - Sulfate as SO3 (ASTM), max, % shall be analyzed for informational purposes. 3.0 (c) 4.0 (c) 4.0 (c) 3.0 (n) 3.0 (n) 3.0 (n.o) 3.0 (n) 3.0 (n)
Sulfide S, max, % 2.0 2.0 2.0 (p)
Insoluble Residue, max, % 1.0 1.0 1.0
Loss on Ignition, max, % 3.0 4.0 5.0 10.0 6.0 3.0 3.5 6.0
ASTM / AASHTO ASTM / ASTM / AASHTO
IS (< 70) AASHTO IP
ASTM
IS (≥ 70) ASTM
PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS GU HE MS HS MH LH GUb MSb MHb HEb LHb HSb
IT (P<S<70) IT (P>S)
ASTM
GU MS HS GU MS HS LH (k)
IT (≥70)
Setting time, Vicat test
Minimum, minutes 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 60 60 45 90 60
Maximum, minutes 420 420 420 420 420 420 420 420 420 420 420 420 420 420 480 480 480 250 480 480
Air content (mortar), volume, max, % (r) (r) (r) (r) (r) (r) 12 (f) 12 (f) 12 (f) 12 (f) 12 (f) 12 (f) 12 (f) 12 (f)
Compressive Strength, MPa (psi) (f) (f) (f) (f) (f) (f) (f) (f) (l) (l) (l)
1-day, min 10 (1450) 13.5
3-day, min 13 (1890) 17 (2470) 11 (1600) 11 (1600) 5 (725) 13.0 (1890) 11.0 (1600) 11.0 (1600) 13.0 (1890) 11.0 (1600) 11.0 (1600) 14.5 14.5 14.5 24.0 14.5
7-day, min 20 (2900) 18 (2610) 18 (2610) 11 (1600) 11 (1600) 20.0 (2900) 18.0 (2610) 18.0 (2610) 5.0 (720) 20.0 (2900) 18.0 (2610) 18.0 (2610) 11.0 (1600) 20.0 20.0 20.0 8.5 20.0
28-day, min 28 (4060) 28.0 (s) 25 (3620) 22.0 (s) 21 (3050) 25.0 (3620) 25.0 (3620) 25.0 (3620) 11.0 (1600) 25.0 (3620) 25.0 (3620) 25.0 (3620) 21.0 (3050) 26.5 26.5 26.5 38.0 (s) 25.0 26.5
91-days, min 33.0 (s)
28-day, C.V., max, % (m) 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0

PRODUCT QUALITY & DEVELOPMENT – Page 17/20
EN 197-1 (2000) ´ Tables are extracted from BS EN 197-1
8. References
8.1. Lafarge Quality Technical Standards (LQTS)
• XRF Analysis for In-coming materials, In-process materials and finished products
• Free lime analysis by Complexometry method
• Fineness by Blaine
• Monitoring the quality of laboratory measurements
• Effective quality control plan
• Compressive strength measurement
8.2. Knowledge
• Lafarge product platform (problem analysis)

• Technical Memento
• Minor Elements Database
• Cementitious Database
• Grinding Aids Technical Agenda Study
• Les Cahiers Techniques
8.3. Tools
• Concrete Predictive Model Database

• EN conformity evaluation tool
• Standards
• Micro-concrete
• Model for balancing trace elements in a plant
• TYTP toolkit
My notes:
CHAPTER 5 – ENVIRONMENT
5. Environment
© Copyright 1990 - 2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved. ENVIRONMENT 1 /20
Table of Contents
1. NOx ...............................................................................................................3
1.1 NOx generalities ............................................................................................. 3
1.2 NOx formation in the kiln ................................................................................ 3
1.3 NOx Formation in the Precalciner .................................................................. 5
1.4 NOx Abatement Methods ................................................................................ 5
2. SO2 ...............................................................................................................7
2.1 SO2 from combustion ..................................................................................... 7
2.2 SO2 from raw material.................................................................................... 7
2.3 Best Available Control Technologies (BACT) for SO2 emissions .................. 7
3. Dust ..............................................................................................................8
3.1 ESP................................................................................................................. 8
3.2 Baghouse...................................................................................................... 10
3.3 Hybrid filters.................................................................................................. 11
3.4 Gas Conditioning & Cooling ......................................................................... 11
4. Mercury ......................................................................................................12
4.1 Hg Generalities ............................................................................................. 12
4.2 Fate of Mercury in the Cement Process ....................................................... 13
4.3 Mercury Abatement Methods ....................................................................... 13
4.4 Regulation..................................................................................................... 13
5. Dioxins & Furans.......................................................................................13

5.1 Dioxins & Furans Formation ......................................................................... 13
5.2 Influencing factors of stack PCDD/Fs levels in cement kilns ....................... 14
5.3 Primary measures and process optimization to reduce PCDD/Fs............... 14
5.4 Regulations................................................................................................... 15
6. Carbon Dioxide..........................................................................................15
7. Others.........................................................................................................16
7.1 Molar ratio calculation (DeNox Example)...................................................... 16
7.2 Correction to Standard Oxygen Conditions.................................................. 16
7.3 Continuous Emission Monitoring (CEMS) .................................................... 17
7.4 Emission Ranges for European Cement Kilns ............................................. 17
7.5 European AF Kiln Emission Limits ............................................................... 18
8. References .................................................................................................19
8.1 Lafarge Documents ...................................................................................... 19
8.2 External Documents ..................................................................................... 19
1. NOx
1.1 NOx generalities

• Gross NOx emissions are typically in the range of 500 to 1,500 ppm being closely related to kiln
combustion conditions.
• In the cement industry normally, 95% of NOx formed is nitric oxide (NO). This gas is colourless and
is readily transformed into NO2 in air.
• Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is a reddish-brown gas and is the principal component of smog. The toxic
effects of NO2 are not completely known, but an exposure to 15 ppm NO2 causes eye and nose
irritations and 25 ppm causes pulmonary discomfort.
• Nitrous Oxide (N2O) represents <1% (typically 10 - 20 ppm) of NOx produced in a cement kiln. It is
very stable and is considered to play a role in the destruction of ozone.
1.2 NOx formation in the kiln

a) Thermal NOx formation mechanisms
• Thermal NOx is defined as that portion of the oxides of nitrogen that originate from fixation of
atmospheric nitrogen. The principal reactions for the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen are generally
recognised as follows (Zeldovich mechanism):
O + N 2 → NO + N
N + O2 → NO + O
N 2 + O2 → 2 NO
• In an oxidising atmosphere NO is formed. ALL steps listed above are reversible in a reducing
atmosphere, depending on exact temperature and partial pressure conditions at a given point in the
flame.
• Thermal NO formation kinetics are slow compared with fuel oxidation reactions and may be
disassociated from the combustion process. Thus final NO concentrations never reach levels
predicted by thermodynamic equilibrium at temperatures used.
• Some studies (Fenimore, Bowman,...1971) found that the rates of thermal NOx formation in the
primary flame zone were considerably higher than those in the post flame zone. This “fast NO”
formation occurred at rates greatly exceeding the rate predicted by the O, N atom equilibrium
mechanism. Some NO is formed before the O atom has had chance to form O2 (second
hypothesis).
b) Prompt NOx formation mechanisms
• Prompt NO is formed by the breaking of N2 bonds by “CH” hydrocarbonaceous radicals released

primarily by the fuel instead of O2 radicals in practical terms the amounts are negligible (less than
100ppm).
c) Fuel NOx
• The “fuel NOx” is due to the nitrogen conversion in the flame during the combustion. Nitrogen is
mainly contained in aromatic compounds.
• Rule of thumb : 0.2 to 2% N in fuel may yield 60 to 2100 ppm NO
• Many fuels contain significant quantities of chemically bound nitrogen. Some oils can have nitrogen
in excess of 2-4% and many liquid hazardous wastes can contain even higher levels. The following
table shows the potential NO formation from different fuels, expressed in ppm of neutral combustion
gas:
FUEL Nitrogen % Potential NO

ppm @ 0% O2
Natural Gas 0 0
Fuel Oil 0.3 – 0.5 500 – 800
Fuel Oil 0.5 – 1.0 800 - 1600
Coal 0.5 – 2 1200 – 4900
Petcoke 1-2 1800 - 3600
d) What Affects the NOx Formation in the Kiln?
The Oxygen Level 1 Nox reduction in natural gas flame

NA combustion book, p164
• O2 level affects the formation of both fuel and 0.8

thermal NOx which is explained by the fact
Nox/Nox ambient air
that NOx formation requires a free oxygen 0.6

atom. 0.4
• Even if NO is formed, reducing conditions 0.2
(even local) and high temperature can Oxidant oxygen level (%)
produce NO separation into N2 and O2 – 0
lowering total NO produced. 21 20 19 18
Combustion air temperature

400 600
Air 500 Air
NO (ppm)
300
NO, ppm
NO thermal Ar/O2 400

Thermal NOx
200 300
NO combustible Ar/O2
200
100
100 Fuel NOx
0
0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40 50
Excess air
Excess air
NO formation with ambient air NO formation with preheated air - 275 °C
• This shows that the preheated air increases thermal NOx but not fuel NOx.
• Formation of thermal NOx is strongly dependent on the flame temperature and a few factors can
affect it.
Flame Shape
• The hotter the flame, the higher the NOx emission so the burner pipe settings affecting the flame
shape also have an impact on the NOx emission: i.e. primary air, combustible fineness, volatiles
content...
1.3 NOx Formation in the Precalciner

• NOx generated in the calciner is mainly fuel related. Thus we’d rather use low N content fuel.
• About 60% of the fuel nitrogen is converted into NOx in a PH/PC tower (cf. Davenport Kiln audit
1997, 64%).
a) What Affects the NOx Generation in the Precalciner?
CO Level
• The CO presence (even ppm level) indicates reducing atmospheres which affects NO formation.
Low-NOx precalciners create local reducing atmospheres to reverse NO formation. However, large
amounts of CO are produced and thus require a low temperature post burn to control the quantity of
CO emitted. Rule of thumb: 3 sec. residence time (Richmond FLS – ILC). Some FLS designed ILC
in South America also employ 3 circuit burners, which are claimed to contribute to lower NO
formation. It is possible to create reducing atmospheres in a calciner by relocating the fuel injection
point.
Oxygen Level
• The fuel nitrogen needs oxygen to be transformed into NOx so that the NOx level will increase with
the oxygen level. This is true for conventional precalciner designs. This is not true for Low-NOx
precalciners, since O2 levels include the excess air required for post burn.
Temperature
• Some tests were performed by FLS. An increase of the precalciner flame temperature seems to
reduce the NOx emission but this phenomenon is not yet well understood.
1.4 NOx Abatement Methods

a) Methods
For further details, see Technical Agenda: “NOx reduction techniques study”.
Process Mastery
1) Improve KFUI: permits the operator to burn consistently at a lower temperature.
2) Improve mix burnability: lower clinkerization temperature (not always applicable).
3) Improve clinker cooler stability: Minimize secondary air temperature fluctuations that can affect
flame temperatures. For air separate precalciners, it stabilizes the tertiary air temperature.
4) Avoid over burning: Points 1, 2. also consider burning practices and the employment of LUCIE.
5) Reduce excess air
6) Reduce Primary air – lower limit depends upon fuel burned
7) Optimise burner settings
Modifications
8) Lower Fuel Nitrogen
9) Install a Low-NOx burner – high momentum with low primary air
10) Inject water - limited application due to higher fuel consumption
11) Whole tire injection (preheater kiln): Creates reducing atmospheres,
12) Injecting fuel into lower part of kiln riser to create a reduction zone. Consider mid-kiln fuel
injection on long kilns and above calciner in Lepol grates
13) Staged Fuel Combustion (SFC): to create a long enough reducing atmosphere zone (NOx -> N2):
<800mg/Nm3 with low reactive fuels and <500mg/Nm3 with high reactive fuels.
Post-combustion control technologies

14) Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction (SNCR) with ammonia or Urea Injection. Optimum
temperature ranges (850 to 950°C for urea and 900 to 1000°C for NH3). Ammonia emission
(ammonia slip) can become an issue at the lowest NOx levels.
15) Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) using NH3 in presence of a catalyst with potential for low
NOx emission (pilot plants with 90% NOx reduction) without ammonia slip. However, it is still a
developing technology for cement industry and experience is limited. Optimum temperature
window for SCR is 350 – 400°C. Two main configurations are proposed – high dust design at
preheater exit, requiring frequent cleaning of catalyst and resulting in reduced catalyst lifetime
and a low dust design after the waste gas de-dusting requiring reheating of the gases to the
temperature window.
2. SO2
2.1 SO2 from combustion

See also chapter Volatile in section pyroprocessing
• 1% sulphur in heavy fuel oil yields 700 ppm SO2 in the dry stoichiometric products of combustion.
2.2 SO2 from raw material

A large part of the S content in raw material (sulphates and sulphides) forms SO2 in the upper stages of
the preheater and is the main source of stack emissions of SO2 for a preheater / precalciner kiln system.
The ability of different process to trap the SO2 is described in the following table:
2-
S /total SO Online operation Trapping by
Kiln type Process Mastery 3
Mastery of raw mill process
Long wet High Low - Medium

Long dry High Low High Medium
LEPOL Medium Medium - Medium
Pre-heater/Pre- Low High High High
Calciner
A special case is the kiln line equipped with a Chlorine by-pass: the amount of SO2 (in some cases up to
10000ppm) in the by-passed stream can require the addition of some form of SO2 trapping equipment.
2.3 Best Available Control Technologies (BACT) for SO2 emissions

(see Cembureau BAT reference document 2000/03)
Max. SO2 Kiln
SO2 reduction CAPEX
[mg/Nm³] systems Comments
[%] (M€)
(10%O2, dry) applicability
Slaked lime – Ca(OH)2 < 1200 < 60 - 80 0.2 – 0.3 [1]
Slaked lime(slurry) - Micromist and
? ~90 - Dry
Ca(OH)2 [2] others [3]
Circulating fluidized None in
bed Absorber (CFBA) operation in
> 1200 (1500) <90 ~11 Dry
cement
industry
Wet Scrubber > 1200 75 - ~95 10 – 14 All
Activated carbon Adsorbs other
> 1200 ~95 15 Dry pollutants
from gases
Efficiencies are given for optimum process conditions and cannot be guaranteed for all installations.
[1] Dry addition to kiln feed or gas flow after preheater.
[2] Slurry addition in conditioning tower, with special solution of “Micromist/ENVIROCARE”.
[3] Limited practical experiences in Lafarge and reported unreliable operation (blockage and wear of
nozzles). Reported high efficiencies only achieved for a very short time.
Wet scrubber and slaked lime addition are the only ones believed applicable and reliable.
NB: there is an draft updated version of BAT (chapters 19, 20) published in 2009, less exhaustive than
the previous one, that only refers to absorbent addition and wet scrubber; it also mentions an optimisation
of raw milling process (for dry lines) to reduce SO2.
⇒ See Technical Agenda study Gas Scrubber for more details.
3. Dust
3.1 ESP
a) Collection efficiency
• Gas velocity impacts treatment time and power density (range from 0.6 – 1.5 m/s).
• Specific collecting area (SCA) in ranges from 60 - 180 m2/Am3/s
• Migration velocity W (Lafarge NA cement kilns): 30 to 110 cm/s.
• For a four field ESP with 80% collection efficiency, you will get an overall efficiency of 99.8%.
Cumulative
Entering Collected
Field # Collection
(kg) (kg)
Efficiency
1 100.0 80.0 80.0 %
2 20.0 16.0 96.0 %
3 4.0 3.2 99.2 %
4 0.8 0.6 99.8 %
• Modified Deutsch Equation: Efficiency= 1 – (exp – {(A/Q)*W}0.5), where
Q is the gas flow through precipitator, A is the Collection area and SCA (A/Q) is usually calculated to
reach the efficiency problem to compute the migration velocity W, 0.5 is an empirical factor.
Process Range of migration Range of SCA

velocity (cm/s) m2/(m3/s)
Wet Kilns 30 – 80 60 - 110
Long Dry Kilns 30 – 60 80 - 180
PH/PC Kilns 45 – 110 65 - 115
Data for ESPs on PC kilns with 400 mm plate spacing and dust emission < 50 mg/Nm3:
SCA m2/(m3/s)
Main ESP – Direct Operation 70 - 90

Main ESP – Compound Operation 50 – 70
Cooler Exhaust 90 - 120
• Operating voltage: 30 to 70 kV (in some cases up to 100kV), depending on design factors.

• Operating current density: 5 to 50 mA/ m2.
• Dust layer thickness: 0.75 to 1.5cm.
b) Load and particle size

Higher voltage gives increased collection efficiency. Usually, the first field will collect the biggest particles
and consequently, the finest will be found in the last field. Finer particles are more difficult to capture as
shown in the following typical curve:
Efficiency %
99.99
99.8
98
90
0.1 1 10 50
. Particle Size µm
Volatile compounds such as salts of alkali metals and chlorine have a tendency to be attached to the finer
dust. Hence separation of dust from the outlet field(s) can be an effective way of bleeding volatile
compounds from the process.
c) Gas moisture impact
• Gas moisture controls the ability to maintain power input.

