THE

FIBERGLASS
BOAT
HANDBOOK
JACK WILEY
 No. 2799
$23.95

THE
FIBERGLASS
BOAT
HANDBOOK
JACK WILEY

TAB BOOKS Inc.

Blue Ridge Summit, PA 17214
FIRST EDITION

FIRST PRINTING

Copyright © 1987 by TAB BOOKS Inc.

Printed in the United States of America

Reproduction or publication of the content in any manner, without express

permission of the publisher, is prohibited. No liability is assumed with respect to
the use of the information herein.

*
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Wiley, Jack.
The fiberglass boat handbook.

Includes index.
1. Fiberglass boats. I. Title.
VM321.W527 1987 623.8'207 86-30116
ISBN 0-8306-0499-5
ISBN 0-8306-0399-9 (pbk.)

Questions regarding the content of this book

should be addressed to:

Reader Branch
Inquiry
Editorial Department
TAB BOOKS Inc.
P.O. Box 40
Blue Ridge Summit, PA 17214

Cover photograph courtesy of Bertram Yacht, P.O. Box 520774, Biscayne

Annex, Miami, FL 33152
 Contents

Introduction v

1 Overview 1

Fiberglass— Fiberglass Versus Other Materials— Life Expectancy

of Fiberglass— Fiberglass as a Boatbuilding Material— Introduction
to Fiberglassing— Selecting a Fiberglass Boat— Do Your Own
Fiberglassing— Finishing Out Fiberglass Hulls— Fiberglass Boat-
building from Scratch

2 The Right Boat for You 17

Small Open Boats— Powerboats— Sailboats— The Right Boat for
You

3 Fiberglass Boat Design 47

of Boat Design— Structural Design— Mechanical
Fundamentals
Properties of Fiberglass Laminates— Special Problems of Fiber-
glass Boat Design

4 Fiberglass Boat Construction 74

Reinforcing Materials— Resins— Solvents— Mold Release Agent-
Core and Forming Materials— Contact Molding— Reinforcing Fiber-
glass Laminates— Adding Stiffeners to Fiberglass Moldings-
Reinforcing Moldings to Support Heavy Loads— Supporting Fiber-
glass Moldings— From Moldings to Finished Boats— Quality of
Fiberglass Boat Construction

5 Surveying Fiberglass Boats 136

Doing Your Own Fiberglass Boat Survey— Professional Surveys
and Surveyors
 A

6 Buying Fiberglass Boats 152

New— Used— Other Ways to Buy a Boat

7 Costs and Responsibilities of Boat Ownership 168

A Place to Keep the Boat— Other Costs— Responsibilities

8 Equipping, Fitting Out, and Commissioning 176

Commissioning— Fitting Out and Equipping

9 Care and Maintenance of Fiberglass Boats 192

Protection and Care— Maintenance

10 Basic Fiberglassing Skills and Techniques 205

Tools and Equipment— Protective Clothing and Equipment—
Place to Work— Materials and Supplies— Where to Purchase
Supplies— Health and Safety— Working with Cured Fiberglass-
Fundamentals of Fiberglassing

1 1 Alterations 254
Design of Alterations— Making Attachments to Fiberglass Mold-
ings—Reinforcing and Stiffening Fiberglass Moldings— Using Rigid
Plastic Foam as a Form for Making Components— Working with
Wood— Laminating Plastic to Wood—Adding Fiberglass to Wood
12 Repairing Fiberglass Boats 290
Working Conditions— Repairing Scratches and Minor Gouges-
Repairing Nicks and Small Holes— Repairing Gel Coat Cracks and
Crazing— Filling in Small Holes— Patching Larger Holes and Frac-
tures in Single-Skin Laminates— Repairing Sandwich Core
Laminates— Repairing Major Damage— Getting Started—
Refinishing Fiberglass Boats

13 Boatbuilding from Bare Hulls and Kits 312

Reasons for Popularity— Required and Dedication— The
Skills
Right Boat and Starting Point for You— A Place to Build—
Delivery— Other Considerations Before You Order— Placing an
Order— Getting Ready— Typical Constructions

14 One-Off Fiberglass Boat Construction 324

Plans— A Place to Build— Tools and Equipment— Typical Con-
struction Methods

Appendix: Suppliers 331

Glossary 336

Index 341
 Introduction

Fiberglass is a combination of glass fiber reinforcing material and

plastic resin. It wasused for boatbuilding on an experimental
first

basis in the 1940s. Since then it has gained acceptance and is cho-
sen today over wood and other boatbuilding materials by pleasure
boat manufacturers.
While there are certainly both advantages and disadvantages
in using fiberglass, theadvantages largely outweigh the disadvan-
tages. Fiberglass does not suffer from dry rot or worms, a com-
mon problem with wood; from rust, a common problem with steel;
or from electrolysis, common problems with both steel and alumi-
num boats. Fiberglass boats require relatively little maintenance,
certainly less than required by other materials. They are, however,
stillfar from maintenance-free.
This book is primarily about the fiberglass part of boats. Most
so-called "fiberglass" boats use a variety of other materials in their
construction, such as wood for bulkheads and trim, rigid foam for
core and flotation purposes, metal for engines and fittings and
fasteners, and fabrics for upholstery. While the whole boat will be
treated to some degree, the focus will be on the fiberglass portion.
The vast popularity and acceptance of fiberglass boats have
created a real need for a how-to handbook on the subject. There
are three main aspects to this book. The first deals with understand-
ing, selecting, purchasing,and owning fiberglass boats. The sec-
ond part covers caring for, maintaining, equipping, altering, and

V
repairing fiberglass boats. The third aspect is an introduction to
finishing out bare hulls and fiberglass kit boats, which are avail-
able from a number of manufacturers, and one-off fiberglass boat-
building methods.
Inflation has heavily hit the boating industry in recent years.
The information presented in this book should enable you to get
the most fiberglass boat for your money, one that is most closely

matched with your needs and budget. While most boats are pur-
chased with fun and enjoyment in mind, they can sometimes be
considered a good investment. Many fiberglass boats have ap-
preciated, sometimes greatly, in value over the years. After a num-
ber of years, some owners can even sell them for more than they
originally paid. Whether or not this trend continues is a matter of
speculation.
Once you own a fiberglass boat, you must properly care for it,
maintain and keep it in a good state of repair. You might also
it,

want to improve it by adding extra equipment and making altera-

tions. You have two basic choices: doing the work yourself or hav-
ing the work done for you. You can also do some of the work
yourself and hire out the rest. This book details how to do this work
yourself, while at the same time pointing out what skills and equip-
ment are required and what jobs are best left to professional
workers.
Some people, though certainly not most, will want to build a
fiberglass boat from scratch or finish out a bare fiberglass hull or
fiberglass kit boat; these subjects are introduced to show what the
possibilities are.For those who have the necessary skill and dedi-
cation, these build-it-yourself methods can result in the most boat
for the least money. If you do not have this skill and dedication
and blindly set out to build a large fiberglass yacht, the results can
be disastrous.
Building from scratch is most difficult of all, because it requires
extensive fiberglassing— that is, using a liquid resin, adding a cat-
alyst or curing agent, combining this with glass fiber reinforcing
material, and coming up with a hard fiberglass reinforced plastic
material. This is known as chemical boatbuilding and differs con-
siderably from making things out of wood, metal, and other exist-
ing materials.
Much easier, but still a large project, is to purchase a fiber-
glass hull and other moldings from a factory and then finish out
the project yourself. While some fiberglassing is usually still re-

vi
quired, this is minimal compared to building a fiberglass boat from
scratch.
While much of the material in this book comes from my own
experience with fiberglass boats and boats of other materials, many
other people along the way shared their ideas and techniques with
me. It is impossible to acknowledge all the help given for the com-
pilation of this book. To the many people who freely shared their
ideas, I would like to extend a sincere thanks.