• Power increases with moisture at elevated temperatures up to an optimum one.
• Moisture allows conductance of electrons through dust layer allowing surface voltage to decrease
(i.e., higher effective kV) and suppresses space charge effects of fine particles (i.e. reduces
sparking).
Impact of Moisture & Temperature upon Dust Resistivity
• Volume of moisture required is not constant and changes with temperature, particle size chemistry,
loading and ESP design (i.e., site specific)
3.2 Baghouse
a) Filter media
• There are two types of filter media:

Woven
Felt
• Cloth type and weight are selected, based on temperature, moisture (because of hydrolysis) and
resistance (acid, alkali, oxidation and abrasion). Mostly used in cement industries are:
Max. temp. on Lifetime
Generic name type Trade name type continuous op. Application guarantee
(ºC) (years)
Polypropylene Herculon 125 General 2

Polyester Dacron 130 General, mills 2
Glass Fiberglass 260 Kiln, cooler 3
Polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE) Teflon 250 Kiln, cement 4
Expanded PTFE Rastex, Gore-tex 250 Kiln 3–4
Expanded PTFE/Glass Superflex 250 Kiln 5–6
Aromatic Aramid Nomex 190 Kiln, cooler 2–3
Polymide P 84 240 Kiln 2–3
b) Air/Cloth (A/C) ratio (or filtration velocity)
Configuration Recommended Net A/C m3/s/m2/min Pressure drop ΔP

Styles De-dusting Mills Kiln Coolers mm Hg
Shaker type 0.6 – 0.8 0.6 – – 7.5 – 11
Reverse air 0.6 – 0.8 0.6 0.45 – 0.55 0.5 – 0.6 7.5 – 11
Pulse-jet 1.2 – 1.8 1.2 0.9 – 1.1 1.0 – 1.3 9 – 19
c) Bag length
• For an optimised cleaning effect and longer bag lifetime, the maximum acceptable bag length for a
high pressure system is 4m and 7m for the low pressure ones.
•
d) Cleaning of Pulse-jet Filters
• Cleaning can be either online or offline, however, online cleaning is generally preferred due to a
lower capital cost. Also online cleaning will lead to more consisted dust flow from the filter,
compared to the offline mode
• Filter designs are available with high pressure (6.5 bar) or low pressure (2.5 bar) cleaning. The
advantage of the latter is the increase in bag lifetime to 4-6 years compared with 3-4 years with the
high pressure design. Longer bags can also be used with the low pressure design.
3.3 Hybrid filters

• There is a mix -solution for process filters: those that are formed by an electrostatic field in the first
part and a bags section in the second.
• This is a common solution when upgrading a ESP (higher line capacity, adaptation to new
regulations, etc.) that can save money (assuming good conditions for casing, electrical part and
dust evacuation, the cost of a hybrid filter in an existing ESP casing can be less expensive than a
new filter).
• This solution guarantees the emissions in case of a short-time electrical part malfunctioning while
reducing the total pressure loss, air consumption, and increasing the lifetime of bags. A separation
of CKD from different uses is also possible.
3.4 Gas Conditioning & Cooling

• In older plants using electrostatic precipitators for the kiln, gas conditioning towers (GCTs) were
fitted for gas conditioning to ensure efficient dust collection
• Modern plants using bag filters are normally fitted with downcomer sprays to reduce gas
temperature to a temperature that can be safely handled by the filter bags, normally 200 – 220°C.
• GCT’s and duct cooling are benchmarked using evaporation rate:
waterflow(kg / hr )
Evaporation _ Rate(kg / hr / m 3 ) =
Effective _ tower _ volume(m 3 )
The effective tower (or duct) volume is defined as the volume available in the straight vertical part
starting from the spray entry level.
• Typical GCT proportions: Length (effective) to Diameter ratio 3 to 4
Spillback systems:
High pressure (40 Bar) pumps provided atomization at the nozzles, with flow control fitted on a
water return line.
Relatively large droplet size 380 – 450 µm : low evaporation rates 15 – 18 kg/hr water / m3 tower
volume
Variability of droplet size with flow often meant difficult transitions switching from raw mill on to
raw mill off condition and vice versa.
Difficulty to maintain 150°C outlet temperature
• Air Atomised systems:

Improved atomization with compressed air overcame most of the problems with spillback
systems
Smaller droplet size 125 – 250 µm depending upon the nozzle design and quantity of
compressed air used.
Potential to uprate existing plants and still maintain ESP performance
Possibility to use air atomised nozzles for gas cooling in the downcomer (assuming a straight
vertical duct) to 200°C when using a bag filter for main dust collector, i.e. no need for a GCT to
be installed
Increase in power consumption due to compressed air 1 – 2 kWh/t clinker
Typical design evaporation rates are up to 30 kg/hr/m3 for GCT’s and up to 50 kg/hr/m3 for
cooling in the downcomer. However, “wet bottoms” have been experienced when operating
near these upper values.
• Multi-Nozzle Lances:
Recognising the negative impact upon power consumption, one supplier, Lechler, has developed
Multi-Nozzle lances as a solution to improve old spillback systems without having to go to an Air
Atomised system.
The design provides smaller droplet sizes than older spillback systems at around 350 µm
Operating evaporation rates with these nozzles have been reported up to 24 kg/hr/m3 maximum
from installations in Lafarge.
4. Mercury
4.1 Hg Generalities
• Mercury enters the kiln system with the raw materials and fuels.
• Raw materials contribute the majority (60-95%) of Hg input into the cement manufacturing process.
• While raw materials typically have lower mercury concentrations than coal, raw material contribution
is larger due to greater mass flow. Limestone influence is the greatest. The range for Limestone is
from 0.004 ppm up to 0.81 ppm. High levels have been seen in the layer in contact with clay and
shale.
• Variability of mercury concentrations in raw materials is significant
maximum minimum A verage
ppb ppb ppb
100000
10000
1000
100
10
Mercury Concentrations in Kiln Feed Materials (Lafarge data 2005-2008).
• Significant contribution to total mercury has been noted for plants with elevated mercury content in
fly ash due to mercury capture in power plants.
• Hg is highly concentrated in the CKD. The range for CKD is from 0.06ppm up to 40ppm.
• Hg concentration in the clinker is very low. Hg removal by clinker is negligible.
4.2 Fate of Mercury in the Cement Process

• The mercury vaporizes from the raw material at temperatures between 200°C and 700°C, while
mercury in the fuel vaporizes in the flame.
• The mercury is adsorbed by the solids in the cold end of the kiln, which are captured in the ESP or
bag-house.
• The mercury captured by the ESP or bag-house can be recycled to the pyro-process with the dust.
If so, a recirculation loop is established that builds up the mercury levels in the gas and entrained
solids until a steady state is established.
• If the ESP or Fabric Filter temperature is reduced or if kiln gas is passed through the raw mill (when
the mill is on line), the mercury emissions in the stack will be reduced due to the higher absorption
by the solids. As the solids are recycled to the kiln, the levels of emissions will gradually return to
the original values, in the absence of dust removal. However, if dust is removed, the amount of
mercury removed with the dust will increase with decreases of ESP or bag-house temperature, so
that the net emissions of mercury will be reduced.
4.3 Mercury Abatement Methods

a) Primary Measures
• The primary measures to stop an Hg enrichment cycle must be applied individually or by

combination:
⇒ A reduction of the Hg inputs by selecting raw materials and/or fuels with a low Hg content.
⇒ CKD removal, which is the most efficient factor, added to the cement milling stage.
⇒ Hg removal can be improved by a temperature reduction at the inlet of the de-dusting
system via an improved Hg trapping on the particles (raw meal, CKD, reagent …).
• These measures are detailed in the TA Mercury Fate & Control.
b) Secondary Measures
• Secondary Abatement Measures are proposed in the TA Mercury Fate & Control.
4.4 Regulation
• The regulations are changing with moves to lower emissions of mercury, therefore up to date
national regulations need to be consulted.
• As an example national regulations in European countries range from 30 – 200 µg/Nm3 (dry gas
10% Oxygen, 101.325 kPa and 273 K) for half hourly averages. (Jan 2010).
5. Dioxins & Furans
5.1 Dioxins & Furans Formation

PCDD/Fs can derive from volatile organics in the raw meal and Cl-donors from fuel or raw mix.
• Organics partially combust hence producing benzene-type compounds or precursors (most likely
precursors in cement kilns are: polychlorophenols, polychlorobenzene, phenol, benzene,
dibenzofuran).
• Precursors react in:

Gaseous phase (mainly 400-700°C): combination of 2 benzene compounds to form PCDD/Fs,
Heterogeneous phase i.e. on dust surface (mainly 300-500°C) where they react with Cl2 and HCl
+ O2 with a metal catalyst (eg: Cu, Fe, Ni, Al, Zn) to form PCDD/Fs.
5.2 Influencing factors of stack PCDD/Fs levels in cement kilns

The formation of PCDD/Fs needs several factors at the right level (Temp.; residence time; Cl; precursors;
catalyst) otherwise the formation of PCDD/Fs is not possible. Most of the time emissions levels of most of
the cement kilns are extremely low.
The main factors influencing PCDD/Fs are:
• Temperature: 400°C is the optimum temperature for PCDD/Fs formation by catalysis on dust. No
formation below 180-220°C.
• Residence time: positive correlation if within temp. window / kiln type (long or short, with gas
quenching or not at filter inlet).
• Presence of catalyst: Cu, Fe, Ni, Al, Zn.
• Presence of Cl (but no correlation Cl/HCl vs PCDD/Fs)
• Presence of hydrocarbons from raw materials (but no correlation THCs vs PCDD/Fs)
• Rate of adsorption desorption on dust: gases through raw mill on or not, bypass or not,
baghouse – filter cake acts as adsorbent – or ESP, accumulation of dust in the ducts.
• SO2 emissions: SO2 react with Cu Æ inhibits the catalyst reaction.
5.3 Primary measures and process optimization to reduce PCDD/Fs

By experience, the 6 first primary measures have shown to be sufficient to operate below the emissions
limits.
• Continuous and regular supply of fuels and alternative fuels.
• Pre-treatment / preparation of waste (waste specific) with the objective to provide a more
homogeneous feed and more stable combustion conditions.
• Feeding of alternative fuels through the main burner or the secondary burner at precalciner-pre-
heater kilns at temperature > 900°C.
• No alternative material feed as part of raw-mix if it includes organics.
• Stabilisation of process parameters.
• No alternative fuels feed during start-up and shut-down.
• Check the rates of adsorption desorption on dust: gases through raw mill on or not, bypass or not,
baghouse – filter cake acts as adsorbent – or ESP, accumulation of dust in the ducts.
• Check the presence of catalyst.
• Compare SO2 emissions from the past with present situation. SO2 react with Cu Æ inhibits the
catalyst reaction.
• Quick cooling of kiln and by-pass exhaust gases lower than 200°C – target 180°C.
• Reduce the retention time of the exit gas in the temperature window of 450°C-200°C at least below
5-10 seconds.
5.4 Regulations
References EU reference US reference
Temp. : 0°C Temp. : 20°C
Pressure : 101,3 kPa Pressure : 101,3 kPa
O2%vol : 10% O2%vol : 7%
Limits Basis : dry Basis : dry
EU regulation 0.1 ng TEQ/Nm
3
0.119 ng TEQ/Nm3
US Regulation (EPA)
PMCD* inlet ≥ 204°C 0.169 ng TEQ/Nm3 0.2 ng TEQ/Nm

3
PMCD* inlet < 204°C 0.337 ng TEQ/Nm3 0.4 ng TEQ/Nm

3
* Particulate matter control Device

Table from TA DIOXINS & FURANS STUDY - May2004 - version n°1
Regulations expressed as TEQ – Toxic Equivalent
Additional information is available in the Technical Agenda DIOXINS & FURANS STUDY – May 2004 –
version 1.
6. Carbon Dioxide
• The cement industry contributes around 5% of global industrial CO2 emissions and is therefore
considered as a major emitter
• Direct sources of CO2 emissions are the carbonates in the raw feed and from the combustion of
fuels. Typical direct emission for a modern preheater/precalciner plant are 850 – 900 kg CO2/t
clinker, with around 60% from the calcination of raw materials and the rest from fuel combustion.
• Indirect emissions are from electric power consumed by the plant. Our main concern is to reduce
power consumption. Indirect emissions per MWh vary widely dependant upon the method of
electricity production.
• Main short term options for reduction of direct emissions:
Increased use of additives in cement to reduce clinker usage
Improve fuel consumption of process
Increased use of biomass fuels, considered as carbon neutral
Use of fuels with lower CO2 intensity (e.g petcoke 95 kg CO2/GJ)
• Potential options for the future
New clinkers / cements requiring less calcium carbonates in raw materials
More energy efficient processes
CO2 capture and storage
7. Others
7.1 Molar ratio calculation (DeNox Example)

This part explains how to calculate the molar ratio for a DeNOx system using ammonia solution at 25% of
NH3 in mass. The same principle can be used for another component (HCl; SO2…) and another reagent.
• These definitions have been addressed in the TA Study on NOx reduction techniques – Appendix
14 – page 18.
Stack gasflow: 200 000 Nm3/h dry at 10% O2.
Initial NOx (eqNO2 ) emission, without reagent: 1 500 mg/Nm3 dry at 10% O2.
NOx flow: 200 000 x (1500 / 1000) = 300 000 g/hr.
NOx molar rate : 300 000 / 45.9995 = 6522 mole/hr.
Final NOx (eqNO2 ) emission, with reagent : 500 mg/Nm3 dry at 10% O2.
NOx flow: 200 000 x (500 / 1000) = 100 000 g/hr.
NOx molar rate: 100 000 / 45.9995 = 2174 mole/hr. (45.9995 g/mole for NO2)
NOx molar rate reduction: 6522 – 2174 = 4348 mole/hr.
SNCR reagent: 500 l/hr (453.7 kg/hr) of ammonia solution of 25% in mass of NH3, with a density
of 0.9073 kg/litre at 20°C.
Actual NH3 injected: 453.7 x 25/100 = 113.41 kg/hr
NH3 molar rate : (113.41 x 1000) / 17.0306 = 6660 mole/hr
SCNR Process Efficiency:

Net Molar Ratio: NH3 molar rate / NOx molar rate reduction = 6660 / 4348 = 1.53.
NOx reduction rate : NOx molar rate reduction / Initial NOx molar rate = 4348 / 6522 = 66.7%
The specific consumption of 25%NH3 solution kg / kg NOx reduced is:
453.7 kg/hr / (200,000 g/hr NOx reduced / 1000) = 2.27
Gross Molar Ratio is: NH3 molar rate / Initial NOx molar rate = 6660 / 6522 = 1.02
NH3 yield = NOx molar rate reduction /nb mole NH3injected = 0.65.
7.2 Correction to Standard Oxygen Conditions

How to transform a process measurement to references conditions?
• Measurement:
450ppm NO
8%O2
• If reference conditions are 10%O2
⎛ 0.21 − [O2 ]reference ⎞

[NO]reference = ⎜⎜ ⎟ × [NO ]measured
⎝ 0.21 − [O2 ]measured ⎠
⎟
[NO]reference = ⎛⎜ 0.21 − 0.10 ⎞⎟ × 450 = 519 ppm

⎝ 0.21 − 0.08 ⎠
7.3 Continuous Emission Monitoring (CEMS)

• CEMS are required by most national regulations often with online reporting direct to the authorities.
• In addition to dust emission measurement, the minimum gases to be measured (to be checked with
local regulations) are O2, NOx, SO2, CO and TOC (Total Organic Carbons).
• Use of alternative fuels will increase the requirement for measurement of other gases, both
continuous and periodic.
• Also, due to local regulations, the CEMS must have a proper maintenance as their reliability can
influence on the process conditions (AF and ARM use).
7.4 Emission Ranges for European Cement Kilns

• For further details and actual values and reference conditions, please contact your TC.
(based on IPPC Feb. 2009)
7.5 European AF Kiln Emission Limits
EC-directive 76/2000 (waste GER: New TA-Luft GER: 17. BImSchV AUT: Incineration of
Parameter France 03/05/93 6)
inc.at cem. ind.) 24.7.02 (Draft 17.3.03) waste
Up to 100% valid 01/03 (new
non-haz & > 40% haz. No waste (case no plants) valid 01/06
2) valid end of 2007 < 60% / > 60% waste
< 40% haz. Waste longer exists) (exist. Plants)
1)
waste
DA DA DA HHA DA HHA DA
[mg/Nm³, dry, 10%O2] [mg/Nm³, dry, 10%O2] [mg/Nm³, dry, 11%O2] [mg/Nm³, dry, 10%O2]
11)
Dust 30 10 50 20 40 / 30 20 / 10 30 (50)
SO2 + SO3 3) 12)
50+exempt. 50 500/1200/1800 350 (200) / 200 (50) / 50 50 (350)
NO + NO2 5) 5) 4) 13)
500/ 800 200/ 400 1200/1500/1800 500 1000 /400 500/200 500 (800)
to be defined, when
NH3 - - (30) - - using SNCR/SCR
C org 10+exempt. 10 -
7)
(20) (10) 10 (120)
14)
CO - 50 - - (100) (50) -
HCl 10 10 (30) 60 10 10
HF 1 1 - 4 1 0.7
av 0,5-8hrs. av 0,5-8hrs. av 0,5-8hrs. av 0,5-8hrs.
Cd + Tl 0.05 0.2 0.05 0.05 0.05
Hg 0.05 1 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.05
Sb + As + Pb + Cr + Co +
0.5 5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Cu + Mn + Ni + V
av 6-8hrs. av 6-8hrs. av 6-8hrs.
2,3,7,8-TCDD-
0.1 [ng/Nm³] - 0.1 [ng/Nm³] 0.1 [ng/Nm³]
Equivalent
8. References
8.1 Lafarge Documents

• Technical Agenda Study NOx
• Technical Agenda Study Gas Scrubber
• Priority Study Bag Filters
• TA Study Dioxins and Furans
• TA Study Mercury Fate & Control
• TA Study On Line Gas Analyser
8.2 External Documents

• IPPC BREF – Dec 2001
• IPPC Draft Reference Document on BAT – May 2009
My notes:
CHAPTER 06 – FLUID FLOW
6. Fluid Flow
© Copyright 1990-2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved. FLUID FLOW 1/14
Table of Contents
1. General Formulas - Definition..................................................... 3

1.1 Basics......................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Piping Pressure Losses ............................................................................. 3
2. Pitot Measurement....................................................................... 6
2.1 Formula ...................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Density Correction ..................................................................................... 6
2.3 Measurement Locations............................................................................. 7
3. Fans .............................................................................................. 9
3.1 Fan Power / Efficiency ............................................................................... 9
3.2 Fan Laws.................................................................................................... 9
3.3 Comparison of Efficiency of Different Fan Control Methods.................... 11
4. Others ......................................................................................... 11
4.1 Airflow Measurement by Venturi .............................................................. 11
4.2 Estimating False Air ................................................................................. 12
5. Reference Documents ............................................................... 13
5.1 Cement Portal .......................................................................................... 13
5.2 International Standards............................................................................ 13
1. General Formulas - Definition
1.1 Basics
Avogadro Law
• Equal volumes of different gases at the same pressure and temperature contain the same number of
molecules.
• Avogadro’s number N: The number of molecules in one gram-mole of a gas, N = 6.022 x 1023.
Ideal Gas Law
- P Absolute pressure (Pa ) - T Absolute Temperature (K )
PV = nRT - V Volume m ( )3 - n Number of moles (gmole)
- R Universal Gas Constant =8.31434 J/gmole.ºK
• 1 gmole of ideal gas at normal conditions (0ºC, 101325 Pa) occupies a volume of 22.414 litres.
Bernoulli
• For a steady, one-dimensional incompressible flow without losses:
v2
P + ρgz + ρ = Cst Where:
2 - P static pressure in N/m2 (=Pa)
- ρ density in kg/m3
- g acceleration due gravity 9.81m/s2
- z: elevation in m
- v fluid velocity in m/s
1.2 Piping Pressure Losses

a. Formulae
Pressure Drop Formula Where:

- ΔP Pressure drop (Pa)
• Circular pipe, constant area. The pressure drop is:
- f Friction factor (Darcy)
L v2 - D Pipe diameter (m)
ΔP = f ρ - ρ Fluid density (kg/m3)
D 2
- v Average fluid velocity (m/s)
- L Pipe length (m)
Friction Factor
64
Laminar flow (Re < 2000) f =
Re
- Re Reynolds Number
⎛e ⎞
Transition Zone (Re > 3000) 1
= −2 log⎜⎜ D +
2.51 ⎟
f ⎜ 3.7 Re f ⎟⎟
- f dependant upon Re and absolute roughness e ⎝ ⎠
D
1
Turbulent Zone f = 2
⎛ ⎞
⎜ 2 log 3.7 ⎟
- Re dependant upon absolute roughness ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟
- f independent of Re ⎝ D⎠
Reynolds Number (Dimensionless)

where:
- k kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
v ∗ D ρ *v* D
Re = = - v Average fluid velocity (m/s)
k μ - D Diameter of the pipe (m)
- (for a rectangular duct equivalent diameter =
2* a* b
)
a+b
- μ the absolute viscosity (Pa.s)
Roughness
• Roughness (e): the mean distance between high and low points of the surface.
• Typical values e (m)
• Commercial steel 0.00005
• Drawn tubing 0.0000015
• Concrete pipe 0.0009
Example Pressure Drop Calculation

Calculate the pressure drop of 60,000 m3/hr of air (20° C and 101325 Pa) flowing through a
horizontal steel pipe of 100m long and 1 m internal diameter.
The gas density is 1.2 kg/m3 and viscosity is 1.72 x 10 -5 Pa.s
• (
Gas velocity v m.s
−1
)= 60000
= 21.22
Π * 12 4
1.2 * 1 * 21.22
• Reynolds Number Re = −5
= 1.486 * 10 6
1.72 *10
0.00005
• Absolute roughness e = = 0.00005
D 1
• Look up Darcy friction factor from Moody chart (see below) or solve
⎛e ⎞
= −2 log⎜⎜ D + ⎟ by iterative calculation f = 0.0121
1 2.51
f ⎜ 3.7 Re f ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
100 1.2 * 21.22 2
• Calculate Pressure Loss ΔP ( Pa ) = 0.0121 * * = 329
1 2
Average velocity in industrial design

Cold air (higher for larger size) 10 to 15 m/s
Hot air 20 to 25 m/s
Dusty Gases 25 to 30 m/s
Natural Gas 10 (20 mm pipe) to 30 m/s (100mm pipe)
Water general services 1 to 3 m/s
Viscous oil 0.3 to 0.6 on pump suction and 1 to 2 m/s on discharge
Slurries 1.5 to 2 m/s for 20 to 200 micron particles
b. Pressure Losses for Fittings etc

Restriction, elbow...
Length of straight pipe (of same size) that would produce the same pressure drop as the fitting, elbow…
expressed in L/D
Nominal pipe size (D mm) 12 25 50 75

90 elbow r/D=8 1.24 2.10 4.13 10.1
Nominal pipe size (D mm) 25 150 350 750
90 elbow r/D=1 2.1 10.1 22.5 49
Mitred 45 elbow 1.4 7.58 16.9 36.7
Pipe exit 3.8 33.7 86.5 213
Pipe entrance 3.04 27 69.2 170
Enlargement 0.5 2.13 18.9 48.5 119
Contraction 0.5 1.33 11.8 30.3 74.5
r= pipe radius, D=inside pipe diameter

Examples of other Pressure Loss Relationships
• Pressure loss through filter bag: Δp = hv , v is the velocity
Pressure loss through a grain bin: Δp = hv
1.5
•
2. Pitot Measurement
2.1 Formula
where:
2.Δp
V =k - V = Gas velocity in m/s
ρ - k = Pitot tube correction factor (eg. “S” tube = 0.85)
- Δp = Average velocity (dynamic) pressure in Pa
- ρ = density in kg/m3
2.2 Density Correction

Temperature and Pressure
• ρ = ρo .
273.15 (Pb + Ps ) - Pb = Barometric pressure (Pa)
273.15 + T ( C ) ) 101325
o
. - Ps = Static pressure (Pa )
- ro= density (kg/m3 )
Water and Chemistry: example
• Gas: CO 2 = 20% , H 2 O = 10% , O2 = 15% , N 2 = 100 − (20 + 10 + 15 ) = 55%

⎛ 44 ⎞ ⎛ 18 ⎞ ⎛ 32 ⎞ ⎛ 28 ⎞
• ρ =⎜ x 0.2 ⎟ + ⎜ x 0.55 ⎟ + ⎜ x 0.15 ⎟ + ⎜ x 0.55 ⎟ = 1.375kg.Nm −3
⎝ 22.4 ⎠ ⎝ 22.4 ⎠ ⎝ 22.4 ⎠ ⎝ 22.4 ⎠
Warning: Dry or Wet Basis?
Be careful to take account of the basis for the measurement of gas composition, usually it is measured on
a dry basis
Dust
• The pitot formula is correct only for clean gas, so whenever possible measure airflow in clean in a
gas. In cases where there is no option but to measure a dusty gas flow an approximation can be
made by adding the dust loading to the gas density:
ρ = ρ gas + dust concentration (kg/m3)
• In the previous example with a dust concentration of 70 g/Nm3, then ρ =1.375+0.07=1.445 kg/m3
(assuming dust does not take up room in the gas stream).
• In case of dusty gas, an Straucheib (S type) tube is used instead of L-Tube (see coefficient correction
below).
Standard Pressure Conditions
• Standard day sea level pressure :

- 760mm Hg 29.92 in. Hg 10332 mm WG
- 101325 Pa 2
14.696 psi (lb/in ) 406.8 in. WG
• Normal Conditions: Standard sea level pressure 0oC.
Effect of Elevation on Atmospheric Pressure
• (
P ( Pa) = P0 1 − 2.2558 * 10 −5 * h )
5.255
where: h = elevation (m)
Averaging the dynamic pressure:

⎛ ∑ ( pv ) ⎞
2
⎜ ⎟
• Δp = ⎜ N ⎟ where p v = traverse readings
⎜ N ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Pitot Correction coefficient
• If any, the corrective coefficient for the pitot tube (for instance k=0.84) is applied directly on the
velocity as calculated.
2.3 Measurement Locations

The idea is to have the same surface area for each measurement. Methods include Centroid and Log-
Tchebychef
(Centroid method) Total traverse points per diameter
# point 4 6 8 10 12 14 20 22
#1 .062 .044 .033 .025 .021 .018 .013 .011
#2 .250 .147 .105 .082 .067 .057 .039 .035
#3 .750 .295 .194 .146 .118 .099 .067 .060
#4 .938 .705 .323 .226 .177 .146 .097 .087
#5 .853 .677 .342 .250 .201 .129 .116
#6 .956 .806 .658 .355 .269 .165 .146
#7 .895 .774 .645 .366 .204 .180
#8 .967 .854 .750 .634 .250 .218
#9 .918 .823 .731 .306 .261
#10 .975 .882 .799 .388 .315
#11 .933 .854 .612 .393
#12 .979 .901 .694 .607
#13 .943 .750 .685
#14 .982 .796 .739
#15 .835 .782
#16 .871 .820
#17 .903 .854
#18 .933 .884
#19 .961 .913
#20 .987 .940
#21 .965
#22 .989
3. Fans
3.1 Fan Power / Efficiency

• Useful Power (Theoretical Air Power): 20 140
Wu (Watts) = Pt * Q 18
120
- P: Total fan pressure (Pa) 16 Power
- Q: Volume flow (m3/s) 14 Wu 100
12
• Difference between the useful power and 80
the fan shaft power is due to skin friction, 10
60
fluid turbulence…. 8 Pressure
Efficiency
• Usually the supplier gives fan shaft power 6 40
vs flow 4
20
2
• Fan total efficiency at any point is given by :
0 0
Wu Pt * Q η
= = t 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000
Ws Ws Flow Rate Q
Drive Efficiency • Reducer 95 - 96%

• Direct Drive 99.5%
• ‘V’ Belt drive 90 – 95%
• Flat Belt 99%
a. Typical Efficiencies for Different Blade Types (Test Conditions supplier figures)
• Straight radial: 60-75% efficiency (fan shaft) • Backward curved radial: 78 - 85 % (for dusty
• Backward inclined : 75 – 80% gas).
• Airfoil: 84 - 91% (clean gas).
b. Efficiency Losses due to Faults
• Cone condition: 3-4%
• Missing Inlet duct flow guide: 2-5%.
• Build up on impellor: 4-6 %
3.2 Fan Laws

a. Fan Law Summary
Change in Parameter Total Effect

All
Impact on Fan Density Diameter Changes
ρ Speed N Width L*
D*
Flow Q 0 N L D3 N. L. D3
Pressure P ρ N2 0 D2 ρ .N2. D2
Power W ρ N3 L D5 ρ .N3. L. D5
*A change in dimensions applies to fans of identical geometry; although these two laws can be used to
give approximate effects for small changes in size e.g. fan impellor tipping.
b. Gas Density Influence

(Fans are constant volume machines)
20 160
• Pressure: proportional to gas density
18
P1 ρ1 140
= 16
P0 ρ 0
120
14
100
12
• Power: proportional to gas density
10 80
W1 ρ1
= 8
60
W0 ρ 0 6
40
4
• System curve : proportional to gas density 20
2
H 1 ρ1
= 0 0
H 0 ρ0 0 5000 10000 15000 20000
Flow Rate Q
25000 30000 35000
c. Fan Speed Influence (same circuit & gas 30 250

density)
• Volume: directly proportional to fan speed 25
200
Q1 N 1
= 20
Q0 N 0 150
• Pressure: proportional to square of speed 15
P1 ⎛⎜ N1 ⎞
2 100
10
= ⎟
P0 ⎜ N 0 ⎟⎠
⎝ 5
50
• Power: proportional to cube of speed

0 0
W1 ⎛⎜ N 1
3
⎞ 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 40000
= ⎟⎟
W0 ⎜ N 0
Flow Rate Q
⎝ ⎠
Warning:Common Traps with Fan Curve Conventions

A) Be sure to know the pressure basis used for drawing the fan curve, suppliers have 3 main
conventions;1) Total pressure; 2) Fan static pressure ; 3) Static pressure rise.
B) Usually the fan curve refers to inlet volume but some suppliers use average volume between inlet and
outlet of the fan.
C) For dusty gases suppliers usually adjust the power curve by adjusting the gas density, some suppliers
use 100% of the dust content whlist others use 50% of the dust content. This will impact the
D) You can also find curves drawn with specific energy and fan efficiency against fan flow, where you will
need to calculate the power and pressure curves.
3.3 Comparison of Efficiency of Different Fan Control Methods

100
90
80
70
Inle t d a m p e r
O utle t
60
damper
% Power
Inle t va ne s
50
40
30
V a ria b le
20
sp e e d
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% F lo w
Louvre Damper Flow Control Radial Vane Damper Flow Control

120 100 100
90 90
100 20% open 80 80
40% open
80
70 70
60% open
60 60
60 50 50
80% open
40 40
40
Wide open 30 30
20 20 20
10 10
0 25% open 50% 75% 100%
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 80000
0 0
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 80000
Flow F low
Louvre dampers modify system resistance to Radial vane dampers modify the fan curve to
adjust gas flow adjust gas flow
4. Others
4.1 Airflow Measurement by Venturi
1
2
Where:
2.( P1 − P2 )
Q = C v . A1 . Q – gasflow m3/s
⎛⎛ A ⎞2 ⎞ Cv venturi coefficient (usually 0.98)
ρ .⎜ ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ − 1⎟ A1 & A2 areas at 1 & 2 m2
⎜ ⎝ A2 ⎠ ⎟ P1 & P2 pressures at 1, & 2 Pa
⎝ ⎠
R gas density kg/m3
4.2 Estimating False Air

Velocity through an opening:
Where :
V – velocity m/s
2..ΔP
V = 0.6. ΔP – pressure drop Pa
ρ r – gas density kg/m3
Note: the formula is only approximate since the discharge coefficient 0.6 can vary depending upon the
shape of the opening, etc.
Example False Air Estimation

Estimate the false air into a kiln inlet seal with an opening of 6mm around the periphery of the
kiln, with a diameter of 4.5 m, kiln inlet pressure is -350 Pa.
V = 0.6.
2.350
= 14.8m / s : FlowArea =
(
4.512 2 − 4.5 2 .π )
= 0.0849m 2
1.15 4
Flow = 14.8 x 0.0849x 3600 = 4525 m3/hr
5. Reference Documents
5.1 Cement Portal

How to Procedures
How to measure airflow by Pitot tube

How to measure static pressure by Pitot tube
How to measure gas temperature by thermocouple
How to measure moisture of gas by wet bulb temperature
How to measure moisture content of gases using silica gel
How to measure gas composition by gas analyser
How to measure false air
How to measure fan efficiency of the main fans
How to improve fan efficiency by internal inspection
Tools
Lafarge Pitot Measurements
5.2 International Standards

ISO 3966 - Measurement of fluid flow in closed conduits — Velocity area method using Pitot static tubes
ISO 5167 - Measurement of fluid flow by means of pressure differential devices inserted in circular cross-
section conduits running full -- Part 4: Venturi tubes
ISO 5801 - Industrial fans -- Performance testing using standardized airways
My notes:
CHAPTER 7 – PROCESS CONTROL
7. Process Control
© Copyright 2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved. Process Control – Page 1/9
Table of Contents
1. Control Loops..............................................................................................3
1.1 Open Loop ...................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Feed Forward Control..................................................................................... 3
1.3 Feed Back Control .......................................................................................... 3
1.4 Cascade Control ............................................................................................. 4
2. Feed Back Controller, PID ..........................................................................4

2.1 General ........................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Proportional Gain:........................................................................................... 4
2.3 Integral Action (Reset time): ........................................................................... 5
2.4 Derivative Function: ........................................................................................ 5
2.5 PID controller .................................................................................................. 5
3. Controller Tuning ........................................................................................6

3.1 Tuning General ............................................................................................... 6
3.2 Online Trial and Error Tuning ......................................................................... 6
1. Control Loops
1.1 Open Loop

• Based on experience, the inputs are set to achieve the good target on output.
• This kind of control does not react towards the perturbations that can happen in the inputs or in the
process.
Example: Open Loop Control

In a mill open circuit, the quantity of feed to give the good cement fineness.
1.2 Feed Forward Control

• A measurement of the inputs is made
and changes are made on the actuators
to obtain the good target of the output. Disturbances
• It does not take into account the unmeasured Feed forward
perturbations. controller
Manipulative Controlled
Process
variable variable
Examples: Feed Forward Control

Water injection quantity in the first compartment based on the clinker temperature.
Gypsum addition based on SO3 in Gypsum and clinker.
1.3 Feed Back Control

• A measurement of the variable to be Disturbances
controlled (output) is made and
compared with a set point. If a
Manipulative Controlled
difference exists between the measured Process
and the setpoint value, corrections are variable variable
made on the inputs to get the correct
value.
Feedback Output
controller setpoint
Examples: Feedback Controllers

Water injection controlling the mill discharge temperature.
Feed rate controlling the circulating load.
Fan speed controlling cooler fan Airflow
Fuel federate controlling precalciner temperature
1.4 Cascade Control

• The primary controller (master) Disturbances
is used to vary the setpoint of
the secondary controller (slave) Manipulative Controlled
Process
• It can be usefully applied with two variable Controlled variable 1
interacting variables especially when it Variable 2
is required to keep the measured
variable of the slave controller within a Secondary Primary
Output Controller setpoint Controller
ertain range
Example: Cascade Control

Primary: Controlling coal mill inlet temperature setpoint by the mill outlet temperature
Secondary : Coal mill hot air damper (and recycle damper) controlling coal mill inlet
temperature
2. Feed Back Controller, PID
2.1 General
Controllers automatically compare the value of the PV to the SP to determine if an error exists. If there
is an error, the controller adjusts its output according to the parameters that have been set in the
controller. The tuning parameters essentially determine how much correction should be made
(proportional), how long should the correction be applied (integral) and the speed at which a correction
is should be made (derivative).
Controllers are tuned in an effort to match the characteristics of the control equipment to the process so
that two goals are achieved:
• The system responds quickly to errors.
• The system remains stable (PV does not oscillate around the SP).
2.2 Proportional Gain:

Gain of a controller is defined simply as the change in output divided by the change in input.
Δ output
• Gain =
Δ input
The adjustment of the controller output due to proportional action is given by:
Y = Y0 ± K p ( X − S )
Where:
Y – New controller output
Y0 – Existing controller output
KP – Proportional gain
X – measured value
S – controller setpoint
Since the proportional action only responds to a change in error (between setpoint and measured value)
then on it’s own it will not return the measured value to setpoint.
Note: Proportional Band

Proportional band is another way to represent gain. PB=100/gain.
2.3 Integral Action (Reset time):

The purpose of integral action is to return the PV to SP. This is accomplished by repeating the action of
the proportional mode as long as an error exists. With the exception of some electronic controllers, the
integral or reset mode is always used with the proportional mode. The setting is made in minutes or
seconds.
The effect of the integral time on the control output is given by:
Kp
Y = Y0 ±
Ti ∫ ( X − S ) dt Where Ti – integral action time
2.4 Derivative Function:

The purpose of the derivative action (rate action) is to try to anticipate the control action by looking at the
time rate of the error change (the derivative).
dX
Y = Y0 + Td where Td is the derivative action time (min)
dt
• In theory, the derivative action should X

always improve the system response. But, it
is necessary to give a particular attention to
S
this term because there is not perfect
Derivative
derivative action, and if the signal is very action Yo
noisy, the derivative action amplifies the
noise, producing fluctuation in the control. Proportional
action
Resulting Y
Integral
action action
Time
2.5 PID controller
The 3 terms together form the overall PID controller:

Kp
Y = Y0 ± K p ( X − S ) ± ∫ ( X − S ) dt ± K p Td
dX
Ti dt
Not every process requires a full PID control strategy.
PI control is used where no offset can be tolerated, where noise (temporary error readings that do not
reflect the true process variable condition) may be present, and where excessive dead time (time after a
disturbance before control action takes place) is not a problem.
In processes where no offset can be tolerated, no noise is present, and where dead time is an issue, use
full PID control.
3. Controller Tuning
3.1 Tuning General

There are several established techniques for controller tuning, Zeigler Nichols Open Loop, Zeigler
Nichols Closed Loop, Internal Model Control. In addition there are online and offline automatic tuning
tools that can be used to the optimum control parameters.
However, for the moment the most frequently used in our plants is by online trial and error.
3.2 Online Trial and Error Tuning
a) Proportional action:
- Set integral and derivative action at 0 action (maximum Ti , minimum Td ).
- Set K p at a low value, for example 0.5. (use a typical value for your system if you know
already, look at operator actions)
- Put the controller in auto.
- With a small change in set point, the controller reaction will be very sluggish.
- Double the proportional coefficient until the loop becomes oscillatory.
- After reaching this ultimate gain, set the K p half of the ultimate K p .
Low Gain Example - In the example below, the
proportional band is high (gain is low). The loop is
very stable, but an error remains between SP and
PV.
High Gain Example - In the example, the

proportional band is small resulting in high gain,
which is causing instability. Notice that the process
variable is still not on set point.
b) Integral action:
- With the controller in auto and the proportional band fixed, start to reduce Ti by factor 2, with
small changes in set point after each step.
- Find the value of Ti that makes the system oscillatory, underdamped and set Ti double of that.
High Integral Time (Slow Reset) Example - In
this example the loop is stable because the total
loop gain is not too high at the loop critical
frequency. Notice thatthe process variable does
reach set point due to the reset action.
Short Integral Time (Fast Reset) Example - In

the example the reset is too fast and the PV is
cycling around the SP.
c) Derivative action:
- Increase the derivative term until the system noise starts to appear on the controller output.
- Set the Td at THIRD of this maximum value.
No and Slow Derivative Rate Examples –
Effect of Fast Rate – Increase of the rate setting

increases controller gain much higher. As a result,
both the IVP (controller output) and the PV will
cycle. Increasing the rate setting will not cause the
PV to settle at the SP.
My notes:
CHAPTER 8 – REFRACTORIES
8. Refractories
© Copyright 2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved. REFRACTORIES – Page 1/12
Table of Contents
1. Process Impacts on Refractories ..............................................................3