vii
 Overview
There no well-documented history of the first fiberglass boats
is

built. By 1938, glass fibers were being produced for insulation pur-
poses, but a useable polyester resin did not appear until about 1946.
Experimental work in plastic boat construction was carried out prior
to this, however. A California company called Chemold is reported
to have produced molded plastic boat hulls using osnaburg, a coarse,
durable cotton, as a reinforcing material and combining this with
an acetate resin to form a rigid plastic. The hulls were formed us-
ing male molds.
The Wizard Boat Company purchased the tooling from
Chemold in about 1946 and soon after this began using polyester
resinand glass fiber reinforcing materials to produce boat hulls.
These were also formed over a male mold.
Company started producing fiberglass
In 1947 the Glasspar
boats. Other companies followed, and by 1950 there were a dozen
or so companies producing fiberglass boats, some having switched
from wood boat production.
In the years following World War II, the word ''plastic" had
negative connotations. This is probably why the term "fiberglass"
came into use.
Most of the early fiberglass boats were small. As contact mold-
ing methods using polyester resin and glass fiber reinforcing ma-
terial were developed and refined, however, larger boats were

1
constructed. At least one 42-foot fiberglass hull had been con-
structed by 1950.
In a very short period of time, fiberglass made most traditional
wood boatbuilding techniques obsolete. When the first fiberglass
boats were produced, almost all small pleasure craft being manufac-
tured were wood. Many traditional wood boatbuilders laughed at
fiberglass boats, or perhaps that anyone would try such a stupid
thing as ''chemical boatbuilding." Even today there are those who
say that wood is the only "real" boatbuilding material, and fiber-
glass boats are often referred to as "plastic bleach bottles."
Today, fiberglass has firmly established itself as the most popu-
lar material for building pleasure boats. Fiberglass has made quan-
tity boat production possible and, because of this, has made boat
ownership possible for millions of additional people. While no ex-
act statistics are available, it is estimated that there are over five
million fiberglass pleasure boats in the United States. And more
fiberglass boats are being added to this figure as more are being
produced than are being destroyed. Fiberglass boats generally have
a long life expectancy. Some of the earliest fiberglass boats con-
structed are still around and in sound, useable condition.
Most present pleasure boat owners have fiberglass boats, and
most people who be buying boats in the near future will pur-
will
chase fiberglass boats. Perhaps someday a material will be devel-
oped to replace fiberglass, but today, at least from a manufacturing
point of view, fiberglass is the number one boatbuilding material.

FIBERGLASS
Fiberglass has several meanings. It was first applied to thin glass

Fig. 1-1. The Bayliner 2950 Encounter Sunbridge— a modem fiberglass power-
boat. (Courtesy of Bayliner Marine Corporation)

2
filaments or fibers. It later also meant felt-like mat and woven rein-
forcing fabrics made from these fibers. It finally came to mean the

plastic material that is a two-part structural unit consisting of glass

fibers and a resin. In boat construction, polyester resin is normally
used. In some cases, a more expensive epoxy resin is used.
For a time, fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP) was used to refer
to the cured two-part structural unit of glass fibers and resin. This
was perhaps an attempt to prevent confusion. "Fiberglass" referred
to the glass fibers. The "plastic" was the cured resin, which was
"reinforced" by the glass fibers. This terminology did not catch
hold outside the plastics industry in the United States, although
it is commonly used in Great Britain today.

A boat that has a fiberglass hull is commonly referred to as

a fiberglass boat, regardless of whether deck and cabin structures
and other components are constructed of fiberglass or some other
material. Most fiberglass boats use many other materials in their
construction besides fiberglass. There are usually wood components
and trim; metal fittings, rigging, engines, and other mechanical fit-
tings; and a variety of plastics.
It is unclear when a boat becomes a fiberglass boat. Plywood

boats that are covered with a sheath of fiberglass are not generally
called fiberglass boats. These boats might be called "wood, covered
with fiberglass" or "wood, sheathed with fiberglass" or even "wood
and fiberglass." Only one side of the plywood is normally covered
with fiberglass. But what happens when both sides are covered with
fiberglass, and the fiberglass skins are made thicker? At some point
this would become fiberglass sandwich core construction and, even-
tually, become a "fiberglass" boat.
Many early fiberglass boats were essentially wood boats with
fiberglass hull shells. The cabin and deck structures were wood,
and the hulls were reinforced with wood bulkheads, frames,
stringers, and other members. The hull shell material alone was
sufficient to justify calling the boat fiberglass.
I have seen a few boats that have been built in reverse: they

had wood hulls, but the deck and cabin structures were fiberglass.
Fm not certain what the reasons were for this type of construc-
tion. If anything were built of fiberglass, it would be the hull. In
any case, these boats were referred to as "wood."
In summary, the term "fiberglass" is used to mean any or all
of the following: glass fibers, reinforcing materials woven from or
otherwise made up of glass fibers, and the material formed from
glass fibers combined with polyester or epoxy (and perhaps other

3
types) of resin. The term *

'fiberglass boat" means a boat that has

at least a hull shell constructed of fiberglass.
An additional problem in terminology is encountered when poly-
propylene, acrylic, polyester, Kevlar, carbon fiber, and other non-
fiberglass reinforcing materials are used instead of glass fiber
reinforcing material. Is the resulting laminate still fiberglass? So

far there doesn't seem to be a definite answer to this question. Most

production fiberglass boat manufacturers make limited, if any, use
of these reinforcing materials, perhaps because they are more ex-
pensive than glass fiber reinforcing materials, which is usually ade-
quate for their purposes. Even in custom boats where nonfiberglass
reinforcing material is used, this is often used along with glass fi-

ber reinforcing materials. Perhaps a new name will evolve or that

will be applied to laminates and boats laid up completely without
glass fiber reinforcing materials.

FIBERGLASS VERSUS OTHER MATERIALS

Fiberglass materials and chemistry had developed to the point
where practical applications to boat construction were possible by
the end of World War II. Over the years the materials and chemis-
try, as well as methods and techniques for using them, have im-
proved dramatically. Unless otherwise noted, modem materials,
formulations, and methods of handling will be referred to.
Fiberglass was first used as a substitute for other materials.
In the case of small boats, it was mainly a substitute for wood.
What was wrong with using wood? Wood has been a traditional
material for building boats for centuries. Why would anyone want
to change to another material?
It is difficult to find precise answers to these questions. Some
people say that there are centuries of proof that wood is an unsuit-
able material for building boats. In the earliest recorded history,
worms, dry rot, methods of fastening separate pieces of wood to-
gether to form a boat, and a variety of other problems plagued wood
boats. To this day, these problems have not been completely solved.
Even cold-molded wood construction, with or without epoxy satu-
ration, has not completely solved these problems. Besides, this
method should probably be considered a composite construction,
sort of like using the wood to reinforce the epoxy.
Wood boat enthusiasts point out that there are hundreds of
wood boats that were built before 1900 that are still afloat. On closer
examination, however, it's found that some boats have been
replanked, reframed, refastened, and re-about-everything-else over

4
the years to the point where there is nothing really old left.