2. Refractory Classification ............................................................................4
2.1 Alumina Bricks ................................................................................................ 4
2.2 Basic Bricks .................................................................................................... 4
2.3 Monolithics (unshaped products) ................................................................... 6
3. Kiln Zoning ..................................................................................................6

3.1 Typical Zoning for an AS Precalciner Kiln ...................................................... 6
3.2 Refractory Layout ........................................................................................... 7
4. Kiln Retaining Ring .....................................................................................7

5. Installation Methods for Kiln Bricks ..........................................................8
5.1 Bricks for Rotary Kilns .................................................................................... 8
5.2 Brick Installation Methods............................................................................... 8
6. Refractory Storage ......................................................................................9

7. Refractory Performance Indicators ...........................................................9
8. Kiln Heat Up Profiles.................................................................................10
9. Division Reference Documents ...............................................................10
9.1 How to procedures ....................................................................................... 10
9.2 Tools ............................................................................................................. 11
9.3 Other important documents .......................................................................... 11
1. Process Impacts on Refractories

The nature of the clinkering process in rotary kiln necessitates that the kiln lining needs to withstand not
only high temperatures, but also to resist destruction by the extremely aggressive environment. Potential
Impacts are shown in the schematic below:
Impacts on the Lining
Mechanical
Thermal
•Shell condition
•Flame / impingement
•Shell ovality
•Overheating
•Kiln alignment
•Thermal cycling
•Tyre clearances
•Thermal Shock
•Shell thickness
Atmosphere •Kiln speed
•Reducing
•Oxidising
•Cycling
•Volatiles
•Dust
Kiln Charge Lining Stability
•Brick Quality
•Infiltration of liquid
•Condensation Volatiles •Brick Tolerance
•Fitting to shell
•Chemical Attack
•Abrasion •Ring tightness
•Alignment to shell
•Chemical Variations
•Stability / presence coating •Expansion allowance
•Retaining ring
• Refractories are not able to withstand the extremes of all conditions – design is a compromise of
properties
• First approach to a premature failure / wear issue should be to make improvements to the
process conditions and equipment to reduce the impact upon the refractories, instead of trying to
change the refractory specification
• Most important property of refractory selection is “performance in service” – hence development
of Division Equivalency Chart
2. Refractory Classification
2.1 Alumina Bricks

The main components of alumina bricks are alumina (Al2O3) and silica (SiO2). Main raw materials used
are bauxite, andalusite (sillimanite group) and fireclay. There are 3 classifications:
• High alumina with alumina content of >45%
• Firebrick with alumina content <45%
• Insulating firebrick with > 45% porosity
TYPICAL DATASHEET PROPERTIES OF ALUMINA BRICKS

High Fireclay Insulating
Alumina
Al2O3 60 42 33
Fe2O3 0.9 1.9 1.6
SiO2 35.5 54 60
3
Density t/m 2.6 2.2 0.8
Apparent Porosity % 13 18 68
Temp Limit °C 1520 1440 1380
Thermal Conductivity 1000°C W/mK 1.6 1.4 0.33
2.2 Basic Bricks

• Main oxides magnesia (MgO) or lime (CaO).
• Additional raw material or synthetic product e.g spinel to give flexural strength
• Mainly synthetic materials, except dolomite which occurs naturally
• The classification refers to the raw material base or the elasticising system
o Raw Material Base
magnesia (MgO)
magnesia doloma (MgO CaO)
magnesia zirconia (MgO ZrO2)
forsterite (MgO SiO2)
o Spinel Systems
magnesia spinel (MgOAl2O3)
magnesia hercynite (MgOFe2O3)
magnesia galaxite (MgOMn2O3)
magnesia chromite (MgOCr2O3).
TYPICAL DATASHEET PROPERTIES OF BASIC BRICKS

Magnesia Magnesia Magnesia Dolomite Dolomite
Hercynite Chrome Zircon
MA Spinel
CaO - - - 59 58
MgO 87 85 81.5 38 38
Fe2O3 0.5 7.4 8 0.5 0.7
Al2O3 10.5 3 2.2 1 0.5
ZrO2 - - - - 1
Cr2O3 - - 5.8 - -
3
Density t/m 2.94 3.05 3.03 2.86 2.83
Apparent Porosity % 15 15 17.5 15 16
Refractoriness under >1700 >1600 >1600 >1400 >1400
load °C
Thermal Conductivity 3.0 2.4 2.3 2.6 2.4
1000°C W/mK
2.3 Monolithics (unshaped products)

There are various methods to classify monolithics. For detailed information please refer to DIN EN 1402-
1. The following table is one way to classify monolithics.
RC = Regular Cement Concrete

MCC = Medium Cement Concrete
LCC = Low Cement Concrete
ULCC = Ultra Low Cement Concrete
NCC = Now Cement Concrete
3. Kiln Zoning
3.1 Typical Zoning for an AS Precalciner Kiln

Outlet zone: up to 1.2m
Lower Transition Zone (LTZ): 1–2xØ
Burning Zone (BZ): 6-8xØ
Upper Transition Zone (UTZ): 2–4xØ
Safety (Security) Zone (SZ): 2xØ
Calcining Zone (CZ): up to kiln inlet
(Ø = kiln diameter)
Lower Burning Upper Safety Calcining

Transition Zone Transition Zone Zone
Zone Zone
Outlet
Zone
3.2 Refractory Layout

The final refractory layout of the burning line is determined by the stresses (thermal, chemical and
mechanical) applied upon the refractory lining at the application area. At the above example of an AS
Precalciner kiln system with grate cooler a standard refractory layout could be like:
Outlet zone: 75 – 85% Alumina

Lower Transition Zone (LTZ): magnesia spinel, magnesia doloma
Burning Zone (BZ): magnesia spinel, magnesia hercynite, magnesia galaxite,
magnesia doloma, forsterite
Upper Transition Zone (UTZ): magnesia spinel, magnesia hercynite, magnesia galaxite
Safety (Security) Zone (SZ): 60 – 75% Alumina
Calcining Zone (CZ): 30 – 50% Alumina
4. Kiln Retaining Ring

To reduce the lining thrust on the kiln outlet segments a metallic retaining ring is installed at distance of
up to 1200mm from the discharge end.
Lining thickness Kiln diameter (m) Retaining ring Kiln Diameter Number of
(mm) (X in mm) D (m) sections
180 Less than 3.6 60 D<3 8

200 3.6 to 4.2 70 3<D<5 12
220 4.2 to 5.2 80 D>5 16
220 or 250 (*) > 5.2 80 or 100 (*)
(*) to be confirmed
The retaining rings are made of the following steel qualities:

A 42 CP or W Sc E255 or E 24-2.
Section Length
5. Installation Methods for Kiln Bricks
5.1 Bricks for Rotary Kilns

• A combination of two different tapered brick shapes is used.
• Brick shapes are standardised according to VDZ, ISO and ASTM standards according to turning
circles of whole metres e.g. 2, 3, 5, 6 and 8 metres
• A combination of two standard brick sizes with a proper mixing ratio allows for lining any kiln
diameter.
5.2 Brick Installation Methods

a) Bricking Machine
The most common and safest method to install kiln bricks is the use of a bricking machine. The lower half
of the kiln is bricked first and the bricking machine is used to brick the upper half. Pneumatic jacks in a rig
(arch) keep the bricks in place until the ring is closed and self supporting. The kiln does not need to be
rotated.
b) Bricking Template
A bricking template is similar to the bricking rig but without pneumatic pressure. Wooden wedges are
used to keep the bricks in place until the ring is closed and self supporting. The kiln does not need to be
rotated.
c) Screw Jack Method

With the screw jack method the kiln needs to be rotated. The lower half of the kiln is bricked before screw
jacks are installed to fix the bricks at 90° and 270°. The kiln is turned 90°. The next screw jack is installed
to fix the bricks as before. The kiln is turned another 90° to close the last section.
d) Glue Method
With the glue method the kiln needs to be rotated. Typically a two component epoxy resin is spread in
axial direction on the clean kiln shell at a width of about six bricks. In total four to six glue strips are
applied per circumference, dependent on the kiln diameter, as the bricking work progresses.
e) Bolt Method
With the bolt method the kiln needs to be rotated. A number of nuts are welded on the kiln shell in axial
direction. Two lines of bricks are installed in parallel to the nuts. Threaded bolts and U-shaped iron pieces
are fixing both brick lines. In total two to four of such stripes are applied per circumference, dependent on
the kiln diameter, as the bricking work progresses. As a final step, each fixation is removed and the gap
filled with bricks.
6. Refractory Storage
• Basic bricks and monolithics have a shelf life from 6 to 12 months.
• Both products are sensitive to water or high level of humidity
• Monolithics are additionally sensitive to high or freezing ambient temperature.
• Basic bricks and monolithics should be stored dry and well ventilated.
• Storage height should not exceed five (5) pallets.
• Apply first in first out.
7. Refractory Performance Indicators

NSFRI: Number of Stops For Refractory Incidents <1
Benchmark of specific refractory consumption by kiln system [g refractory/t clinker]
Semi Dry 300 Air Separate Precalciner 300
Long Dry 500 Air Through Precalciner 500
Long Wet 800 Suspension Preheater 500
8. Kiln Heat Up Profiles

The heating up of refractories must be done slow enough to avoid excessive thermal and mechanical
stress in the lining, otherwise serious damage could result. The cooling down of refractories should also
be done slowly for the same reasons.
See the procedure “How to warm up / cool down a kiln” on the Cement Portal (Refractory Domain)
9. Division Reference Documents
9.1 How to procedures

• How to select the refractory
• How to perform trials
• How to receive and store bricks
• How to ensure safety for brick demolition and lining works
• How to ensure safety for brick cutting
• How to ensure safety for castable mixing
• How to ensure safety for cyclone lining works
• How to align kiln burner
• How to align the burner pipe
• How to cast low cement castables
• How to place anchors for monolithic
• How to start the brick work
• How to line the kiln (dry method)
• How to line the kiln (other tying methods)
• How to line the kiln inlet
• How to install and line the retainer ring

• How to cast the nose ring
• How to use a shell scanner
• How to use the shell cooling fan
• How to plan a kiln shut down
• How to handle a hot spot
• How to assess the refractory condition after a kiln stoppage
• How to warm up / cool down the kiln
• How to line the cyclones
• How to line riser ducts
9.2 Tools
• Division Equivalency chart
• Winbrix
• Heat losses calculation
9.3 Other important documents

• Brick lining installation golden rules
• Coating and lining inspection check list
• Brick failure investigation check list
My notes:
CHAPTER 9-1 – MATHEMATICS
9-1. Mathematics
© Copyright 1990-2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved. MATHEMATICS - Page 1/8
Table of Contents
1. Algebra ............................................................................................... 3
2. Trigonometry...................................................................................... 4
3. Plane Geometry ................................................................................. 5
4. Solid Geometry .................................................................................. 6
1. Algebra
(
a 3 − b3 = (a − b ) a 2 + ab + b 2 )
a) Exponents e) Logarithms
( )( )
am ∗ an = am+n log x + log y = log( xy )
(a m )n = a mn log x − log y = log
x
(am )∗ (bm ) = (a ∗ b)m y
am m−n
( )
x * log y = log y x
=a 1
an log n x = * log x
n
n
an ⎛a⎞ log10 a = 0.4343 In a
=⎜ ⎟
n ⎝b⎠
b In a = 2.3026 log10 a
a1 / k = k a
1 f) Determinants
a−n =
an Simultaneous equations: ax + by + cz = d ,
n ex + fy + gz = h , ix + jy + kz = l
am / n = am If:
a b c d b c
b) Fractions D = e f g D1 = h f g
a c a±c
± = i j k l j k
b b b
a c a∗c a d c a b d
∗ =
b d b∗d D2 = e h g D1 = e f h
a c a∗d a d i l k i j l
÷ = = ∗
b d b∗c b c
The solution is:
D1 dfk + bgl + cjh − ( cfl + gjd + khb )
c) Radicals x= =
(n a )n = a D afk + bgi + cje − ( cfi + gja + keb )
n n
a =a D 2 ahk + dgi + cie − ( chi + gla + ked )
y= =
n a * n b = n ab D afk + bgi + cje − ( cfi + gja + keb )
n
a na D3 afl + bhi + dje − ( dfi + hja + leb )
= z= =
n
b b D afk + bgi + cje − ( cfi + gja + keb )
g) Quadratic Equation
d) Factoring
ax 2 + bx + c = 0
ax + ay = a ( x + y )
a 2 − b 2 = (a + b )(a − b ) − b ± b 2 − 4 ac
x=
a 2 + 2ab + b 2 = (a + b )2 2a
a 2 − 2ab + b2 = (a − b )2
(
a 3 + b3 = (a + b ) a 2 − ab + b2 )
If: b) Right Triangle

2
- b − 4 ac > 0 , the roots are real and
unequal.
c a
2
- b − 4 ac = 0 , the roots are real and A
b
equal.
a c
-
2
b − 4 ac < 0 , the roots are imaginary. sin A = csc A =
c a
b c
h) Power of Ten cos A = sec A =
( p ) pico = 10 −12 deka = 101 ( da ) c b
−9 a b
(n) nano = 10 hecto = 10 2
(h) tan A = cot A =
−6 b a
( μ ) micro = 10 kilo = 10 3
(k )
−3 6
( m ) milli = 10 mega = 10 (M ) c) Any Triangle
−2 9
(c) centi = 10 giga = 10 (G ) C a
−1 12
(d ) deci = 10 tera = 10 (T ) b
A B
c
2. Trigonometry Law of sines
a b c
a) General Relationships = =
sin A sin B sin C
sin 2 A + cos 2 A = 1
Law of cosines
sec 2 A = 1 + tan 2 A 2 2 2
a = b + c − 2bc cos A
csc 2 A = 1 + cot 2 A
1 1 b 2 = a 2 + c 2 − 2ac cos B
sin A = cos A =
csc A sec A c 2 = a 2 + b 2 − 2ab cos C
sin A cos A Law of tangents
tan A = cot A =
cos A sin A A− B
tan
sin( A + B ) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B 2 = a −b where a > b
2 A+ B a +b
sin A = 2 sin A cos A tan
2
cos 2 A = cos 2 A − sin 2 A B −C
tan
= 1 − 2 sin 2 A , = 2 cos 2 A − 1 2 = b−c where b > c
A 1 − cos A B+C b+c
sin = ± tan
2 2 2
A−C
A 1 − cos A tan
tan = ± 2 = a−c where a > c
2 1 + cos A A+C a +c
A 1 + cos A tan
cos = ± 2
2 2 Newton's formula
c a+b
=
C A− B
sin cos
2 2
Tangents of half angles

b+c+d
3. Plane Geometry
If p =
2 a) Rectangle
( p − a )( p − b )( p − c )
2 Area: a * b
p a
tan =
p−a
b
( p − a )( p − b )( p − c )
2
p b) Parallelogram
tan =
p−b
a Area: a * b
( p − a )( p − b )( p − c )
2
p
tan =
p−c b
Area
c) Triangle
S = 2 , p( p − a )( p − b )( p − c )
a 2 sin B sin C
= a c Area: 0.5 * a * b
2 sin A d
2
b sin A sin C
=
2 sin B b
c 2 sin A sin B b+c+d
=
2 sin C If p =
2
bc sin A
= Area: p * ( p − b ) * ( p − c ) * ( p − d )
2
ac sin B
= d) Circle
2
ab sin C
=
2
Circumference: = πD , = 2πr
d) Hyperbolic
x −x
sinh x = e + e
2
−x
= 0.25πD , = πr
x 2 2
cosh x = e + e Area:
2 0.25c 2 + h 2
r =
2h
β
c = 2* h * ( D − h ) , = 2rsin
2
h = r − r 2 − 0.25c 2
ß
s = πD , = 0.01745 rβ
360
Where:
e) Circular Sector n is the number of sides
s 180°
n Area = nr 2 tan
n
5 1.7205 s2
6 2.5981 s2
r ß 7 3.6339 s2
8 4.8284 s2
Area = 0.5 rs, = 0.008727 r2ß ( β in °) 9 6.1818 s2
j) Trapezoid
f) Circular Segment
s
h h H
c
r ß c b a
Area = 0.5 [b*(H+h) + ch + aH]
Area = 0.5 (rs - c*(r-h))
ß c* ( r − h )
= πr 2 *
360 2
4. Solid Geometry
g) Circular Ring a) Cube
π 2
Area = ( D − d2 ) a
d 4 c
D
b
Volume: = abc
Surface area: = 2(ab+bc+ca)
h) Ellipse
b) Cylinder
a
π
Area = Aa
A 4
h
D
i) Polygon
s π
Volume = D 2h
4
Area = 0.5*n*s*r
r Surface area: = πDh (without end surface)
= πD (0.5D + h) (with end
surface)
c) Pyramid
g) Segment of a Sphere
s
h h
c r
area of base
Volume = h ⎛ c2 + 4h2 h ⎞
3 Volume = π h2 ⎜ − ⎟
perimeter of base ⎜ 8h 3 ⎟⎠
s ⎝
(c2 + 4h2 )
Lateral area =
2 π
Sphere surface =
4
d) Cone
Total surf = (c + 8rh)
π 2
π 4
Volume = r 2h
3
h
Surface area = π r (r 2 + h 2 ) h) Sector of a Sphere
r h 2 2
c Volume = πr h
3
e) Frustum of a Cone π
r Total surface = r ( 4h + c )
r 2
h
s h
i) Torus
R
d
π
Volume =
3
( )
∗ r 2 + rR + R 2 ∗ h D
Surface area = πs ( R + r )
π2
Volume (compl ring) = D d2
f) Sphere 4
Surface ( " ) = π2 Dd
D π
Volume = D3
6
Surface area = πD 2
My notes:
CHAPTER 9-2 – STATISTICS
9-2 . Statistics
© Copyright 2000-2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved. STATISTICS - Page 1/16
Table of Contents
1. Descriptive Statistics ........................................................................ 3

1.1 Definitions.......................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Basic.................................................................................................................. 3
1.3 Normal Probability Distribution.......................................................................... 3
1.4 Interval Estimation and Tables.......................................................................... 4
2. Statistical Estimation Tests .............................................................. 5

2.1 Generalities ....................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Test for the Equality of Two Variances ( σ 1 ,σ 2 ) of two Normal
Population of Random Size, ( n1 , n 2 ) ............................................................... 6
2.3 Fisher Distribution Table ................................................................................... 7
3. Correlation Between Data – Regression.......................................... 8

3.1 Generalities ....................................................................................................... 8
3.2 Least Squared Lines ......................................................................................... 8
4. Temporal/Regionalized Series (Variables)....................................... 9

4.1 Stationnarity ...................................................................................................... 9
4.2 Variogram.......................................................................................................... 9
4.3 Raw Mix Control Tuning.................................................................................. 11
5. Sampling........................................................................................... 12
5.1 Golden Rules................................................................................................... 12
5.2 Fundamental Error (FE) .................................................................................. 12
5.3 Minimum Representative Weight (MRW)........................................................ 13
5.4 Estimation of the Maximum Particle Size........................................................ 14
5.5 Minimum Number of Observations ................................................................. 14
5.6 Mechanical Sampling ...................................................................................... 15
5.7 Manual Sampling on Conveyor Belt................................................................ 15
1. Descriptive Statistics
1.1 Definitions
• Statistics is the science of drawing conclusions about a population based on an analysis of sample
data from that population.
• Population: values that can be taken by a variable.
• Sample: drawing of n values of the variable taken from the population.
• Random Variable = X = ( xi ) .
• Probability Distribution = P ( xi ) . It describes the random variable probability of occurrence and is
described by its parameters. (Example: Normal distribution is described by μ and σ , see below).
• Statistic = Any function of the sample data.
• Estimator = An estimator of a parameter is a statistic, which corresponds to the parameter. For
instance :
The sample mean ( x ) is the estimator of the actual population mean μ
The sample variance ( S 2 ) is the estimator of the actual population variance σ 2
• Interval Estimation: An interval estimation of a parameter is the interval between 2 statistics that
includes the true value of the parameter with a given probability (1- α ).
1.2 Basic
∑ (xi − x ) 2
n n
∑ xi
i =1 i =1
• Arithmetical Mean = x = Standard Deviation = S X =
n n −1
• 2
Variance = S X
2 2 2 2 2 2
- SX +Y = S X + S Y and S aX = a ⋅ S X
- a : Coefficient, X = ( xi ) , Y = ( yi ) : two series of independent values.
∑ (xi − x ) * ( yi − y )
n
• Covariance = Average of the products of paired deviations: COV ( X ,Y ) = i =1

n
1.3 Normal Probability Distribution

• The most often used probability distribution is the Normal probability distribution:
2
1 ⎛ x − x ⎞⎟
( − ⎜⎜ )
dZ 1 2 ⎝ σ ⎟⎠
= e
dx σ 2π
Central Limit Theorem

• For a group of n independent sampling units drawn from a population of mean μ and variance σ 2 ,
n
σ2
∑
1
the sampling distribution of x = x i is approximately Normal with mean μ and variance .
n n
i =1
⎛ σ2 ⎞
Said: x → Ζ ⎜ μ , ⎟.
⎜ n ⎟
⎝ ⎠
1.4 Interval Estimation and Tables
a) If the Variance σ 2 is Known

• The confidence interval, with a probability of (1- α ), in which for any samples of the population with
a given unknown mean ( μ ) and known variance ( σ 2 ), the average x of the sample should range is
given by:
σ σ
x−Ζα ≤ μ ≤ x+Ζα
n n
2 2
b) Normal Gaussian Distribution Table

α Zα α Zα
0.25 0.6745 0.0232 2
0.159 1 0.01 2.32
0.10 1.28 0.005 2.57
0.05 1.64 0.00135 3
0.025 1.96 0.001 3.09
Example: Estimation of the true LHV mean ( μ ) of liquid waste fuel
An n-size sample (n=100) of different waste fuel shipments gave a mean x = 5.5 MCal/kg.
Standard deviation σ of the waste fuel shipment population (considered infinite) is supposed
to be 1Mcal/kg.
Then, according to the Central Limit Theorem, x follows a Normal distribution probability with
σ2
a variance of = 1 / 100 = 0.01 .
n
α
Thus, we are sure at 1 − α = 90% (then = 0.05 ) that the mean ( μ ) is between
2
x ± 1.64 × 0.01 = [5.5 − 0.164 ,5.5 + 0.164 ] = [5.336 ,5.664 ] .
Remark:
If the population from which the sample is taken, is not infinite (let’s say population size=800),
then we have to use a corrective factor of 1− n = 1 − 100 = 0.935 .
N 800
c) If the Variance σ 2 is Unknown and Sample Size n<30,
• It has to be approximated by the variance S 2 of the sample. The Normal distribution is replaced by a
t distribution (Student distribution). The estimated interval, with a confidence of (1- α ) and n-1
degree of freedom, is given by:
S S
x − tα ≤ μ ≤ x + tα
, n −1 n , n −1 n
2 2
Example
With the data as above assuming S=1Mcal/kg, then with the same confidence (90%) and say
20 (21 samples) degrees of freedom, (μ ) is between: x ± 1.72 × 0.01 =
[5.5 − 0.172,5.5 + 0.172] = [5.328 ,5.672] .
d) Student Fisher Distribution Table

υ t 0.005 ,υ t0.01,υ t 0.025 ,υ t 0.05 ,υ t 0.10 ,υ t 0.25 ,υ t 0.45 ,υ
1 63.66 31.82 12.71 6.31 3.08 1 0.158
2 9.92 6.96 4.3 2.92 1.89 0.817 0.142
3 5.84 4.54 3.18 2.35 1.64 0.765 0.137
4 4.6 3.75 2.78 2.13 1.53 0.741 0.134
5 4.03 3.36 2.57 2.02 1.48 0.727 0.132
10 3.17 2.76 2.23 1.81 1.37 0.700 0.129
15 2.95 2.60 2.13 1.75 1.34 0.691 0.128
20 2.84 2.53 2.09 1.72 1.32 0.687 0.127
40 2.70 2.42 2.02 1.68 1.30 0.681 0.126
120 2.62 2.36 1.98 1.66 1.29 0.677 0.126
2. Statistical Estimation Tests

2.1 Generalities
• A statistical hypothesis is a statement about the values of the parameters of a probability distribution.
• Null hypothesis (H o ) : A = B , Alternative hypothesis (H 1 ) : A ≠ B .
• To test a hypothesis, we take a random sample from the population under study, compute an
appropriate test statistic and then either reject or fail to reject ( H o ) with a α risk of rejecting H o
although H o is true.
2.2 Test for the Equality of Two Variances ( σ 1 ,σ 2 ) of two Normal

Population of Random Size, ( n1 , n 2 )
(Excel Function FTEST)
Test Description
• H o : σ 12 = σ 22 , H 1 : σ 12 ≠ σ 22
S2
• We compute the statistic Fo = 1 , where F = Fisher Distribution
S 22
• We reject H o if Fo > Fα or if Fo < F ⎛ α ⎞

, n1 −1, n2 −1 1−⎜ ⎟ ,n1 −1, n2 −1,
2 ⎝2⎠
α
• Where Fα and F ⎛ α ⎞ denote the upper and lower percentage points of
,n1 −1,n2 −1 1−⎜ ⎟ , n1 −1, n2 −1 2
2 ⎝2⎠
the F distribution with n1 − 1 and n 2 − 1 degrees of freedom, respectively.
• As the table for the F table gives only the upper tail points of the F, so to find F ⎛ α ⎞ we
1−⎜ ⎟ ,n1 −1,n2 −1
⎝2⎠
1
must use: F ⎛ α ⎞ = (be careful about n1 and n 2 , which are inverted).
1−⎜ ⎟ , n1 −1, n2 −1 Fα
⎝2⎠ , n2 −1, n1 −1
2
Example 1: Cement sampling:
We want to determine the best way of sampling cement. We can compare the variances of two
sets of samples collected at the mill discharge by two different ways. The H o hypothesis
would be that there is no difference between both ways of sampling (true variances equal). If
the result says that according to the samples, there is a difference, then the best sampling
method could be the one with the lowest variance (one-sided alternative hypothesis).
SSB measured: #1 way: (4350, 4365, 4850, 4750, 4580, 4600, 4450, 4740),
#2 way: (4500, 4520, 4800, 4420, 4360, 4250, 4400, 4380)
• H o : σ 12 = σ 22 , H 1 :σ 12 ≠ σ 22 (two-sided alternative hypothesis)

8
∑ (xi − 4586 ) 2
i =1
After computing: x1 = 4586 , x 2 = 4454 S12 = = 34796 , S 2 2 = 26598
8 −1
34796
• Fo = = 1.308 < F0.05 = 4.99
26598 ,8 −1,8 −1
2
and F.975 ,7 ,7 = ( F0.025 ,7 ,7 ) 1 = ( 4.99 ) −1 = 0.20 <1.308
−
The test yields not to reject H o : the measurements don’t allow us to conclude that #1 way of sampling is
significantly, with 5% confidence, different than #2 (even if S 1 > S 2 ). The excel function is
FINV(0.025,7,7).
2.3 Fisher Distribution Table

(Calculated for the upper 2.5% of the F distribution (in our case, when α = 5% )).
F(0.025, n1,n2) Ex:

F(0.025,5,10)=4.24
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200
1 647.79 38.51 17.44 12.22 10.01 8.81 8.07 7.57 7.21 6.94 6.20 5.87 5.69 5.57 5.42 5.34 5.29 5.25 5.22 5.20 5.18 5.10
2 799.48 39.00 16.04 10.65 8.43 7.26 6.54 6.06 5.71 5.46 4.77 4.46 4.29 4.18 4.05 3.97 3.93 3.89 3.86 3.84 3.83 3.76
3 864.15 39.17 15.44 9.98 7.76 6.60 5.89 5.42 5.08 4.83 4.15 3.86 3.69 3.59 3.46 3.39 3.34 3.31 3.28 3.26 3.25 3.18
4 899.60 39.25 15.10 9.60 7.39 6.23 5.52 5.05 4.72 4.47 3.80 3.51 3.35 3.25 3.13 3.05 3.01 2.97 2.95 2.93 2.92 2.85
5 921.83 39.30 14.88 9.36 7.15 5.99 5.29 4.82 4.48 4.24 3.58 3.29 3.13 3.03 2.90 2.83 2.79 2.75 2.73 2.71 2.70 2.63
6 937.11 39.33 14.73 9.20 6.98 5.82 5.12 4.65 4.32 4.07 3.41 3.13 2.97 2.87 2.74 2.67 2.63 2.59 2.57 2.55 2.54 2.47
7 948.20 39.36 14.62 9.07 6.85 5.70 4.99 4.53 4.20 3.95 3.29 3.01 2.85 2.75 2.62 2.55 2.51 2.47 2.45 2.43 2.42 2.35
8 956.64 39.37 14.54 8.98 6.76 5.60 4.90 4.43 4.10 3.85 3.20 2.91 2.75 2.65 2.53 2.46 2.41 2.38 2.35 2.34 2.32 2.26
9 963.28 39.39 14.47 8.90 6.68 5.52 4.82 4.36 4.03 3.78 3.12 2.84 2.68 2.57 2.45 2.38 2.33 2.30 2.28 2.26 2.24 2.18
10 968.63 39.40 14.42 8.84 6.62 5.46 4.76 4.30 3.96 3.72 3.06 2.77 2.61 2.51 2.39 2.32 2.27 2.24 2.21 2.19 2.18 2.11
15 984.87 39.43 14.25 8.66 6.43 5.27 4.57 4.10 3.77 3.52 2.86 2.57 2.41 2.31 2.18 2.11 2.06 2.03 2.00 1.98 1.97 1.90
20 993.08 39.45 14.17 8.56 6.33 5.17 4.47 4.00 3.67 3.42 2.76 2.46 2.30 2.20 2.07 1.99 1.94 1.91 1.88 1.86 1.85 1.78
25 998.09 39.46 14.12 8.50 6.27 5.11 4.40 3.94 3.60 3.35 2.69 2.40 2.23 2.12 1.99 1.92 1.87 1.83 1.81 1.79 1.77 1.70
30 1001.40 39.46 14.08 8.46 6.23 5.07 4.36 3.89 3.56 3.31 2.64 2.35 2.18 2.07 1.94 1.87 1.82 1.78 1.75 1.73 1.71 1.64
40 1005.60 39.47 14.04 8.41 6.18 5.01 4.31 3.84 3.51 3.26 2.59 2.29 2.12 2.01 1.88 1.80 1.74 1.71 1.68 1.66 1.64 1.56
50 1008.10 39.48 14.01 8.38 6.14 4.98 4.28 3.81 3.47 3.22 2.55 2.25 2.08 1.97 1.83 1.75 1.70 1.66 1.63 1.61 1.59 1.51
60 1009.79 39.48 13.99 8.36 6.12 4.96 4.25 3.78 3.45 3.20 2.52 2.22 2.05 1.94 1.80 1.72 1.67 1.63 1.60 1.58 1.56 1.47
70 1011.01 39.48 13.98 8.35 6.11 4.94 4.24 3.77 3.43 3.18 2.51 2.20 2.03 1.92 1.78 1.70 1.64 1.60 1.57 1.55 1.53 1.45
80 1011.91 39.49 13.97 8.33 6.10 4.93 4.23 3.76 3.42 3.17 2.49 2.19 2.02 1.90 1.76 1.68 1.63 1.59 1.55 1.53 1.51 1.42
90 1012.61 39.49 13.96 8.33 6.09 4.92 4.22 3.75 3.41 3.16 2.48 2.18 2.01 1.89 1.75 1.67 1.61 1.57 1.54 1.52 1.50 1.41
100 1013.16 39.49 13.96 8.32 6.08 4.92 4.21 3.74 3.40 3.15 2.47 2.17 2.00 1.88 1.74 1.66 1.60 1.56 1.53 1.50 1.48 1.39
200 1015.72 39.49 13.93 8.29 6.05 4.88 4.18 3.70 3.37 3.12 2.44 2.13 1.95 1.84 1.69 1.60 1.54 1.50 1.47 1.44 1.42 1.32
3. Correlation Between Data – Regression

3.1 Generalities
• Goal: express a dependant variable ( Y : ( y i )i =1ton ) as a function of one or a series of p
independent variables X j : ( X j = ( x j ,i ) j =1top ,i =1ton ) ).
• Y E = b0 + b1 ⋅ X 1 + .. + b p ⋅ X p
Y E = estimated dependant variable, X j = independent variables.
We have n observation for each variable.
3.2 Least Squared Lines

• The method minimizes the deviation E ( Ei ) between the points and the line.
- SST = total sum of square of the variable of interest =
y
∑( )
n
x B1=y/x yi − y 2
Y i =1
E=Y-YEst
∑ (E i − E ) 2
YEst n
Y
- SSE = sum of square of errors =
B0 i =1
X
SSR- = sum of square explained by the regression line: SST =
SSR+SSE
• We want to optimize SSR/SSE. Thus we test the hypothesis that the slope B1 equals 0:
H o : B1 = 0 , H 1 : B1 ≠ 0 .
• Under H o , the ratio (SSR/p)/(SSE/(n-p-1)) follows a Fisher distribution with p and n-p-1 degrees of
freedom (excel function FINV (α, p, n-p-1)).
• If Fα is high, then H o is rejected and with a certain significance α , we assume the regression is
significant.
Coefficient of Determination R2
• The coefficient of determination R2=SSR/SST gives the proportion of variation in the dependent
variable ( Y : ( y i )i =1 ton ) explained by the regression line.
• The coefficient of correlation is defined by: r =sqrt (R2)
H0: there is no correlation .75

n=5, p=1, .7
SST=0.051+0.019,
.65
MSR=0.051/1=0.051,
MSE=0.019/3=0.0063, .6
SO3
F=0.051/0063=8.05, .55
R2 = 0.051 / (0.051 + 0.019) = 0.73, r = 0.85 .5
Critical F value (α = 0.025), F1,3,0.025 = 17.44 >
.45
8.05
The ratio belongs to the F distribution .4 Y = 2.077 - .032 * X; R^2 = .727
We cannot reject H0, the regression is not .35
significant. 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52
CaO
4. Temporal/Regionalized Series (Variables)

4.1 Stationarity
• The series X (t ) is stationary if its average X (t ) and its variance S 2 (t ) are constant (over time or
over the region of study) and if the covariance COV ( X (t ), X (t' )) does not depend on t and t' but
only on the difference (distance) t' −t = Δt (= h ) .
4.2 Variogram
a) Variogram Construction
• A variogram is a plot of the average difference of a selected variable (C3S for example) between
pairs of units selected as a function of time, where the pairs are chosen in whole-number multiples
(e.g. every minute, 2 minutes, 1 meter, 2 meters, …).
2
N ⎛⎜ ⎞ with :
∑ x j − x j +h ⎟
j =1 ⎜ ⎟ - j : numbering of the sample’s value
⎝ ⎠
γ X (h ) = - N: number of pairs of sample with a specific time or
2 ⋅( N − 1) spatial distance (=h) between values of a pair.
Example:
The C3S values of kiln feed samples are:
Sample# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00
C3S (%) 54.2 57.8 59.8 61.2 60.0 56.0 52.0 52.0 52.4 57.0
Then we can calculate the one-hour pair difference:

Pair# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Diff in pair 3.6 2 1.4 -1.2 -4 -4 0 0.4 4.6 Sum
Square diff 12.96 4 1.96 1.44 16 16 0 0.16 21.16 73.7
Two rules for variogram construction

• Collect enough units (N) to get a statistical population (at least 30 samples for a short term
experiment and 60 samples for a long term); the short term intends to define very precisely the
random heterogeneity term (nugget effect, refer below).
• The number N should reach half the total amount of samples collected (N>n/2).
b) Variogram Interpretation
X
Interpretation of the limit of variogram (h) when h increases
• Whatever the variable is, beyond a certain value of h, the variable ceases to
be correlated with itself. It is because the phenomenon taking place has no
longer any memory of a past long gone (see case 2 and case 3 where the
t
variable level off at a sill generally equal to the variance of the variable). Signal is drifting
• This is true for all raw mix analyses, which are limited in terms of the values γ X(h)
they can take.
• However, over a short period of time (a few hours), the signal may well drift.
(See graph below). In such a case, the variogram will tend to increase
instead of stabilizing itself around σ x2 . h
X
The "Nugget Effect" γ x (h) 2 2
• Many variables, especially those obtained from σ x = σ xn
data measured with a dispersive method #1

(analytical, sampling errors, etc.), present a slight Nugget effect
or marked degree of strictly random variations t h
from one value to the next.
X γ x (h) 2
• As a rule, a variable presenting a "smooth" graph σx
(# 3) when plotted presents a low to non-existent #2
"nugget effect". (i.e. due to variability at a scale 2
Nugget effect σxn
smaller than the sampling distance).
t
• A "noise" (# 1) presents all its variance as a h
2
γ x (h)
"nugget effect" ( σ x2 being called the "nugget effect
X
σx
variance"). #3
No nugget effect
t h
Limitations in h value
• If N values of X are available, shifts of more than N/2 should not be considered.
2
Regionalization and prediction • The span of values of ho for which γx (h) is below σ x is
• A very frequent pattern of variogram is called the "area of regionalization" or the range.
shown as below: • The value of the signal at time t + ho is in fact dependent
2 of all values taken by X between t and t + ho.
γ X (h ) σx
•
x x ,x x
If all values b i +1 i + h+1 are known, then i + h can
be predicted much better than by saying that it is
2
σ xn σ2
randomly distributed with a variance x .
• In fact, the variance of the prediction, at its best, will be
h
γX
2
close to 2 which is much smaller than σ x .
Area of ho
regionalization
Pseudo-periodicity X γ x (h)
• The periodic variations can be self-sustained (control
cycle, oscillator, etc.) or induced by a periodic 2
2 σx
phenomenon (buckets of elevator are unevenly
distributed, correction interval of raw meal).
h
• Even if the periodicity is blurred on the graph of the Pseudo Periodic signal t
signal by random noises or variations of the period, 1 Pseudo-Period

the variogram will tend to underline.
• The variogram will hit a maximum, above the total X γ x (h)
variance σ x2 , for a shift h of exactly 1 period.