Those who argue against wood boats point out the large num-
ber of wood boats that decay or other otherwise beyond practical
repair in a very few years. The wood boat enthusiasts say that wood
boats covered with fiberglass dry-rot in a few years or less to the
point where they are useless. Therefore fiberglass isn't any good.
But it seems to me that the wood— which dry-rotted— was the prob-
lem, not the fiberglass.
There are other problems associated with using wood as a pri-
mary boatbuilding material. Good boatbuilding woods are scarce
and expensive, and the situation is rapidly getting worse.
From a boat manufacturing point of view, wood boats have even
less going for them. Wood boatbuilding methods, especially the
traditional ones, are too labor intensive and require skilled labor.
This makes them hard to mass-produce. Even with modem ma-
chinery and automation, production has never approached anything
like an automobile assembly line.
Thescarcity and resulting high cost of boatbuilding woods has
been another factor. The use of less suitable, less expensive woods
creates more problems than it solves.
Even with the present world oil prices (polyester resin is an
oil product), it is much more expensive to manufacture a wood boat

than a comparable fiberglass boat. And while the wood boat might
seem to have more value to a wood boat enthusiast, the fiberglass
boat is more suitable for the boating marketplace.
Wood boats seem to have a poor reputation. They require con-
stant maintenance. They don't They have low resale value.
last.

These points can be debated, but there is some truth to them. Wood

suffers dry rot and/or worm damage if not properly maintained.

And "proper" maintenance can translate to ''considerable" main-
tenance. Repairs are not only expensive, but require specific skills
todo the work properly. As one person put it, wouldn't advise
anyone who isn't an expert on wood boatbuilding to own a wood
boat."
have known several people intent on world cruising who set-
I

tled on used wood sailboats. They all thought they were saving
money. Even though all these boats were surveyed and given clean
bills of health, they all turned out to have "a little" dry rot. As this

wood was replaced, more and more dry rot was found. Boat sur-
veyors don't give guarantees. To date, none of these people has
set off on the long dreamed about world cruising. Two of these
owners have the boats up for sale, but they are having a difficult

6 /
time finding any buyers. It seems that old wood boats are much
easier to buy than to sell. I'm sure that there are many people who
purchase wood boats who have better success, I just don't happen
to know any.
There are those who claim that, compared to fiberglass, wood
is warm, friendly, and nice to work with. The remarkable
natural,
success of a recent magazine on wood boatbuilding shows the con-
wood boats. But perhaps this interest is as much
siderable interest in
in building and working on them as in using the boats. For these
people, wood boats make sense. For the vast majority of people
in the United States, however, fiberglass boats are probably more
suitable, considering everything.
and ferrocement as boatbuilding materials all
Steel, alimiinum,
have advocates. Each of these materials has advantages and dis-
advantages as compared to each other and wood and fiberglass.
Other than aluminum for small lightweight boats, these materials
can't match fiberglass. Steel is becoming more popular for offshore
cruising sailboats. Rust and electrolysis can be considerable prob-
lems, but with proper precautions and maintenance, these factors
can be kept under control. Steel makes a strong boat. Aluminum
is popular for one-off racing sailboats. It produces a boat that is

light in weight, yet adequate in strength. The main disadvantage

is the high cost, approximately three times that of fiberglass when
a suitable grade of aluminum is used. Ferrocement has been used
mainly for "home-built" boats. While a few ferrocement boats have
been produced, this has not caught on. Ferrocement boats* have a
poor reputation, perhaps because of the many monstrosities turned
out— many only completed— by backyard builders. This
partially
could explain why manufacturers have never shown much interest
in building ferrocement boats.
At least for the manufacturer, fiberglass is by far the most ac-
cepted primary boatbuilding material. From its beginning as a sub-
stitute for wood in boatbuilding, it has come into its own. Fiberglass
proved to be such a good substitute that wood was relegated more
and more to minor roles. First it was fiberglass hulls finished out
mainly with wood, including deck and cabin structures, interiors,
and reinforcing members. Next a layer or two of fiberglass rein-
forcing material was added over the wood on the cabin and deck
structures. This usually stopped the leaking problems, but speeded
up the formation of dry rot in the wood below.
The next logical step was tomake the deck and cabin struc-
ture entirely out of fiberglass. The wood was relegated to a core

6
Fig. 1-2. The Bayliner 68—a high-performance fiberglass motor yacht. (Courtesy
of Bayliner Marine Corporation)

or reinforcing material and thick fiberglass was laminated on one

or both sides so that the fiberglass itself would provide consider-
able structural strength.
This trend has continued over the years with wood gradually
eliminated from most interiors until it is now used mostly for trim

and core purposes. Many recent manufactured fiberglass boats have

even eliminated most of the trim wood, using metal and/or plastic
materials instead. On one fiberglass boat that I owned, I spent more
time maintaining the teak rub rail, the only wood on the exterior
of the boat, than I did on the entire rest of the boat with the excep-
tion of the engine.

LIFE EXPECTANCY OF FIBERGLASS

Fiberglass boats generally last a long time. Most fiberglass boats
built thus far are still functioning. Those that aren't were proba-
bly damaged as opposed to worn out.
The long life expectancy of fiberglass boats can be an advan-
tage or disadvantage, depending on your point of view. For the boat
owner, an advantage. For boat manufacturers, it is a problem.
it is

Fiberglass boat owners don't buy a new boat because the old one
wears out, but rather because they want a larger boat or perhaps
different type of boat. This has created a huge market for used fiber-
glass boats. A typical production fiberglass boat might have a num-
ber of owners during its lifetime.

7
 Without planned obsolescence, fiberglass boat manufacturers
keep adding to the number of already existing fiberglass boats. Sell-
ing the boats requires increasing the number of boat owners.
In the case of trailerable boats, the number could increase sub-
stantially without much problem. For boats kept in the water at
docks and marinas, however, space is limited. The construction and
development of new dockage space has not kept up with the de-
mand. In some areas, such as Long Beach, California, the waiting
list for getting a boat slip is over 10 years. Even the dramatic in-

crease in the cost of renting slips has done little to decrease the
demand for them.
It is often difficult to sell nontrailerable boats unless a boat slip
can be guaranteed. Unavailability of slips can hurt boat sales, es-
pecially those of new boats.
Fiberglass boat manufacturers have not been able to do much
about this other than to support the development of new harbors,
marinas, and dry storage areas. The fiberglass boat manufacturers
who have planned obsolescence by making boats that don't
tried
last have put themselves out of business by earning bad reputa-
tions, even lawsuits, because of the failures of their boats.
Manufacturers who have tried the "new model" concept, simi-
lar to that used in the automobile industry, have generally not been
very successful. Unlike automobile owners, few fiberglass boat
buyers scheme.
fall for this

What is the life expectancy of a fiberglass boat? When fiber-

glass boats were first manufactured, a figure of about 10 years was
often given. It was said that at that point the resin would become
brittle. Ten years later, when many of the first fiberglass boats were

stillaround and judged to be in sound condition, the 10-year esti-

mate was changed to 20 years. Then when there were a number
of 20-year-old boats still in sound condition, the figure was changed
to 30 or even 50 years or more or less indefinitely, assuming proper
care and maintenance and barring accidents.
Inflation has hit the fiberglass boating industry to an even
greater extent than most everything else. The prices of new fiber-
glass boats are at a record high, which in turn has driven up the
prices of used fiberglass boats. As a buyer, then, you can expect
to pay a high price for either a new or used fiberglass boat. If the
present trend continues, however, the boat will probably increase
in value over the years and, if sold, bring in a higher price than
was Because of the large investment involved,
originally paid for it.

anyone contemplating buying a fiberglass boat, or anyone who al-

8
ready owns one, should know as much about fiberglass and fiber-
glass boats as possible.

FIBERGLASS AS A BOATBUILDING MATERIAL

As a boatbuilding material, fiberglass has both advantages and dis-

advantages.

Advantages
Fiberglass is inert to most common chemicals, including most fuels
and common pollutants, and it does not rot or corrode. Fiberglass
holds up well under the severe environmental conditions that most
boats are used in. Fiberglass is not susceptible to electrolysis, an
important advantage for boats used in salt water. These factors
are extremely important, as a person who has owned wood, steel,
and fiberglass boats could tell you.
When properly designed and fabricated, fiberglass laminates

Fig. 1-3.The Cape Dory 25 is a modern four-berth fiberglass sailboat. (Courtesy

of Cape Dory Yachts)

9
are strong and lightweight. They have approximately twice the
structural strength of wood or steel of the same weight.
Fiberglass can be molded to most any desired shape in one piece
that is seamless and essentially leakproof For reasons that are
.

detailed in later chapters,most fiberglass boats consist of more than

one separate molding. There is one molding for the hull, another
for the deck and cabin structure, and so on. The hull molding it-
self is one piece. The fact that fiberglass can be molded into com-
plex shapes allows fiberglass boat designs that are difficult to
achieve in wood or metal construction.
By using color-pigmented resin gel coats, colors can be molded
in as part of the fiberglass laminate, making painting unnecessary.
When properly applied, resin gel coatings provide protective and
long-lasting color surfaces.
When properly fabricated, fiberglass laminates are very dura-
ble. They many years with no significant degradation in
will last
laminate properties. Some of the first fiberglass hulls constructed
are still in sound condition and might have many more years of use-
ful life. Fiberglass hasn't been around long enough for us to know

what the limits are.

*
Laying up fiberglass laminates is essentially 'chemical" con-
struction. This allows making maximum use of the materials (resin
and glass fiber reinforcing) needed to make fiberglass. For exam-
ple, laminate thicknesses can vary in the same molding. The lami-
nate can be thick in areas where strength and stiffness are needed,
and thinner and lighter in weight in areas where less strength and
stiffness are required. And most of the resin and glass fiber rein-
forcing material ends up as part of the moldings. Compare this with
wood construction where there are usually many scrap pieces that
end up as firewood rather than part of the boat. Similar problems
exist when using other preformed materials.
Fiberglass laminates, when damaged, are fairly easy to repair.
Even major damage can usually be repaired without much diffi-
culty, to the point where it is as strong as or even stronger than
it was originally. Methods and techniques for repairing fiberglass
boats are detailed in Chapter 12.
The fiberglass part of fiberglass boats requires little main-
tenance compared to similar wood boats and boats made from most
other materials. Fiberglass does require some maintenance, how-
ever, if it is to be kept in top condition. I consider the ease of main-
taining a fiberglass boat to be one of the most important advantages.

10
 Disadvantages
Fiberglass laminates lack stiffness.They have less stiffness than
steel and even aluminum. This means that most fiberglass boat
moldings require adding stiffening members. The moldings could
be made thicker to the point where they have adequate stiffness,
but this would be too expensive and add too much weight for most
boatbuilding applications.
As compared to steel, fiberglass has low fatigue and buckling
strengths. This can cause problems in areas where stress concen-
trations are located.
Fiberglass is vulnerable to fire unless special, more expensive,
fire-retardant resins are used. It's the resin and not the glass fibers
that bum. A laminate constructed using regular resin will support
combustion about the same as plywood.
The low abrasion resistance of fiberglass is a disadvantage, or
at least a problem. Rub rails made of wood or other materials and
other protective devices are used to protect vulnerable areas of
fiberglass on boats.
Fiberglass construction is expensive, generally more than wood
or steel on a per-pound basis. Fiberglass has other advantages, how-
ever, that make it economical for boat construction.
Construction of the cavity or female molds used by most fiber-
glass boat manufacturers is expensive. This cost can be reduced
by using the same mold to make a largenumber of moldings. It

is not unusual for several hundred or more fiberglass boat hulls to

be up in the same mold.
laid
There are a number of "one-off" fiberglass boat construction
methods that do not require expensive female or cavity molds.
These methods are more suitable for custom construction where
only one or very few boats of the same design will be constructed
or for backyard boatbuilding. One-off fiberglass boatbuilding
methods are detailed in Chapter 14.

INTRODUCTION TO FIBERGLASSING
Even if you do not intend to do any actual fiberglassing, it's impor-
tant to have at least a basic understanding of how the process works.
This discussion will be limited to polyester resin, which is used for
most fiberglass lay-up work in production fiberglass boat manufac-
turing.
There are two liquid ingredients: polyester resin, which is for-

11
mulated by the manufacturer with the necessary accelerator already
mixed in; and catalyst, which is methyl-ethyl-ketone (MEK)
peroxide.
Only a small amount of catalyst is added to the resin to start
the cure at room temperature. The exact amount
to be added de-
pends on the amount of resin used, the working or room tempera-
ture, and the desired curing time. For example, 2 percent by volume
of catalyst would give about 15 minutes working time before the
resin started to gel or harden. If the working temperature is higher,
less catalyst is required to give the same working time; if the work-
ing temperature is lower, more catalyst is required to give the same
working time. At the same working temperature, more catalyst will
give less working time; less catalyst will give more working time.
Once the catalyst is added, the resin will cure or harden even
if the mixture is sealed in a container. You must be ready to use
the resin before you add the catalyst.
There are several types of glass fiber reinforcing materials used
in fiberglass boat laminates. The most important are mat (a felt-
like arrangement), cloth, and woven roving. These materials are
detailed in Chapter 4.
In the example here, mat is used. The other reinforcing
materials are used in a similar manner.
The catalyzed polyester resin is applied to the mat. This can
be done by brush or other means. The mat used must be specially
treated, usually by chroming, for use with the resin. The mat is
thoroughly saturated with resin. This must be done within the work-
ing time, before the resin starts to gel or set up. Once tlie resin
starts to gel, it should no longer be used.
The amount of resin used to saturate the mat must be care-
Too little resin gives a resin-starved laminate; too
fully controlled.
much resin gives a resin-rich mixture. A mat laminate is generally
about 65 to 75 percent resin by weight and 25 to 35 percent glass
fiber mat by weight. Other reinforcing materials, such as fiberglass
cloth and woven roving, use different ratios of glass to resin.
After the resin is applied to the mat and smoothed out, the lam-
inate is allowed to harden or cure. This usually happens soon after
the resin starts to gel. Then additional layers of mat or other fiber-
glass reinforcing materials can be laminated to this first layer in
a similar manner.
This is basically how fiberglass laminates are laid up in a mold.
This form of chemical construction might seem strange if you've
never seen it before and are used to working with wood and other

12
preformed materials. Liquids and highly flexible glass fiber rein-
forcing material form a solid reinforced plastic.
Why not use resin alone without the glass fiber reinforcing ma-
terial? When this is done, you still get a hard plastic material, but
it is very brittle. This would never do for boat hull material.
Glass fibers without the resin are strong in tension, but there
is nothing to hold them in position. When the resin is combined
with the glass fibers, however, it forms a two-part structural unit
that has a high strength-to-weight ratio.