Maximum and minimum will repeat themselves and
fade away as h increases. The fading will be quick if
the pseudo period varies much but slow if the signal is t h
Periodic signal
truly periodic.
4.3 Raw Mix Control Tuning

“Correctogram” is a simple statistics tool which can be used to determine whether over-control or under-
control is occuring in a control loop. For spot checking, a plot of the correctogram can be used.
Plot the cartesian coordinates (x, y) where:
x = values of control parameter – set point, at time t

y = values of control parameter – set point, at time t – Δt
Δt is the sampling interval.
Example:
Time C3S SP C3S – SP (x , y)

4
2:00 64.1 60 4.1 ––
4:00 58.5 60 -1.5 (4.1,-1.5) 3
6:00 58.9 60 -1.1 (-1.5,-1.1)

2
8:00 61.7 60 1.7 (-1.1,1.7)
10:00 56.7 58 -1.3 (1.7,-1.3) 1
12:00 59.2 58 1.2 (-1.3,1.2)
0
14:00 54.5 58 -3.5 (1.2,-3.5)
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
16:00 60.8 58 2.8 (-3.5,2.8) -1
18:00 55.1 58 -2.9 (2.8,-2.9)
20:00 58.3 58 0.3 (-2.9,0.3) -2
22:00 59 58 1.0 (0.3,1.0)

-3
-4
-5
SLOPE INTERPRETATION & CORRECTIVE ACTION
=0 Perfectly tuned control. All off-target values for the control parameter are due to random
variations (materials, feeder accuracy, etc.)
1 > slope > 0 Undercontrolling. Multiply gain by (1 + slope).
=1 No control taking place.
>1 Divergent control: gain value has wrong sign.
0 > slope > -1 Overcontrolling. Divide gain by (1 – slope).

= -1 Overcontrolling is inducing a cycle with frequency = 2 x sampling interval. Divide gain by
2.
< -1 Divergent cycling due to severe overcontrolling. Divide gain by (1 – slope).
The method is applicable to control response analysis in general.

It can be incorporated as an internal tuning device in a control algorithm.
Analyses of non linear control response can be performed by using polynomial fit rather than linear
regression.
5. Sampling
5.1 Golden Rules
• The MRW.
• The sampling method must allow every particle the same chance of being collected.
5.2 Fundamental Error (FE)

Calculation
• This error can never be cancelled because it is intrinsic to the material. However, we want to collect
the right size (MRW) of the sample based on this Fundamental Error (P. Gy’s theory).
• σ 2 (FE ) = C x d M 3 x
(1 − τ )
m
With:
d M : Top particle size (95% passing) in cm.
τ : sampling proportion (usually quite small, then 1- τ = 1)
m : sample weight in g.
C : Constant characterizing the material sampled, in g / cm 3
• C = fcl g with
f = Particle shape factor. (= 0.5 usually, ranges between 0 and 1)
= 1 when cubic, = 0.2 when flat, = 0.5 when spheroidal
l = liberation factor [0 to 1]
= 0 if homogeneous, = 1 if particles completely distinct, = .001 for homogeneous raw mix,
= .2 medium, = .3-8 heterogeneous
g = factor describing the particle size distribution
• If we call “size range” the ratio d M / d m of the upper size limit d M : (about 5% oversize) to the
lower size limit d m : (about 5% undersize):
Large size range ( d M / d m > 4): g = 0.25, medium size range (4 to 2): g = 0.50, small size
range (< 2): g = 0.75, uniform size ( d M / d m = 1): g = 1.00
• c = Mineralogical composition factor g / cm 3 ( )

c= ∑ pi ⎜⎝
⎛ 1 − ai ⎞
ai ⎠
(
⎟ . ρ i ai + (1 − ai ) ρ i
c )
i
With:
pi = proportion of material I in the mix (%)
a i = concentration of the “critical” within the material I (%) in mass ( g of CaO / g of solid )
pi = volumetric weight of the material i g / cm 3 ( )

ρ ic = volumetric weight of the “initial” in the material
Usually we take ρ i = ρ ic
Example:
Mix is crushed at 12.5 mm of 75% lime and 25% clay, CaO is the critical
Sample weight = 50 kg.
l = 0.3 f = 0.5
CaO lime content = 52%, CaO clay content = 24%
ρCaO = 2.7 g / cm 3 , ρ lime = 2.7 , ρ clay = 2.7, g = 0.25
⎛ 1 − 0.52 ⎞ ⎛ 1 − 0.24 ⎞ 3
c = 0.75 x ⎜ ⎟ x 2.7 + 0.25 x ⎜ ⎟ x 2.7 = 1.869 + 2.137 = 4.00 g / cm
⎝ 0.52 ⎠ ⎝ 0.24 ⎠
Then: C = f l c g = 0.5 x 0.3 x 4.0 x 0.25 = 0.15 g / cm 3
(1.25 )3 x 0.15
And: σ (FE ) = = 2.4 .10 −3 is the fundamental error standard deviation.
50 ,000
Then the 95% probability confidence interval ± 2 σ ( FE ) is 0.0048 and then CaO content
confidence interval is: 052.( 1 ± 2σ ( FE )) = 0.52 ± 0.048% CaO . (Considering that
1−τ ≈ 1)
5.3 Minimum Representative Weight (MRW)
a) Lafarge Corp Simplified Formula

d3
• MRW = 18. f .ρ . .
σ ( FE ) 2
• In case of material encountered in cement plant, we usually have σ ( FE ) 2 <0.06.
Example 1 estimation of the MRW

For quarry crushed stone with:
f = 0.5 , ρ = 2.6 g / cm 3 , d = 1.75cm , σ ( FE ) 2 = 0.01
MRW = 18 × 0.5 × 2.6 × 1.75 3 / 0.01 = 12.54 kg
b) Estimation of the MRW (P. Gy’s formula)

• What is the MRW considering the previous lot C = 0.15 g / cm( 3
)?
Passing 95% = d M = 4.0 cm with σ ( FE ) = 0.04 (be careful, it is a relative standard deviation), then,
3
C .d M 0.15 x 4 3
MRW = = = 6 kg
σ ( FE ) 2 (0.04 )2
5.4 Estimation of the Maximum Particle Size

• Assuming we want to sample a maximum of 5 kg sample with a tolerate standard deviation of
σ = 0.04
3 Mσ 2 5000 x 0.04 2
Then: dM = d M =3 = 3.8 cm
C 0.15
a) Rule of Thumb:
Maximum Particle Size (mm) 10 20 30 40 50 60 75 90
Min sample Coal (ISO1988), kg 0.6 0.8 3
Min Sample Aggregate, ASTM D75, kg 10 25 60 80 100 120 150 175
ASTM for the aggregate industry is very safe.
5.5 Minimum Number of Observations

• Once the right size (MRW) of the sample is calculated, we want to determine how many samples (n)
have to be collected to have the acceptable knowledge (precision P) of the parameter ( X ) we are
interested in, with an afforded risk α .
• The larger the sample size, the closer we can expect the sample mean X to be to the population
mean X . Refer to the ‘Central Limit Theorem’ above. The reliability of X as an estimate of X is
measured by the standard error of the mean which is simply the standard deviation of the sample
mean.
σ 2X
• Rule of thumb: n =
σ2
X
• where:
σ 2X is the variance of the material stream and, σ 2 is the variance of the mean (the variability
X
desired in the result).
Remark:
Each sample must have the MRW in order to have a right observation of the parameter that
we want to have estimated.
Example:
The small-scale random heterogeneity of the raw mix, expressed in C3S variance, at mill
outpout is 10, thus σ 2
X =10.
We would like to decrease this random heterogeneity to 2, thus σ 2 =2,
X
Then to achieve this goal we have to sample 10/2=5 increments. Normally they have to be
collected closely to one another (e.g. 30 second interval).
5.6 Mechanical Sampling

(Sampling ratio 1/1000 to 1/10)
a) Cutter Width and Velocity – Rules of Extraction Correctness

(for flow < 500 m 3 / h ).
d M = Maximum particle diameter
W = Actual Cutter opening
W0 = Minimum theoretical cutter width
b) First rule of Extraction Correctness
For d M > 3 mm : W ≥ Wo = 3 d M
For d M ≤ 3mm : W ≥ Wo = 10 mm
c) Second Rule of Extraction Correctness
• Irrespective of d M , if the actual cutter width is W = n Wo (with n ≥ 1 ) then the cutter velocity V
should not exceed Von = (1 + n ) ⋅ 0.3 m / s
• Economical Optimum is : W = W0 and V = 0.6 m / s
d) Interval of Time between Increment

• No more than 5 minutes, usually every 30 seconds.
• Make sure the number of increments making up the sample is in excess of 6 (a best is 30, ASTM
2234 (coal) recommends 15 increments for cleaned and 35 for uncleaned coal).
5.7 Manual Sampling on Conveyor Belt
a) When the Belt is Stopped

• Sample enough material with regard to MRW.
• Sample over all the width of the belt making sure to collect everything and perpendicular to the belt.
• The length of sampling over the belt should be greater than the width of the belt.
• Make-up the sample with several increments (more than 6 at least) to get the MRW.
b) When the Belt Keeps Running

• Basic rule: extract a full cross-cut section of the flow stream, in several increment if necessary.
• The manual sampling device width must be at least 2.5 times the bulk material top size.
• Interval of time between increment.
no more than 5 minutes, usually every 30 seconds.
number of increments in excess of 6.
My notes:
CHAPTER 9-3 – THERMODYNAMICS AND CHEMISTRY DATA
9-3. Thermodynamic and

Chemical Data
© Copyright 1990-2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved. THERMODYNAMICS AND CHEMISTRY DATA – Page 1/14
Table of Contents
1. Thermodynamic Properties .............................................................. 1

1.1 Heat Capacity and Enthalpy ................................................................................ 1
1.2 Estimation of Cp and Cpm ................................................................................... 2
1.3 Table 1: Heat of Reaction at 25°C ....................................................................... 3
1.4 Table 2: Heat of evaporation of water ................................................................. 3
2. Data ..................................................................................................... 4
2.1 Table 3: Some Properties of the Elements.......................................................... 4
2.2 Table 4: Properties of Typical Components ........................................................ 6
2.3 Table 5: Oxides and Other Definitions................................................................. 7
2.4 Table 6: Correlation constants for calculation of Cp in kcal/kg.°K....................... 8
2.5 Table 7: Cp mean – reference 0ºC .................................................................... 10
3. Psychrometric Chart........................................................................ 11
1. Thermodynamic Properties
1.1 Heat Capacity and Enthalpy

Heat capacity
• It is function of the system conditions:
⎛ ∂H ⎞ ⎛ ∂U ⎞
At constant pressure: C p = ⎜ ⎟ At constant volume: Cv = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ∂T ⎠ p ⎝ ∂T ⎠ v
Cp
∂H
Enthalpy
Cp =
∂T
dH
dT
T
Temperature
Enthalpy
• No absolute value, only changes in enthalpy can be calculated. Integrating over the temperature
change:
T2
ΔH = H ( T2 ) − H ( T1 ) = ∫ C p (T) dT
T1
Enthalpy ∆H
T2
ΔH = ∫ Cp(T ) dT
T1
Cp
∆H
T1 T2
Temperature
Mean heat capacity Cpm

• It is the enthalpy change divided by the temperature difference:
T2
∫ Cp (T) dT
H 2 − H 1 T1
Cp m = =
T2 − T1 T2 − T1
Cpmean
ΔH
Cpm =
T2 − T1
Cp
Cpm
∆H
T1 T2
Temperature
• In the more familiar form used in heat and mass balances: Q = mCp m ΔT
1.2 Estimation of Cp and Cpm
• Cp for different gases and materials at a given temperature can be estimated with the following
correlation:
Cp (T ) = a + b.T + c.T 2 + d .T −2
The constants a, b, c and d are given at the Table 6, at the end of the chapter.
• Cpm can be obtained from the integration of the Cp(T) correlation
• As previously given, the average or Cp mean between T and a reference T0:
T 2 − T02 T 3 − T03 ⎛1 1 ⎞
a × (T − T0 ) + b × + c× − d × ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
Cp m (T ) =
2 3 ⎝ T T0 ⎠
T − T0
• The Lafarge thermodynamic.xla add-in calculates Cpm(T) in kcal/kg.°C using the above equation with
a reference temperature T0 = 0°C (273.15°K)
Btu cal kcal
• Note: 1.0 = 1.0 = 1.0
lb.° F g.(°C ⋅ or ⋅ ° K ) kg.(°C ⋅ or ⋅ ° K )
1.3 Table 1: Heat of Reaction at 25°C
C + ½ O2 → CO + 26.416 kcal/gmole C
C + O2 → CO2 + 94.051 kcal/gmole C
CO + ½ O2 → CO2 + 67.636 kcal/gmole CO
S + O2 → SO2 + 70.960 kcal/gmole S
SO2 + ½ O2 → SO3 + 23.490 kcal/gmole SO2
S + 1½ O2 → SO3 + 94.450 kcal/gmole S
H2 + ½ O2 → H2Ogas + 57.798 kcal/gmole H2 (LHV)
H2 + ½ O2 → H2Oliquid + 68.317 kcal/gmole H2 (HHV)
CaO + CO2 → CaCO3 + 42.499 kcal/gmole CaO
1.4 Table 2: Heat of evaporation of water

Temperature Heat of evaporation
(°C) (kcal/kg)
0 597.5
10 591.8
15 589.0
20 586.2
25 583.4
30 580.6
40 574.9
50 569.1
60 563.3
70 557.5
80 551.5
100 539.1
2. Data
2.1 Table 3: Some Properties of the Elements
ELEMENT SYMBOL ATOMIC ATOMIC WEIGHT VOLUMIC FUSION EVAP.

3
# (g) MASS (g/cm ) TEMP.(C°) TEMP. (°C)
Actinium Ac 89 (227) 10.0 1600 3200
Aluminum Al 13 26.9815 2.694 660.46 2467
Americium Am 95 (243) 11.7 1200 2607
Antimony Sb 51 121.75 6.7 630.75 1750
Argon Ar 18 39.948 17832e-3 -189.2 -185.7
Arsenic As 33 74.9225 5.73 815 (36 at) 613(sub)
Astatine At 85 (210)
Barium Ba 56 137.34 3.59 725 1640
Berkelium Bk 97 (247)
Beryllium Be 4 9.0122 1.84 1278+5 2970
Bismuth Bl 83 208.98 9.80 271.3 1560
Boron B 5 10.811 2.45 2300 2550 (sub)
Bromine Br 35 79.909 (Br2)3.119e-3 (Br2)-7.2 58.78
Cadmium Cd 48 112.4 8.64 320.9 765
Calcium Ca 20 40.08 1.55 839+2 1484
Californium Cf 98 (251)
Carbon C 6 12.01115 (grap) 2.25 3652-3697 4827
Cerium Ce 58 140.12 6.78 798 3257
Cesium Cs 55 132.905 1.87 28.4 678.4
Chlorine Cl 17 35.453 3.214 e-3 -100.98 -34.6
Chromium Cr 24 51.996 7.507 1857+20 2672
Cobalt Co 27 58.9332 8.7 1495 2870
Copper Cu 29 63.54 8.94 1083.4 2567
Curium Cm 96 (248)
Dysprosium Dy 66 162.5 8.56 1409 2335
Einsteinium Es 99 (254)
Erbium Er 68 167.26
Europium Eu 63 151.96 5.24 820 1700
Fermium Fm 100 (253)
Fluorine F 9 18.9984 (F2)1.696e-3 -219.62 -188.14
Francium Fr 87 (223)
Gadolinium Gd 64 157.25 7.95 1313 3233
Gallium Ga 31 69.72 5.9 29.78 2403
Germanium Ge 32 72.59 5.46 937.4 2830
Gold Au 79 196.967 19.3 1064.43 2807
Hafnium Hf 72 178.49 13.08 2227 4602
Helium He 2 4.0026 1.785 e-4 -272.2 (26atm) -268.93
Holmium Ho 67 164.93
Hydrogen H 1 1.00797 (H2) 8.99 e-5 -259.14 252.87
Indium In 49 114.82 7.28 156.61 2080
Iodine I 53 126.9044 (I2)4.94 113.5 184.35
Iridium Ir 77 192.2 22.64 2410 4130
Iron Fe 26 55.847 7.9 1535 2750
Krypton Kr 36 83.8 3.708 e-3 -156.6 -152.31
Lanthanum La 57 138.91 6.16 920 3430
Lead Pb 82 207.19 11.343 327.5 1740
ELEMENT SYMBOL ATOMIC ATOMIC WEIGHT VOLUMIC FUSION EVAP.