SELECTING A FIBERGLASS BOAT

This book will give you the information necessary to select a fiber-
glass boat. Before purchasing a boat, you must first decide what
type and size of boat is right for you. This might be a rowing boat,
a powerboat, a houseboat, a sailboat, or some combination. It might

be an open boat, a partially decked boat, or a cabin boat. You must

make a realistic appraisal of your requirements, while taking your
boating budget into consideration.
Next, you must know something about fiberglass boat design.
For any given type and size of boat, a variety of designs are avail-
able.Which one is best for you? It's also important to understand

Fig. 1-4. The Hunter 37— a modern fiberglass sailboat. (Courtesy of Hunter
Marine)

13
how designing boats for fiberglass construction differs from design-
ing boats for construction in other materials.
This leads to the construction of manufactured fiberglass boats.
There are two major aspects: molding the fiberglass components
and the assembly of these and other components into completed
boats. An understanding of how fiberglass boats are manufactured
can be very helpful for selecting one. All fiberglass boats are not
constructed equally.
The purpose of a boat survey is to evaluate the existing condi-
tion ofnew and used fiberglass boats. While most boat buyers hire
a professional boat surveyor before finally purchasing a boat, learn-
ing the basic techniques and procedures in this book may help you
weed out unsatisfactory boats. Even for fiberglass boat experts,
hiring a professional boat surveyor may well be worth the price
of a "second opinion."
An important advantage of doing your own preliminary sur-
veying is that you can also consider the design and original con-
struction, things that professional surveyors are reluctant to do.
They do not like to say whether a certain design or make of boat
isgood or bad.
There are a number of steps in selecting a fiberglass boat. You
must first find boats for sale, then you must evaluate them and de-
termine how much they are worth. Warranties, guarantees, resale
value, and sea trials are other considerations. You might buy new
or used or from a private party, boat dealer, or boat broker.
Extremely important and often overlooked in the excitement
of boat buying are the costs and responsibilities of boat ownership.
You must consider not only the purchase price of the boat, but also
interest on financing, taxes, registration, insurance, a place to keep
the boat, and the costs of maintenance and operation. In short, you
must make a realistic estimate of what the total cost of boat owner-
ship will be. There are also certain legal matters and responsibili-
ties to consider.
Most new fiberglass boats are sold as basic boats. To this is
added optional extras. Some "basic" boats are so basic they will
not function without some of the optional extras. In some cases sails
and/or engines are considered to be optional extras. Most boats are
shipped by manufacturers to dealers in partially completed form;
that is, rigging and setup still needs to be done, masts stepped, and
optional extras added.These jobs are called commissioning and are
done for an extra charge. Some boat buyers save money by doing
their own commissioning. Even when used boats are purchased,

14
most owners want to add or change equipment, fittings, and ac-
cessories. These jobs are detailed in Chapter 8.
Because fiberglass boats usually represent a large investment,
proper care and preventative maintenance are extremely impor-
tant. This includes cleaning and waxing as well as a variety of other
jobs. Most fiberglass boats require antifouling bottom painting
about once a year, depending on how and where the boat is used.

DO YOUR OWN FIBERGLASSING

Many people want to make changes in their fiberglass boats. A
number of projects for improving interiors and exteriors to make
them more suitable to specific needs are detailed in Chapter 11.
While fiberglass is tough and durable, it can be damaged. Mi-
nor and even major repairs are within the scope of many do-it-
yourselfers, once the basic skills and techniques of fiberglassing
are mastered, as detailed in this book. It's often the unfamiliar
chemical aspect of fiberglassing that causes people to shy away from
doing this work themselves. This is quite different than, say, tak-
ing a piece of wood and cutting and shaping it. Once you learn how,
however, fiberglassing can be quite predictable.
Many people are reluctant to work with fiberglass because of
health and aesthetics. The fiberglassing chemicals are sticky and
messy. The reinforcing material can make your skin itch. Sanding
causes dust, which can also make your skin itch and is dangerous
to breathe.With protective clothing and equipment and proper han-
dling of chemicals and materials, however, it's possible to avoid
these problems. Once the basic techniques and safety procedures
are learned, fiberglassing can be enjoyable, challenging, and
creative.
Here are some reasons why people do fiberglassing work them-
selves:

To save money. Fiberglassing boat alterations and repairs

can be expensive. When you do your own work, you save money
by providing your own labor and by purchasing materials and sup-
plies at the lowest possible prices from discount supply firms.
To get the work done the way you want it. It is very hard
to get quality fiberglassing work done. And if the job is a small
one, it's often difficult to find anyonewho will bother with it. There
are no real standards or qualifications for becoming a "professional"
fiberglasser, so it's often difficult to know
in advance what type
of job will be done on your boat. By doing the work yourself, you

15
have the opportunity to do it the way you want it done, assuming
that you have the necessary skills. You have an important advan-
tage over the professional. You can take enough time to do the job
right.
For the challenge and satisfaction of doing it yourself. Many
people get satisfaction from doing fiberglassing work themselves.
They like the challenge of doing a job that requires skill. I know
of a number of people who enjoy working on their boats more than
they enjoy using them.

FINISHING OUT FIBERGLASS HULLS

For the person who has the necessary talent and dedication, this
is an excellent way to get the most boat for the least money. The

basic idea is to purchase a bare fiberglass hull from a manufacturer

(a number of firms offer these; see Appendix) and then to finish
this out yourself. You can use materials that you supply yourself
or components and materials supplied by the manufacturer (or some
combination of these).
In most cases, even when you start with a fiberglass hull and
all the other molded fiberglass components, there's still consider-

able work to do. For the right person, this can present a challenge.
The savings over a comparable factory-finished boat can be con-
siderable. This method of boatbuilding is detailed in Chapter 13.

FIBERGLASS BOATBUILDING FROM SCRATCH

Even more difficult is to build a fiberglass boat from scratch using
one of the methods shown in Chapter 14. These one-off fiberglass
boat construction methods take considerable skill and dedication

if a successful boat is to result. This is an area where I have seen

many failures and a few successes. I only recommend fiberglass

boatbuilding from scratch to those who have had considerable fiber-

glassing experience and have a good idea of what they are getting
themselves into. Even a person who can easily finish out a bare
fiberglass hull might fail here. Most people will at least want to
start with professionally drawn plans.

16
 The Right Boat for You
Most all types and sizes of pleasure boats are available in fiber-
glass. One way by the means of propulsion-
to classify boats is
oars or paddles, engines, and sails. But even here there are prob-
lems because boats can be propelled by more than one means.
This chapter considers three general types of boats: (1) small
open boats for rowing and/or outboard power, (2) powerboats, and
(3) sailboats. Boats that can go in more than one category, such
as motorsailers, will be arbitrarily placed.

SMALL OPEN BOATS

Small open boats include dinghies, canoes, kayaks, and other boats
that can be rowed or powered by a small outboard motor. As fiber-
glass boats go, these boats are all at the low end of the price scale.

Boats such as special purpose rowing shells might also fit into this
category, but they will not be covered here.

Dinghies
Fiberglass dinghies are available in a variety of shapes and sizes.
Some rowing dinghies can be rigged for sailing; others are rowing
or sailing dinghies; still others are primarily sailing dinghies. My
concern here is with rowing dinghies, regardless of their sailing
and dinghies that can be powered by small outboards.
capabilities,
These boats are sometimes called tenders. They are carried on deck

17
or towed by larger boats and used for getting to and from shore
when at anchor. They can also be fun boats.
Fiberglass, like wood, is suitable for making boats of any size.
Manufactured dinghies are available in lengths of 6 feet or less.
Fiberglass allows strong and lightweight construction of these.
Materials such as steel and ferrocement are too heavy for making
a boat this small.
Dinghies are available in pointed bow and pram designs. De-
signs and hull shapes vary widely, as do seating arrangements, flo-

tation compartments, location and mounting of oar sockets, and

reinforcements of transoms for small outboard motors. For a given
size dinghy, weights can also vary.
Dinghies are designed for various purposes. Those to be used
for tenders should have protective and some type of skids on
rails

the bottoms for abrasion protection. There's even a fiberglass din-

ghy that dismantles into forward and aft sections and stows on boat
decks in half the normal space.
Care must be taken in selecting dinghies because there are
many poorly designed and/or constructed ones on the market. It's
also important not to confuse fiberglass dinghies with those con-
Those of fiberglass are superior in most
structed from other plastics.
ways, but also more expensive and perhaps heavier. It has been

my experience that most dinghies constructed from other plastics

won't hold up under normal use. Many of them are little more than
toys.
A fiberglass dinghy should have added flotation material for
buoyancy. Then, if it fills with water or capsizes, it will not sink.
Most dinghies are designed for a certain maximum horsepower
outboard. Do not try to go beyond what is recommended.
Make certain the dinghy has the capacity to carry intended
loads (passengers and whatever else). Also, if you intend to row

the dinghy, try the dinghy out. Rowing performance between var-
ious designs of dinghies can vary widely, especially in windy con-
ditions where poorly designed dinghies tend to scoot sideways.

Canoes and Kayaks

Both canoes and kayaks are available in various designs and sizes
constructed of fiberglass. Canoes are also available in aluminum
construction, which might be more suitable for some uses than those
made of fiberglass. Both canoes and kayaks come in plastics other
than fiberglass. Sailing rigs and outboard motor attachments are
available for canoes.

18
 other Small Open Boats
A number of other boats designed for rowing are also available in
fiberglass. These usually take small outboard engines for power.
This class of boats is sometimes called fishing and car-top boats.

It is difficult to draw the line between this type of boat and a run-

about or powerboat. For purposes here, I'll draw the line at the
point where the boat no longer has oar sockets set up for rowing.
Boats in this group have displacement hulls with flat, round,
or V-bottom hulls. Designs, sizes, and performance characteristics
vary widely. They are suitable for recreational use, rowing for ex-
ercise, utility, and fishing.
Fiberglass is ideally suited for this type of boat, but aluminum
is a strong competitor. The same size aluminum boat can be lighter
in weight and often sells at a lower price. If the boats are to be
used in salt water, the advantages would switch to the fiberglass.
While there are aluminum alloys suitable for use on salt water boats,
they require an expensive grade of aluminum that isn't normally
used on small open boats.
Some of these fiberglass boats are light enough to be carried
on car and camper top racks. Others are too heavy for this and are
more suitable for boat trailers.
The boats are rated for maximum load capacities and maxi-
mum outboard horsepower. They have positive flotation by means
of compartments filled with flotation foam material.
These fiberglass boats are sometimes molded by pressure mold-
ing techniques rather than by contact molding, the common
manufacturing technique for larger boats. Pressure molding, un-
like contact molding, results in molded surfaces on both sides of
the laminate. This means that the boat will have a finished appear-
ance not only on the outside of the hull but also inside.
The molded fiberglass
seats in these fiberglass boats might be
(often with buoyancy compartments underneath), wood, or other
material. They can also have rub rails made of wood, metal, vinyl,
or some combination of these.

POWERBOATS
A variety of open and partially decked boats with outboard, in-
board/outboard (I/O), and inboard power are available in fiberglass.
In this category are runabouts and speedboats. The next main cat-
egory is power cruisers. They can also be powered by outboard,
inboard/outboard, and inboard engines. The third main category

19
is houseboats, which are similar to power cruisers but usually have
larger cabins or "houses" and less boating ability.
Before examining each of these categories more closely, power-
boat hull types and characteristics will be discussed.

Hull Types and Characteristics

Powerboat hulls can be displacement, semidisplacement, or planing.
Displacement Hulls. A displacement hull is the oldest hull
form. Through the full range of speeds that the boat operates at,

the weight of the water displaced by the boat is equal to the weight
of the boat. This type of hullis easily driven through the water at

moderate or even low power. They usually have round bottoms (Fig.
2-1), which can give a comfortable ride even in rough weather con-
ditions. The tendency to pound is less than with flatter bottom
shapes, although the round bottom forms do tend to roll under cer-
tain conditions. The tendency to roll depends on a number of fac-
tors, such as beam, height of cabins and placement of weight above
waterline, and draft.
Displacement hulls have a definite limit to the speed at which
they can be operated. The limit depends on the waterhne length
and called hull speed. This will be discussed more fully in Chap-
is

ter 3.For now note that additional horsepower will not drive the
boat significantly beyond hull speed and that this would be a waste-
ful and inefficient use of the power.

Some displacement hulls have aft bottom sections that are flat-

Fig. 2-1 . Round bottom displacement hull.

20
Fig. 2-2. V-bottom hull.

tened. This reduces the rolling tendency and provides more cock-
pit room.
The compound curves used in the bottoms of most displace-
ment hulls lend themselves well to molded fiberglass construction.
Semidisplacement Hulls. A semidisplacement hull works
as a displacement hull at slower speeds and as a planing hull at
higher speeds. These hulls have a semi-V hull form with a pro-
nounced V-shape at the bow and a flatter V-shape at the stern.
Planing Hulls. Planing hulls are shaped so that the boats will
plane by lifting as they gain speed. This can be achieved by several
different hull shapes. One popular shape is the V-bottom (Fig. 2-2).
These have a hard chine that extends the full length of the hull.
This hull form is popular on runabouts and express cruisers.
Deep V-shaped hulls are another popular planing type. These
are used on high-speed boats, especially those used on rough waters.
The deep V-shaped hulls have a fairly deep V shape at the tran-
som. It takes considerable horsepower to drive these hulls. The
main advantage is that there is less pounding than with a regular
V-bottom, which allows higher cruising speeds to be maintained
in rough water. Because this type of hull form has a steep angle
of deadrise, it sacrifices interior space for accommodations.
Other planing hull forms include the cathedral (Fig. 2-3) and
tunnel (Fig. 2-4) forms, as well as variations of these. Because fiber-
glass can be molded, these complex shapes are possible.

Open and Partially Decked Boats

Open and partially decked boats usually have regular V-bottoms
or cathedral hull shapes or some variation of these. They are popular

21
 and straight inboards.
single or twin outboards, inboard/outboards,
While runabouts and speedboats generally have gasoline engines,
diesel inboard/outboards and straight inboards are an option for
power cruisers, especially those with displacement hulls.
Power cruisers have round displacement hulls, semidisplace-
ment modified V hulls, regular V hulls, or deep V hulls (Fig. 2-7).
Some smaller power cruisers have cathedral hulls. The choice de-
pends on where and how the boat is used.
Power cruisers have various locations for steering stations.
Sometimes it's in the forward area of the cockpit or inside the cabin
or deckhouse. Some have dual steering stations with one set at a
flying bridge— di raised platform located above the cabin that gives
unobstructed vision for navigation and steering.
Cabin cruisers range from 16 or 17 feet to 50 feet or
in size
more in length. Accommodations and comfort varies widely and
can include sleeping, eating, lounging, and toilet arrangements.
Some also have showers, heating systems, and other conveniences.
A 16- or 17-foot power cruiser would typically have limited
cabin space, perhaps only room for two V-berths and a toilet. In
some cases, a small galley and locker area can also be fitted in.
In larger boats, more elaborate accommodation plans are pos-
sible. Longer boats have wider beams and greater headroom, al-
though not much more headroom than 6 1/2 feet. Any more would
result in a higher cabin structure that would increase wind resis-
tance and add weight at the top, which is undesirable.

Fig. 2-7. Bayliner 3270 Explorer is a long-range, semidisplacement cruiser with

dual steering stations. (Courtesy of Bayliner Marine Corporation)

24
Fig. 2-8.The accommodation plan for the Bayliner 2550 Saratoga Command
Bridge cruiser has a 24 '9" centerline length. (Courtesy of Bayliner Marine Cor-
poration)

The accommodations must be designed to fit into the shape

which is the reason for V-berths. Figure 2-8 shows the
of the boat,
accommodation plan for a power cruiser with a 24-foot, 9-inch cen-
terUne length. It has a double berth forward, a dinette that con-
verts to a double berth aft, a galley, and a head or toilet
compartment. Lockers are located under berths and seating. The
galley has a counter with a small sink, storage areas, and a small
icebox located under the sink counter. The toilet room is a sepa-
rate compartment.
Similar accommodations can sometimes be fitted into even
smaller power cruisers, provided that the cabin is kept large by
having a small cockpit area. Berths have minimum practical sizes,
however, as do galley areas, dinettes, toilet compartments, and
other areas, so there are limits. To use limited space to best ad-
vantage, many areas serve multiple purposes. Dinettes lower to
form berths, seats pull out to form wider berths, and so on (Fig. 2-9).