3
# MASS (g/cm ) TEMP.(C°) TEMP. (°C)
(g)
Lithium Li 3 6.939 .53 180.5 1347
Lutetium Lu 71 174.97
Magnesium Mg 12 24.312 1.74 648.8 1090
Manganese Mn 25 54.938 7.2 1244 1962
Mendelevium Md 101 (256)
Mercury Hg 80 200.59 13.594 -38.87 356.8
Molybdenum Mo 42 95.94 10.2 2617 4612
Neodymium Nd 60 144.24 7.07 1010 3127
Neon Ne 10 20.183 .9002 e-3 -248.6 -246.08
Neptunium Np 93 (237)
Nickel Ni 28 58.71 8.9 1453 2732
Niobium Nb 41 92.906 8.57 2468 4742
Nitrogen N 7 14.0067 (N2)1.2505e-3 -219.86 -193.8
Nobelium No 102 (254)
Osmium Os 76 190.2 22.48 3045 5027
Oxygen O 8 15.9994 (O2)1.429e-3 -218.4 -182.962
Palladium Pd 46 106.4 12.02 1552 3140
Phosphorus P 15 30.9738 2.34 590 (42 atm)
Platinum Pt 78 195.09 21.45 1772 3827
Plutonium Pu 94 (244) 19.74 639.5 3454
Polonium Po 84 (210)
Potassium K 19 39.102 .86 63.65 774
Praseodymium Pr 59 140.907 6.78 931 3212
Promethium Pm 61 (145)
Protactinium Pa 91 (231)
Radium Ra 88 (226) 5 700 1140
Radon Rn 86 (222) 9.73 e-3 -71 -62
Rhenium Re 75 186.2 20.5 3180 5630
Rhodium Rh 45 102.905 12.4 1966 3727
Rubidium Rb 37 85.4 1.532 39 6887
Ruthenium Ru 44 101.07 12.3 2310 3900
Samarium Sm 62 150.35 7.52 1077 1791
Scandium Sc 21 44.956 2.989 1539 2832
Selenium Se 34 78.96 4.81 217 685
Silicon Si 14 28.086 2.32-2.34 1410 2355
Silver Ag 47 107.87 10.49 961.93 2112
Sodium Na 11 22.9898 .97 97.8 882.9
Strontium Sr 38 87.62 2.6 769 1384
Sulphur S 16 32.064 2.07 112.8 444.67
Tantalum Ta 73 180.948 16.6 2996 5425
Technetium Tc 43 (99)
Tellurium Te 52 127.6 6.25 449.5 990

Terbium Tb 65 158.924 158.924
Thallium Tl 81 204.37 11.85 303.5 1457
Thorium Th 90 232.038 11.7 1750 4790
Thulium Tm 69 168.934
Tin Sn 50 118.69 7.18 231.96 2270
Titanium Ti 22 47.9 4.5 1660 3287
Tungsten W 74 183.85 19.35 3410 5660
Uranium U 92 238.03 19.05 1132.3 3818
Vanadium V 23 50.942 5.96 1890 3380
Xenon Xe 54 131.3 5.887e-3 -111.9 -107.1
Ytterbium Yb 70 173.04
Yttrium Y 39 88.905 4.469 1523 3337
Zinc Zn 30 65.37 7.14 419.58 907
Zirconium Zr 40 91.22 6.49 1852 4377
Table 4: Properties of Typical Components
CHEMICAL FORMULA MOLECULAR VOLUMIC FUSION EVAPORATION

WEIGHT (g) MASS (g/cm3) TEMP. (C°) TEMP. (C°)
Al2O3 101.9612 3.9655
BaO 153
BaSO4 136
C3S 228.323
C2S 172.244
C3A 270.199
C4AF 485.971
C2F 271.851
CaCO3 100.0892 2.93 1339 898 (decomp)
CaO 56.0794 3.25-3.8 2580 2850
CaSO4 136.1376 2.61 >200
CaSO4.2H2O 172.1684 2.32 128 (-1.5H2O) 163 (-2H2O)
CO 28.0104 1.25e-3 -199 -191.5
CO2 44.0098 1.977e-3 -56.6 -78.5
Cr2O3 151.9902 5.21 2435 4000
FeO 71.8464 5.7 1420
Fe2O3 159.6922
Fe3O4 231.5386
H2O 18.0154 1.00 0.00 100.0
K2O 94.1994
K2SO4 174.2576 2.662 1069 1689
KCl 74.553 1.984 776 1500 (sub)
MgCO3 84.3142
MgO 40.3044
Mn2O3 157.8742
Na2O 61.979
Na2SO4 142.0372 2.68 884
NaCl 58.4428 2.165 801 1413
P2O5 141.9446
SiO2 60.0848 2.26 1703 2230

SO2 64.0588 2.927e-3 -72.7 -10
SO3 80.0582 1.97 16.83 44.8
TiO2 79.8988 3.84 1830-1850 2500-3000
Slag, blast furnace 0.36
Table 5: Oxides and Other Definitions
Formula Short Form Mineral Name or Technical Name

Free CaO - Free lime
Ca(OH)2 - Portlandite
2CaO.SiO2 C2S Dicalcium silicate, belite, larnite
3CaO.SiO2 C3S Tricalcium silicate, alite
3CaO.Al2O3 C3A Tricalcium aluminate
11 CaO .7 Al 2 O3 .CaX C12 A7 12/7-calcium aluminate, mayenite
2 CAO.( Al 2 O3 .Fe2 O3 ) C 2 ( A, F ) Aluminate ferrite
2 CAO .Al 2 O3 .SiO2 C 2 AS Gehlenite
CaSO4 - Calcium sulphate, anhydrite

CaSO4.½H2O Hemihydrate, plaster
CaSO4.2H2O Gypsum
CaCO3 - Calcium carbonate, calcite
2(CaO.SiO2).CaCO3 - Spurrite
2(CaO.SiO2).CaSO4 - Sulphate spurrite, sulpho-spurrite
K2SO4 - Potassium sulphate, arcanite
Na2SO4 - Sodium sulphate, thenardite
2CaSO4.K2SO4 (0) - Calcium langbeinite
CaSO4.K2SO4.H2O Syngenite
5CaSO4.K2SO4.H2O Gorgeyite
C3A.3CaSO4.32H2O Ettringite
(K , Na )2 SO4 .2CaSO4 - Alkali calcium sulphate
KCI - Potassium chloride, sylvine

K2O.Al2O3.2SiO2 KAS2 Kalsilite
Na2SO4.3K2SO4 Aphthitalite
FeS2 Pyrite
(0) = Calcium langebeinite will react with the atmosphere to form K 2 Ca (SO4 )2 .H 2 O .
2.2 Table 6: Correlation constants for calculation of Cp in kcal/kg.°K
Temperature Cpm Top

Material a b c d
Limit Range Limit
O2 298 to 999°K 1.66341E-1 1.52333E-4 -5.93194E-8 1.14618E+3 0.2408
1000 to 3299°K 2.51162E-1 1.77998E-5 -6.07722E-10 -7.85447E+3 0.2736
3300 to 6000°K 2.83126E-1 1.27044E-5 -9.60847E-10 -1.30952E+5 0.2928
N2 298 to 799°K 2.32210E-1 2.14938E-5 2.76050E-8 6.53840E+2 0.2553
800 to 2199°K 2.42450E-1 5.44079E-5 -1.05755E-8 -7.11335E+3 0.2838
2200 to 6000°K 3.20296E-1 1.05070E-7 2.16255E-10 -5.84722E+4 0.3079
H2 298 to 999°K 3.71752E+0 -6.54182E-4 5.30928E-7 -1.34162E+4 3.4904
1000 to 2099°K 2.11603E+0 1.38511E-3 -2.23797E-7 3.03508E+5 3.7051
2100 to 6000°K 3.79977E+0 2.54376E-4 -8.12917E-9 -8.44345E+5 4.3278
CO2 298 to 799°K 1.49625E-1 2.42420E-4 -9.77776E-8 -1.01938E+3 0.2446
800 to 1799°K 2.60434E-1 6.27757E-5 -1.38167E-8 -1.43928E+4 0.2858
1800 to 3999°K 3.32286E-1 3.92911E-6 -9.13715E-11 -4.80845E+4 0.3158
4000 to 6000°K 3.58571E-1 -5.30873E-6 7.85626E-10 -1.07169E+5 0.3267
CO 298 to 799°K 2.20543E-1 5.60021E-5 8.37651E-9 9.48925E+2 0.2575
800 to 2199°K 2.55445E-1 4.61682E-5 8.98815E-9 9.24077E+3 0.3259
2200 to 6000°K 3.17217E-1 1.74111E-6 3.30179E-11 4.64873E+4 0.3276
SO2 298 to 799°K 9.79544E-2 2.00701E-4 -9.82007E-8 -2.45323E+1 0.1749
800 to 2599°K 2.06945E-1 9.10368E-6 -1.25453E-9 -1.13897E+4 0.2044
2600 to 6000°K 2.17009E-1 2.34333E-6 -6.36079E-13 -1.79038E+4 0.2172
NO 298 to 1199°K 1.81362E-1 1.28289E-4 -4.08850E-8 1.92938E+3 0.2566
1200 to 6000°K 2.92103E-1 3.55985E-6 -1.76784E-10 -2.64192E+4 0.2918
H2O (vapor) 298 to 1199°K 3.75618E-1 1.68470E-4 4.13071E-10 1.72986E+3 0.5052
1200 to 2599°K 4.14544E-1 1.91743E-4 -2.78523E-8 -3.59274E+4 0.5997
2600 to 6000°K 7.48058E-1 1.29251E-5 -3.91557E-10 -4.02480E+5 0.7009
SiO2 298 to 846°K 1.74571E-1 1.54435E-4 0.00000E+0 -3.84423E+3 0.2444
847 to 1078°K 2.34315E-1 3.99401E-5 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 1.3490
1079 to 1994°K 2.89399E-1 5.15389E-6 0.00000E+0 -1.64753E+4 0.7851
1995 to 2200°K 3.42819E-3 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.7015
Al2O3 298 to 599°K 1.58181E-1 3.16316E-4 -1.99797E-7 -4.40115E+3 0.2295
600 to 1599°K 2.70931E-1 3.61871E-5 -4.81287E-9 -9.75318E+3 0.2784
1600 to 2327°K 3.56484E-1 -2.66895E-5 7.55563E-9 -5.22846E+4 0.2929
2328 to 4000°K 3.92311E-1 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.3375
Fe2O3 298 to 499°K 2.62773E-1 -2.71539E-4 3.64815E-7 -5.24040E+3 0.1754
500 to 799°K 1.93927E-1 1.68039E-5 5.79035E-8 -4.88997E+3 0.0898
800 to 1099°K 9.36550E+0 -1.24510E-2 4.70597E-6 -1.39500E+6 0.1423
1100 to 1599°K 2.27310E-1 -1.91821E-5 8.86418E-9 -7.56606E+3 0.1691
CaO 298 to 1399°K 2.11063E-1 2.41220E-5 -2.70785E-9 -3.42270E+3 0.2201
1400 to 3199°K 2.09137E-1 2.15260E-5 -7.61534E-10 0.00000E+0 0.2412
3200 to 4000°K 2.67475E-5 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.1894
MgO 298 to 899°K 2.56115E-1 8.67130E-5 -3.47648E-8 -5.23329E+3 0.2725
900 to 4000°K 2.92535E-1 1.98752E-5 -3.78829E-11 -8.79060E+3 0.3274
Correlation constants for calculation of Cp in kcal/kg.°K (cont’d)
Temperature C p mean Top

Material Limit a b c d
Range Limit
K2O 298 to 499°K 1.72260E-1 3.18402E-4 -3.33239E-7 -2.24501E+3 0.2276
500 to 799°K 7.41409E-2 3.14076E-4 -1.12686E-7 9.04108E+3 0.2417
800 to 2000°K 1.87709E-1 9.96111E-5 1.09170E-9 -4.40135E+2 0.3025
Na2O 298 to 599°K 1.04965E-1 5.91884E-4 -3.72410E-7 1.61265E+3 0.2988
600 to 1023°K 3.12327E-1 8.43466E-5 -2.18119E-8 -8.84785E+3 0.3287
1024 to 1405°K 3.18377E-1 4.76363E-5 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.3447
1406 to 3500°K 4.03356E-1 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.3828
CaCO3 298 to 1200°K 2.49575E-1 5.23529E-5 0.00000E+0 -6.19443E+3 0.2692
MgCO3 298 to 599°K 1.90758E-1 2.12990E-4 -1.43661E-10 -3.39798E+3 0.2628
600 to 799°K 1.34623E-1 3.85987E-4 -1.47945E-7 -1.38980E+3 0.2879
800 to 1000°K 1.25484E-1 4.04459E-4 -1.53722E-7 -2.64523E+3 0.3081
K2SO4 298 to 599°K 1.58125E-1 1.54102E-4 -3.18000E-8 -1.89092E+3 0.2074
600 to 856°K -7.13991E-1 1.36132E-3 -3.64171E-7 9.43877E+4 0.2331
857 to 1341°K -3.72465E-1 4.47300E-4 -2.64252E-10 1.88203E+5 0.2556
1342 to 3000°K 2.69999E-1 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2643
Na2SO4 298 to 521°K 1.38524E-1 2.59737E-4 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2417
522 to 979°K 2.44072E-1 9.18685E-5 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2879
980 to 1156°K 2.40087E-1 9.98029E-5 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2997
1157 to 3500°K 3.32160E-1 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.3233
CaSO4 298 to 1400°K 1.23255E-1 1.73351E-4 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2683
+ ½ H2O 298 to 1000°K 1.16776E-1 2.68688E-4 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2878
+ 2 H2O 298 to 1000°K 1.26844E-1 4.41399E-4 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.4078
KCl 298 to 699°K 1.61827E-1 1.89934E-5 2.40342E-8 -4.62219E+2 0.1747
700 to 1043°K 4.60282E-1 -5.38732E-4 3.19498E-7 -2.63462E+4 0.1862
1044 to 2000°K 2.35949E-1 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2138
NaCl 298 to 1073°K 2.29593E-1 -5.18511E-5 8.87734E-8 -1.37371E+3 0.2350
1074 to 1499°K 5.09687E-1 -3.28475E-4 1.14261E-7 0.00000E+0 0.2499
1500 to 2500°K 2.73785E-1 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2606
CaCl2 298 to 599°K 1.66077E-1 6.89417E-6 2.86392E-9 -1.02094E+3 0.1634
600 to 1044°K 1.95989E-1 -7.99550E-5 7.04763E-8 -1.79242E+3 0.1708
1045 to 3000°K 2.20815E-1 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2067
CaF2 298 to 599°K 3.29378E-1 -2.80694E-4 2.60932E-7 -5.23867E+3 0.2269
600 to 1423°K 1.74378E-1 9.21586E-5 6.35505E-9 3.01806E+3 0.2635
1424 to 1690°K 3.30558E-1 3.20184E-5 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2855
1691 to 3500°K 3.05840E-1 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2969
C3S 298 to 2600°K 2.18324E-1 3.77524E-5 0.00000E+0 -4.44532E+3 0.2663
C2S 298 to 969°K 2.02438E-1 5.65457E-5 0.00000E+0 -3.63425E+3 0.2238
970 to 1709°K 1.86705E-1 6.39768E-5 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2488
1710 to 2403°K 2.84470E-1 8.22990E-5 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.3156
C3A 298 to 2500°K 2.21910E-1 2.77202E-5 0.00000E+0 -4.36714E+3 0.2540
C4AF 298 to 2500°K 1.84143E-1 3.58039E-5 0.00000E+0 -1.79020E+2 0.2335
2.3 Table 7: Cp mean – reference 0ºC
kcal/kg°C 20°C 100°C 200°C 300°C 400°C 500°C 600°C 700°C 800°C 900°C 1000°C
O2 0.2190 0.2206 0.2236 0.2271 0.2306 0.2340 0.2372 0.2401 0.2428 0.2451 0.2473
N2 0.2487 0.2485 0.2492 0.2506 0.2525 0.2547 0.2572 0.2597 0.2623 0.2648 0.2671
H2 3.4073 3.4304 3.4453 3.4541 3.4610 3.4681 3.4767 3.4872 3.5000 3.5144 3.5308
CO2 0.1977 0.2077 0.2183 0.2275 0.2356 0.2428 0.2493 0.2550 0.2602 0.2649 0.2891
CO 0.2489 0.2488 0.2500 0.2519 0.2542 0.2568 0.2644 0.2719 0.2780 0.2834 0.2882
SO2 0.1466 0.1522 0.1587 0.1644 0.1695 0.1739 0.1777 0.1810 0.1839 0.1864 0.1886
NO 0.2385 0.2374 0.2383 0.2403 0.2429 0.2456 0.2483 0.2510 0.2536 0.2560 0.2583
H2O 0.4450 0.4471 0.4519 0.4580 0.4648 0.4721 0.4796 0.4873 0.4951 0.5031 0.5111
Air 0.2418 0.2420 0.2433 0.2452 0.2474 0.2499 0.2525 0.2562 0.2578 0.2602 0.2625
SiO2 0.1703 0.1868 0.2025 0.2154 0.2267 0.2372 0.2455 0.2491 0.2524 0.2557 0.2586
Al2O3 0.1768 0.1962 0.2137 0.2286 0.2366 0.2444 0.2509 0.2563 0.2609 0.2650 0.2687
Fe2O3 0.1497 0.1620 0.1729 0.1347 0.1066 0.0923 0.1093 0.1286 0.1401 0.1480 0.1544
CaCO3 0.1870 0.2057 0.2212 0.2322 0.2407 0.2476 0.2536 0.2589 0.2637 0.2681
Raw 0.1835 0.2018 0.2172 0.2277 0.2359 0.2431 0.2496 0.2549 0.2596 0.2639
Slag 0.211 0.211
CaO 0.1749 0.1850 0.1932 0.1989 0.2032 0.2057 0.2096 0.2121 0.2143 0.2162 0.2180
C3S 0.1735 0.1869 0.1980 0.2059 0.2120 0.2170 0.2213 0.2251 0.2286 0.2318 0.2347
C2S 0.1731 0.1851 0.1954 0.2032 0.2094 0.2148 0.2196 0.2240 0.2275 0.2309 0.2344
C3A 0.1752 0.1880 0.1985 0.2057 0.2113 0.2157 0.2195 0.2228 0.2257 0.2283 0.2308
C4AF 0.1920 0.1940 0.1961 0.1982 0.2001 0.2020 0.203 0.2058 0.2076 0.2095 0.2113
Clinker 0.1780 0.1881 0.1985 0.2069 0.2137 0.2190 0.2233 0.2289 0.2302 0.2334 0.2370
kcal/kg°C 1100°C 1200°C 1300°C 1400°C 1500°C 1600°C 1700°K 1800°C 1900°C 2000°C
O2 0.2493 0.2511 0.2528 0.2545 0.2560 0.2574 0.2588 0.2602 0.2614 0.2627
N2 0.2694 0.2715 0.2735 0.2754 0.2772 0.2789 0.2805 0.2820 0.2834 0.2847
H2 3.5490 3.5685 3.5892 3.6107 3.6327 3.6549 3.6772 3.6994 3.7213 3.7430
CO2 0.2729 0.2764 0.2795 0.2825 0.2852 0.2876 0.2899 0.2920 0.2940 0.2958
CO 0.2927 0.2969 0.3011 0.3051 0.3091 0.3130 0.3170 0.3209 0.3249 0.3261
SO2 0.1906 0.1924 0.1939 0.1954 0.1967 0.1979 0.1900 0.2000 0.2010 0.2019
NO 0.2604 0.2623 0.2641 0.2668 0.2673 0.2687 0.2701 0.2713 0.2724 0.2735
H2O 0.5191 0.5269 0.5346 0.5420 0.5492 0.5562 0.5629 0.5694 0.5757 0.5817
Air 0.2647 0.2668 0.2687 0.2706 0.2723 0.2739 0.2755 0.2770 0.2783 0.2796
SiO2 0.2611 0.2634 0.2655 0.2673 0.2690 0.2706 0.2720 0.2605 0.2469 0.2348
Al2O3 0.2720 0.2749 0.2777 0.2802 0.2826 0.2847 0.2867 0.2886 0.2904 0.2921
Fe2O3 0.1597 0.1643 0.1682 0.1717 0.1748 0.1776 0.1801 0.1825 0.1847 0.1868
CaO 0.2197 0.2212 0.2227 0.2241 0.2254 0.2267 0.2279 0.2291 0.2303 0.2314
C3S 0.2375 0.2402 0.2428 0.2453 0.2478 0.2502 0.2525 0.2548 0.2570 0.2592
C2S 0.2377 0.2411 0.2444 0.2477 0.2565 0.2676 0.2779 0.2875 0.2966 0.3051
C3A 0.2331 0.2353 0.2373 0.2393 0.2413 0.2431 0.2449 0.2467 0.2485 0.2502
C4AF 0.2131 0.2150 0.2168 0.2186 0.2204 0.2222 0.2240 0.2258 0.2276 0.2294
Clinker 0.2412 0.2464 0.2529 0.2610 0.2711 0.2836 0.2987 0.3167 0.3382 0.3632
3. Psychrometric Chart
My notes:
CHAPTER 9-4 – UNIT CONVERSION
9-4. Unit Conversion
© Copyright 1990-2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved. UNIT CONVERSION – Page 1/10
Table of Contents
1. Mass .............................................................................................................3
2. Length ..........................................................................................................3
3. Area ..............................................................................................................4
4. Volume .........................................................................................................4
5. Velocity.........................................................................................................5
6. Flow Rate .....................................................................................................5
7. Concentration ..............................................................................................5
7.1 General Concentration Units .......................................................................... 5
7.2 Gas Concentration.......................................................................................... 6
8. Pressure .......................................................................................................7
9. Heat, Work ...................................................................................................7
10. Calorific Value .............................................................................................8
10.1 Calorific Value (Gas Basis)............................................................................. 8
10.2 Liquid Calorific Value ...................................................................................... 8
10.3 Calorific Value (Mass Basis)........................................................................... 8
11. Specific Heat................................................................................................9