A typical 28-to-30-foot power cruiser might have a similar cabin

arrangement, but with more space devoted to each area. For ex-
ample, the toilet compartment might also have room for a shower.
The dinette could seat more people and offer more comfort.

Fig. 2-9.Deck plan for 27-foot Bayliner 2750 Victoria Command Bridge power-
boat. (Courtesy of Bayliner Marine Corporation)

25
 Dinette area soles or floors are often raised above the level of
the main cabin floor or sole. This allows wider seats in hulls that
flare outward and also gives better seating positions for looking
out windows.
As the boats get even larger, increased accommodations are
possible. Sleeping quarters can be in separated compartments.
Raised deck cabins can have inside steering stations that take part
room for lounging, sleeping, and dining. Gal-
of the space as well as
leys are sometimes located in this area as well.
Power cruisers from about 35 or 40 feet in length frequently
have an owner's stateroom. These can be small and simple or larger
and more elaborate, perhaps with a double berth with access on
three sides.
Sleeping Accommodations. Stock manufactured boats
have various numbers and arrangements of berths. These boats
are usually advertised as sleeping so many people aboard in the
berths, which can be singles or doubles. It often is not practical,
however, to sleep this many people, at least not for long periods
of time.
If space permits, sleeping quarters should be separated from
the main lounging and dining areas. On smaller boats, this usually
isn't practical. Converting tables to form berths might look okay
on accommodation drawings but often isn't convenient in practice,
though it's probably better than not having a berth at all.
Some fiberglass boat manufacturers try to fit as many berths
as possible into a certain size boat. A more important considera-
tion for the boat buyer, however, is how comfortable the berths
are. They must be long enough, wide enough, and have thick
enough cushions to give good sleeping comfort— unless you want
to get rid of unwanted guests.
To learn about various arrangements, study accommodation
plans found in magazines and advertising materials provided by
*

manufacturers. Berths are usually marked 'berth." Until you have

considerable experience comparing the actual boats with the ac-
commodation plans, it might be difficult to visualize what they look
like. I suggest that when you look at boats in a dealer's showroom

and at boat shows, compare the accommodation drawings with the

actual boats.
Eating Areas. The dining area consists of a table and seat-
ing. The seating should be comfortable, and the table at a con-
venient height and stable.
The dining area should be conveniently located in relation to

26
the galley, if possible on the same level without intervening steps.
Also if possible, the dining area should have a good view for look-
ing out the windows. In smaller boats, dining areas often double
as lounging areas.
Galley Areas. Galley areas vary from simple to quite
elaborate. This in partdepends on the size of the boat and the
amount of space that can be devoted to the galley. A basic galley
consists of a counter, a small sink, a one- or two-burner cooking
stove, storage compartments, a small icebox. Larger boats have
larger galleyareas— larger sinks, cooking stoves with four or more
burners and ovens, and refrigerators and/or iceboxes.
Adequate storage space should be provided. Drawers should
have notch locks so that they have to be lifted before they can be
opened. For boats to be used in rough waters, sea rails around the
galley counters will keep things from sliding off. There should also
be adequate space and arrangement for garbage disposal.
Lounging Areas. Most pleasure boats are used for fun and
relaxation. Comfortable lounging areas are important. If possible,
provide comfortable lounge-type seating— in addition to the seats
for the dining table— that are well padded with slanted backs.
Toilet and Bath Facilities. Toilets should be of adequate
size so that doors can be easily closed and still leave space to move
around. If possible, there should be enough space for changing
clothes. This might not be possible on smaller powerboats, but on
larger boats it often is. Compromises must be made, of course. In
a given space, something larger means something else smaller.
Legal types of toilets include those with holding tanks for shore
pumpout and approved treatment systems for discharge overboard.
Many larger power cruisers have showers. The least desir-
able arrangement is the type that sprays water throughout the toi-

let compartment getting the toilet, vanity counter, and practically

everything else wet. This makes a shower possible in boats that
do not have enough space for a separate shower stall, which is per-
haps better than no shower at all. A separate shower stall with a
plastic spray curtain or a door is a more satisfactory arrangement.
Some power cruisers have bathtubs or combination showers
and/or bathtubs. These are found only on larger size boats, however.
Inside Steering Stations. Power cruisers sometimes have
inside steering stations, especially larger ones, that take up part
of the interior space. This should provide good visibility, a com-
fortable seat, and convenient operation of controls.
Navigation and Communication Areas. Navigation and

27
communication areas are often arranged as part of the steering sta-
tions on smaller boats, but larger boats might have separate areas
devoted to these functions. A typical navigation and communica-
tion setup would include a navigation table, chart storage area, book
rack, depth sounder, radio, and so on. Navigation centers on stock
fiberglass boats are frequently inadequate, but these can often be
improved by making alterations.
Cockpits. Cockpits vary in design and size. Some are self-
baiUng so that any water will drain off; others aren't. Some cock-
pits are deep; others are at deck level.
Many smaller powerboats have the steering station in the for-
ward area of the cockpit. There is a windshield on the aft section
of the cabin top. This might be fitted with a folding canvas top or
even a fixed top made out of fiberglass or other materials. The top
usually extends back over only part of the cockpit area, but in some
cases it extends all the way to the stem, or there is a top extension
that can be added. The sides of the forward area of the cockpit can
be protected by a window, which might or might not open, or side
curtains that snap in place. In some cases, canvas attachments are
used to make the cockpit area into an enclosed room.
Cockpit soles or floors should have a nonskid surface. If they
are of molded fiberglass, the nonskid surface is sometimes molded
in.

Flying Bridges. Some power cruisers have flying bridges

(Fig. 2-10).These include an alternate steering and control setup.
Flying bridges provide unobstructed vision and are popular on boats
used for fishing. They often have windshields forward and can be
fitted with canvas or even fixed tops. Safety rails are important
both for the ladder and along open sides of the flying bridge.
Engine Access and Engine Rooms. Powerboats with in-

board/outboard or straight inboard engines should have easy ac-

cess to engines for maintenance and repair. Larger boats often have
engine rooms, sometimes with standing headroom.
The exact arrangement depends in part on the boat size and
design. Even in similar boats there can be considerable differences
in ease of engine access. This also applies to control cables and
other mechanical equipment.
Hatches, Doors, Windows, and Ports. These vary
They should be neat in appear-
greatly in type, size, and design.
ance, while still being functional. Outside hatches, doors, windows,
and ports should not allow water to get below. Opening windows

28
Fig. 2-10.This 38-foot Bertram Convertible powerboat has a flying bridge.
(Courtesy of Bertram Yacht)

and ports can be a special problem. They often leak even when
closed.
Good, bad, and indifferent designs will be found on stock
manufactured fiberglass power cruisers. Try to make comparison
between similar boats by different manufacturers.

Houseboats
Houseboats are similar to power cruisers, but often with larger and
boxier shaped cabins. This can result in a loss in boating per-
formance.
Houseboats are designed and constructed for use in protected
waters, although some recent designs are similar to power cruisers
and have greater seaworthiness. Early houseboats typically had flat

29
bottoms or pontoon hulls. These have largely been replaced by
molded fiberglass hulls with contour designs similar to those typi-
cally found on power cruisers. This has improved performance, but
has also increased the draft somewhat.
Modem houseboats have wider beams than power cruisers of
the same length. The cabins are t)T)ically rectangular shapes, which
give maximum interior space.
Power can be by outboard, inboard/outboard, or straight in-

board engine. These are usually gasoline powered, but some in-

board/outboard and straight inboard engines are diesel.