11.1 Specific Heat (Gas Basis)............................................................................... 9
11.2 Specific Heat (Mass Basis)............................................................................. 9
12. Force ............................................................................................................9
1. Mass
Time:
[]
The fundamental unit of time t is the second s whose definition is based on an invariant property of
cesium 133.
Mass:
International System of Unit ISU : [kg]. 1 kg is the mass of a cylinder of platinum alloy kept at Sèvres,
France.
troy hundred sh hundred
MultiplyÈ to obtain Æ kg g t lb Short ton grain ounce
weight weight
ounce
kg 1 1000 0.001 2.2046 1.102E-03 15432 32.151 35.274 0.0197 0.022
g 0.0001 1 1E-06 0.0022 1.1E-06 15.4323 0.0322 0.0353 1.97E-05 2.20E-05
T 1000 1E+06 1 2204.6 1.10231 1.5E+07 32151 3.5274 19.684 22.046
lb 0.4536 453.59 0.0005 1 0.0005 7000 14.583 16 0.0089 001
Short ton 907.19 907185 0.9072 2000 1 1.40E+07 29167 32000 17.857 20
grain 6.48E-05 0.0648 6E-08 0.0001 171E-08 1 0.0021 0.0023 1.28E-06 1.43E-06
troy ounce 0.0311 31.104 3E-05 0.0686 3.4E-05 480.00 1 1.0971 0.0006 0.0007
ounce 0.0283 28.35 3E-05 0.0625 3.1E-05 437.499 0.9115 1 0.0006 0.0006
hundred weight 50.802 50802 0.0508 112 0.056 783994 1633.3 1792 1 1.12
sh hundred weight 45.359 45359 0.0454 100 0.05 699996 1458.3 1600 0.8929 1
2. Length
(ISU : [m] ; 1 meter = wavelength of orange-red light)
miles miles
MultiplyÈ to obtain Æ m cm km in ft yd
(stat) (naut)
m 1 100 0.001 39.37008 3.28084 1.093613 0.000621 0.00054
cm 0.01 1 0.00001 0.393701 0.032808 0.010936 6.21E-06 5.4E-06
km 1.00E+03 100000 1 39370.08 3280.84 1093.613 0.621371 0.539665
in 0.0254 2.54 2.54E-05 1 0.83333 0.027778 1.58E-05 1.37E-05
ft 0.3048 30.48 0.000305 12 1 0.333333 0.000189 0.000164
yd 0.9144 91.44 0.000914 36 3 1 0.000568 0.000493
miles (stat) 1609.344 160934.4 1.609344 63360 5280 1760 1 0.868507
miles (naut) 1853 185300 1.853 72952.76 6079.396 2026.465 1.151401 1
3. Area
(ISU : [m 2 ] )
MultiplyÈ to obtain Æ m2 cm2 km2 hectare in2 ft2 yd2 miles2 acre (US)
m2 1 10000 1E-06 0.0001 1550.003 10.7639 1.19603 3.86E-07 0.00025
cm2 0.0001 1 1E-10 1E-08 0.155 0.00108 0.00012 386E-11 2.47E-08
km2 1.00E+06 1.00E+10 1 100 1.55E+09 1.1E+07 1196029 0.3861 247.105
hectare 1.00E+04 1.00E+08 0.01 1 1.55E+07 107639 11960.3 0.00386 2.47105
in2 0.00065 6.4516 6.5E-10 6.5E-08 1 0.00694 0.00077 2.49E-10 1.59E-07
ft2 0.0929 929.03 9.3E-08 9.3E-06 143.9999 1 0.11111 3.59E-08 2.30E-05
yd2 0.8361 8361 8.4E-07 8.4E-05 1295.958 8.99971 1 3.23E-07 0.00021
miles2 2590000 2.59E+10 2.59 259 4.015E+09 2.79E+07 3097716 1 640.003
acre (US) 4046.85 4.05E+07 0.00405 0.40469 6272637 43560 4840 0/00156 1
4. Volume
(ISU : [m 3 ] )
MultiplyÈ to obtain Æ M3 cm3 Litre inch3 ft3 US gallon
US UK gallon yd3 fION
barrel
m3 1 1000000 1000 61024 35.3147 264.171 6.28978 219.974 1.30794 33783.8
cm3 1E-06 1 0.001 0.06102 3.53E-05 0.00026 6.29E-06 0.00022 1.31E-06 0.03378
Litre 0.001 1000 1 61.024 0.03531 0.26417 0.00629 0.21997 0.00131 33.7838
inch3 1.6E-05 16.387 0.01639 1 0.00058 0.00433 0.0001 0.0036 2.14E-05 0.55361
ft3 0.02832 28316.8 28.3168 1728 1 7.48047 0.17811 6.22895 0.03704 956.649
US gallon 0.00379 3785.43 3.78543 231.002 0.13368 1 0.02381 0.83269 0.00495 127.886
US barrel 0.15899 158988 158.988 9702.08 5.61462 42 1 34.9732 0.20795 5371.22
UK gallon 0.00455 4546 4.546 277.415 0.16054 1.20092 0.02859 1 0.00595 153.581
yd3 0.76456 764560 764.56 46656.5 27.0002 201.974 4.80892 168.183 1 25829.7
fION 2.96E-05 29.6 0.0296 1.80631 0.00105 0.00782 0.00019 0.00651 3.87E-05 1
5. Velocity
(ISU : [m 3 .s −1 ] )
MultiplyÈ to obtain Æ m/s m/s km/h ft/min miles/h knots ft/s
m/s 1 60 3.6 196.8504 2.237136 1.942795 3.2808
m/min 0.016667 1 0.06 3.28084 0.037286 0.03238 0.05468
km/h 0.277778 16.66667 1 54.68066 0.621427 0.539665 0.911333
ft/min 0.00508 0.3048 0.018288 1 0.011365 0.009869 0.016666
miles/h 0.447 26.82 1.6092 88 1 0.86843 1.466518
knots 0.514722 30.88333 1.853 101.3233 1.151504 1 1.688701
ft/s 0.304804 18.28822 1.097293 60.00073 0.681887 0.592171 1
6. Flow Rate
(ISU : [m 3 .s −1 ] )
MultiplyÈ to obtain Æ m3/s m3/min m3/h l/m ft3/s ft3/m gal US/min
m3/s 1 60 3600 60000 35.31472 2118.883 15850.25
m3/min 0.016667 1 60 1000 0.588579 35.31472 264.1708
m3/h 0.000278 0.016667 1 16.66667 0.00981 0.588579 4.402846
l/m 1.67E-05 0.001 0.06 1 0.000589 0.035315 0.264171
ft3/s 0.028317 1.699008 101.9405 1699.008 1 60 448.8283
ft3/m 0.000472 0.028317 1.699008 28.3168 0.016667 1 7.480471
gal US/min 6.31E-05 0.003785 0.227126 3.78543 0.002228 0.133681 1

European standard conditions: dry gas @ 273K, 101 kPa, 10%O2
7. Concentration
7.1 General Concentration Units

(ISU : [kg .m −3 ] )
MultiplyÈ to obtain Æ kg/m3 g/cm3 g/m3 mg/l grain/UKgal grain/ft3 lb/ft3 lb/UKgal
kg/m3 1 0.001 1000 1000 0.07015673 436.9961 0.062428 0.010022
g/cm3 1000 1 1000000 1000028 70.15673 436996.09 62.42782 10.02241
g/m3 0.001 0.000001 1 1.000028 0.070157 0.4369961 6.24E-05 1E-05
mg/l 0.001 1E-06 0.999972 1 0.070155 0.4369839 6.24E-05 1E-05

grain/UKgal 14.254 0.0143 14.2538 14.2542 1 6.228855 8.9E-4 0.000143
grain/ft3 2.29E-3 2.29E-06 2.2884 2.2884 0.1605 1 1.43E-04 2.29E-05
lb/ft3 16.0185 0.016019 16018.5 16018.95 1123.806 7000.022 1 0.160544
lb/UKgal 99.7764 0.099776 99776.4 99779.19 6999.986 43601.90 6.228823 1
7.2 Gas Concentration
Multiply ppm by figures

below for mg/m3
Molecula
Density mg/Nm3 mg/m3 mg/m3
r
kg/Nm3 0°C 20°C 25°C
Weight
Nitrogen N2 28.013 1.250 1.250 1.165 1.145
Oxygen O2 31.999 1.428 1.428 1.330 1.308
Air (dry) 28.963 1.292 1.292 1.204 1.184
Hydrogen Chloride HCl 36.461 1.627 1.627 1.516 1.490
Hydrogen Sulfide H2S 34.080 1.520 1.520 1.417 1.393
Ammonia NH3 17.031 0.760 0.760 0.708 0.696
Nitrogen Monoxide NO 30.006 1.339 1.339 1.247 1.226
Nitrogen Dioxide NO2 46.006 2.053 2.053 1.913 1.880
Nitrous Oxide N2O 44.013 1.964 1.964 1.830 1.799
Carbon Monoxide CO 28.011 1.250 1.250 1.164 1.145
Carbon Dioxide CO2 44.010 1.964 1.964 1.830 1.799

Methane
CH4 16.043 0.716 0.716 0.667 0.656
Propane
C3H8 44.097 1.967 1.967 1.833 1.802
Benzene
C6H6 78.115 3.485 3.485 3.247 3.193
Sulfur Dioxide SO2 64.063 2.858 2.858 2.663 2.619
8. Pressure
(ISU : 1[Pa] = 1[N .m −2 ] )
MultiplyÈ to obtain Æ mmHG
kgf/cm2 mbar Pascal mmWG PSI hWG inHG ATA ATU
(torr)
kgf/cm2 1 980.66 98066 10000 735.56 14.223 393.7 28.959 0.96784 74.6269
mbar 0.001 1 100 10.197 0.7501 0.0145 0.4015 0.0295 0.00099 0.0761
Pascal 1.020E-05 0.01 1 0.102 0.0075 0.0001 0.004 0.0003 9.87E-06 0.00076
mmWG 1.00E-04 0.0981 9.8065 1 0.0736 0.0014 0.0394 0.0029 9.68E-05 0.00746
mmHG 0.0014 1.3332 133.32 13.595 1 0.0193 0.5352 0.0394 0.00132 0.10146
PSI 0.0703 68.947 6894.7 703.08 51.715 1 27.68 2.036 0.06805 5.24679
inWG 0.0025 2.4909 249.09 25.4 1.8683 0.0361 1 0.0736 0.00246 0.18955
inHG 0.0345 33.864 3386.4 345.32 25.4 0.4912 13.595 1 0.03342 2.57699
Atmosphere 1.0332 1013.2 101325 10332 760 14.696 406.78 29.921 1 77.1067
ATU 0.0134 13.141 1314.1 134 9.8566 0.1906 5.2756 0.3881 0.01297 1
1 Newton/m2 = .01 millibar = 10 A/cm2 1kgf/m2 = 1 mmWG

1 Pieze = 10 millibar = 10000 dyne/cm2
9. Heat, Work
(ISU : 1[J ] = 1[N .m]; 1 cal = 4 ,1868[J ]) used to be defined as the quantity of heat, which must be
transferred to one gram of water to raise its temperature by one centigrade).
MultiplyÈ to Joule Calorie kJ kcal BTU Thermie Therm kgfm ft-poundf kWh hph
obtain Æ
Joule 1 0.2388 0.001 0.0002 0.0009 2.39E-07 9.48E-09 0.102 0.7376 2.78E-07 3.73E-07
Calorie 4.1868 1 0.0042 0.001 0.004 1.00E-06 3.97E-08 0.4269 3.088 1.16E-06 1.56E-06
kJ 1000 238.85 1 0.2388 0.9478 0.0002 948E-06 101.97 737.56 0.0003 0.0004
kcal 4186.8 1000 4.1868 1 3.9683 0.001 3.97E-05 426.93 3088 0.0012 0.0016
BTU 1055.1 252 1.0551 0.252 1 0.0003 1E-05 107.59 778.17 0.0003 0.0004
Thernie 419E+06 1.00E+06 4186.8 1000 3968.3 1 0.0397 426935 3.09E+06 1.163 1.5596
Therm 1.06E+08 2.52E+07 105506 25200 100000 25.2 1 1.08E+07 7.78E+07 29.307 39.302
kgfm 9.8067 2.3423 0.0098 0.0023 0.0093 2.34E-06 9.29E-08 1 7.233 2.72E-06 3.65E-06
ft-poundf 1.3558 0.3238 0.0014 0.0003 0.0013 3.24E-07 1.29E-08 0.1383 1 3.77E-07 5.05E-07
kWh 3.60E+06 859845 3600 859.85 3412.1 0.8598 0.0341 367098 2.66E+06 1 1.341
hph 2.68E+06 641187 2684.5 641.19 2544.4 0.6412 0.0254 273745 1.98E+06 0.7457 1
1 Joule = 1 Newton-metre
10. Calorific Value
10.1 Calorific Value (Gas Basis)

(ISU: J .m[ −3
] at 273.15oK and 101375 Pa)
To Obtain
J/m3 kcal/m3 kcal/m3
Multiply By 0°C 0°C 15°C
760 mmHg 760 mm Hg 760 mmHg BTU/ft3
J/m3 1 0.238846 0.226406 0.025018
kcal/m3 4.1868 1 0.947917 0.104745
kcal/m3 4.416844 1.054945 1 0.1105
BTU/ft3 39.97138 9.547 9.04976 1
10.2 Liquid Calorific Value

[
(ISU: J .m −3 ) ]
To Obtain
Multiply By Joule/m3 Joule/1 kcal/1 Therm/UK gal BTU/US gal
Joule/m3 1 0.001 0.000239 4.31E-08 3.59E-06
Joule/1 1000 1 0.238846 4.31E-05 0.003588

kcal/1 4186.8 4.1868 1 0.00018 0.015022
Therm/UK gal 23208688 23208.69 5543.3 1 83.27002
BTU/US gal 278716 278.716 66.57018 0.012009 1
10.3 Calorific Value (Mass Basis)

[
(ISU: J .kg −1 ) ]
To Obtain
Multiply By J/kg J/g kcal/kg BTU/lb BTU/st Therm/t
J/kg 1 0.001 0.000239 0.00043 0.859158 9.63E-06
J/g 1000 1 0.238846 0.429923 859.1579 0.00963
kcal/kg 4186.8 4.1868 1 1.8 3597.122 0.04032
BTU/lb 2326 2.326 0.555556 1 1998.401 0.0224
BTU/st 1.16393 0.001164 0.000278 0.0005 1 1.12E-05
Therm/t 103839 103.839 24.80152 44.64273 89214.1 1
11. Specific Heat
11.1 Specific Heat (Gas Basis)

[ ] [
(ISU: J /( m 3 .o K ) = J / m 3 .o C ]
To Obtain
Multiply By J/m3*°C kJ/m3*°C kcal/m3*°C BTU/ft3*°F
J/m3*°C 1 0.001 0.00023885 1.4911E-05
kJ/m3*°C 1000 1 0.2388459 0.01491066
kcal/m3*°C 4186.8 4.1868 1 0.06242796
BTU/ft3*°F 67066.1 67.0661 16.0184628 1
11.2 Specific Heat (Mass Basis)

[ ][
(ISU: J /( kg .o K ) = J /( kg .o C ) ]
To Obtain
Multiply By J/kg*°C kJ/kg*°C kcal/kg*°C BTU/lb*°F
J/kg*°C 1 0.001 0.00023885 0.00023885
kJ/kg*°C 1000 1 0.2388459 0.2388459
kcal/kg*°C 4186.8 4.1868 1 1
BTU/lb*°F 4186.8 4.1868 1 1
12. Force
[
(ISU : kg .m.s
−2
] = 1 [N ] Newton )
1 Newton is the force which when applied to a one-kilogram mass will produce an acceleration of one
meter per second).
Newton dyne gf sthene poundal poundforce
Newton 1 100000 101.9716 1.00E-03 7.233011 0.224809
dyne 0.00001 1 0.00102 1E-08 7.23E-05 2.25E-06
gf 0.009807 980.665 1 9.81E-06 0.070932 0.002205
sthene 1000 1E+08 101971.6 1 7233.011 224.809
poundal 0.138255 13825.5 14.09809 0.000138 1 0.031081
poundforce 4.44822 444822 453.5922 0.004448 32.17403 1
Temperature
• The Celsius scale is defined as the ice point (freezing point of water salined with air at standard
atmospheric pressure = 1 atm = 101 325 Pa) is 0oC and the steam point (boiling point of pure water at
1 atm = 101325 Pa) = 100oC.
• Fahrenheit: (oF)=32+1.8*( oC).
• Kelvin: (oK)=( oC)+273.15.
• Rankine: (oR)=( oF)+459.67.
My notes:

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CEMENT

Version September 2010

Have a sound utilization of this booklet and improve plant performances.

Colin Paxton Jacques Denizeau

© Copyright 2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved.

1-1 Ball Milling Including Separators

© Copyright 2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved.

1-1. Ball Milling including

2. Ball Charge and Internals ................................................................ 6

3. Ball Charge Design (Finish Mill) ..................................................... 8

4. Grinding Laws ................................................................................ 11

5. Grindability Measurement ............................................................. 13

6. Mill Performance Benchmarking .................................................. 15

8. Grinding Aid ................................................................................... 21

1. Ball Mill General

1.1. Comparison of Grinding Equipment

Closed Circuit Vertical Mill Roller Press

1.2. Mill Design

L/D vs specific power consumption for different

The optimum specific energy and the highest

Length of first Compartments relative to total mill length

1.3. Percent loading of mill

• % volume load = 360

1.4. Mill Critical Speed

1.5. Retention Time

1.7. Required air velocities for mill ventilation

1.8. Optimum filling ratio:

2. Ball Charge and Internals

Quick evaluation Grinding Ball vs Clinker Size

Optimum Ball Diameter (mm)

2.2. Grinding Balls Data

Diameter Weight Surface Number of balls per Weight of 1 m3 Specific surface

Bulk density for ball load

2.3. Other internals

Shell Liner Thickness Ball Charge Remarks – sizes, shape,

3. Ball Charge Design (Finish Mill)

Open circuit finish mills

3.3. Polysius Design

First Compartment – Crushing

Example: Comparison Slegten & Polysius

3.4. Fineness in Finish Mills:

4.2. Charles, Bond, Kick & Rittinger Laws

Normalized Blaine fineness equation

0.43( SA1 − SA2 ) / 1000

5.1. BB10 Test

Lab Mill Characteristics:

5.2. Bond Test

6.2. Benchmarking Ball Mills with Bond Wi

The 1.102 is the conversion from kWh/short ton to kWh/t (metric)

Typical Values for Wi for common materials:

5.3. Hardgrove Test

5.4. Parameters Affecting the Clinker Grindability

6. Mill Performance Benchmarking

6.1. Performance Indicator Finish Mills Absorbed (PIFMA)

An efficient mill will have a PIFMA close to unity

SPCC Clinker 28 SPCA Fly Ash 2