Modem houseboats are available with displacement or plan-
Most use some form of V or cathedral hull. While a few
ing hulls.
pontoon types still come in fiberglass, they seem to be losing
popularity.
Primary steering stations are usually forward inside the cabin.
Some designs also feature flying bridges with a second set of con-
trols. In the Califomia Delta area, these are popular because they

allow seeing over the levees. The farms on the other side are usually
below water level.
Manufactured fiberglass houseboats range in size from 20 feet
or less to lengths up to 60 feet and more. Many have outside patio
areas both fore and aft. The cabin tops or roofs often serve as sun
decks.
Sleeping Accommodations. Stock manufactured fiberglass
houseboats have various sleeping arrangements, though it might
not be practical to sleep the maximum number aboard. Some house-
boats have hide-a-beds. Space often permits standard size single,
double, and even queen- and king-size beds with standard box
springs and mattresses.
In larger houseboats, sleeping quarters or bedrooms are often
separate rooms from the main lounging and dining areas. On smaller
form
boats, this isn't practical. In this case, dining tables lower to
berths, and sofas and lounging areas often double as berths. The
important considerations should be privacy and comfort, not how
many berths can be squeezed in. Berths should be large enough
with mattresses that give good sleeping comfort.
Eating Areas. Houseboats usually have built-in dining areas,
but free-standing tables and chairs are sometimes used. These can
be a problem or even dangerous in rough water conditions, how-
ever, unless they are clamped or firmly mounted in place.
Dining area should be near the galley and, if possible, on the
same level without intervening steps. The dining area should be

30
arranged for a good view. The large windows found on most house-
boats are ideal for this purpose.
In smaller houseboats, dining areas often double as lounging
and sleeping areas.
Galley Areas. Galley areas vary from small and simple to
large and elaborate. A basic galley area in a small houseboat might
consist of a counter, a small sink, a two-burner countertop cook-
ing stove, storage compartments, and a small icebox. Medium and
larger size houseboats often allow galley areas similar to kitchens
found in small efficiency apartments. They can include large sinks,
cooking stoves with full-size ovens, full-size refrigerators, and other
conveniences, including storage cabinets, drawers, and com-
partments.
Lounging Areas. Houseboats are designed for fun and relax-
ation. Comfortable lounging areas are an important part of this.

On larger houseboats, lounge-type seating is possible in addition

to the seating used for the dining areas. Standard house-type sofas
are often used on larger houseboats, often with hide-a-beds.
Toilet and Bath Facilities. While small houseboats might
only have room for a small toilet compartment, larger ones have
true bathrooms, more like those found in trailerhomes than those
aboard typical boats. Legal toilets include those with holding tanks
for shore pumpout and approved treatment systems for overboard
discharge. Vanity counters with sinks, showers, and even bathtubs
are found on many houseboats.
Inside Steering Stations. Most houseboats have inside
steering stations located at the forward section of the cabin or
"house." They should provide good visibility, convenient opera-
tion of steeringand other controls, and comfortable seating.
Houseboats seldom have separate navigation and communica-
tion areas. Instead, these are usually fitted in as part of the steer-
ing stations. Because houseboats are mostly used on protected
inland waterways, navigation is fairly simple.
Flying Bridges. Some houseboats have flying bridges, with
alternate steering and controls. Flying bridges provide unobstructed
vision. They give a choice of inside or outside boat operation. Some
flying bridges are equipped with windshields at the forward sec-
tion. Canvas tops are frequently used. These can attach to the wind-

shield or be the bimini type. Safety rails should be provided for

ladders to flying bridges and along any open sides of the flying
bridges.
Cockpits and Patio Decks. Cockpit areas are often con-

31
bottoms or pontoon hulls. These have largely been replaced by
molded fiberglass hulls with contour designs similar to those typi-
cally found on power cruisers. This has improved performance, but
has also increased the draft somewhat.
Modem houseboats have wider beams than power cruisers of
the same length. The cabins are typically rectangular shapes, which
give maximum interior space.
Power can be by outboard, inboard/outboard, or straight in-

board engine. These are usually gasoline powered, but some in-

board/outboard and straight inboard engines are diesel.

Modem houseboats are available with displacement or plan-
Most use some form of V or cathedral hull. While a few
ing hulls.
pontoon types still come in fiberglass, they seem to be losing
popularity.
Primary steering stations are usually forward inside the cabin.
Some designs also feature flying bridges with a second set of con-
trols. In the Califomia Delta area, these are popular because they

allow seeing over the levees. The farms on the other side are usually
below water level.
Manufactured fiberglass houseboats range in size from 20 feet
or less to lengths up to 60 feet and more. Many have outside patio
areas both fore and aft. The cabin tops or roofs often serve as sun
decks.
Sleeping Accommodations. Stock manufactured fiberglass
houseboats have various sleeping arrangements, though it might
not be practical to sleep the maximum number aboard. Some house-
boats have hide-a-beds. Space often permits standard size single,
double, and even queen- and king-size beds with standard box
springs and mattresses.
In larger houseboats, sleeping quarters or bedrooms are often
separate rooms from the main lounging and dining areas. On smaller
boats, this isn't practical. In this case, dining tables lower to form
berths, and sofas and lounging areas often double as berths. The
important considerations should be privacy and comfort, not how
many berths can be squeezed in. Berths should be large enough
with mattresses that give good sleeping comfort.
Eating Areas. Houseboats usually have built-in dining areas,
but free-standing tables and chairs are sometimes used. These can
be a problem or even dangerous in rough water conditions, how-
ever, unless they are clamped or firmly mounted in place.
Dining area should be near the galley and, if possible, on the
same level without intervening steps. The dining area should be

30
arranged for a good view. The large windows found on most house-
boats are ideal for this purpose.
In smaller houseboats, dining areas often double as lounging
and sleeping areas.
Galley Areas. Galley areas vary from small and simple to
large and elaborate. A basic galley area in a small houseboat might
consist of a counter, a small sink, a two-burner countertop cook-
ing stove, storage compartments, and a small icebox. Medium and
larger size houseboats often allow galley areas similar to kitchens
found in small efficiency apartments. They can include large sinks,
cooking stoves with full-size ovens, full-size refrigerators, and other
conveniences, including storage cabinets, drawers, and com-
partments.
Lounging Areas. Houseboats are designed for fun and relax-
ation. Comfortable lounging areas are an important part of this.

On larger houseboats, lounge-type seating is possible in addition

used for the dining areas. Standard house-type sofas
to the seating
are often used on larger houseboats, often with hide-a-beds.
Toilet and Bath Facilities. While small houseboats might
only have room for a small toilet compartment, larger ones have
true bathrooms, more like those found in trailerhomes than those
aboard typical boats. Legal toilets include those with holding tanks
for shore pumpout and approved treatment systems for overboard
discharge. Vanity coimters with sinks, showers, and even bathtubs
are found on many houseboats.
Inside Steering Stations. Most houseboats have inside
steering stations located at the forward section of the cabin or
*

'house." They should provide good visibility, convenient opera-

tion of steering and other controls, and comfortable seating.
Houseboats seldom have separate navigation and communica-
tion areas. Instead, these are usually fitted in as part of the steer-
ing stations. Because houseboats are mostly used on protected
inland waterways, navigation is fairly simple.
Flying Bridges. Some houseboats have flying bridges, with
alternate steering and controls. Flying bridges provide unobstructed
vision. They give a choice of inside or outside boat operation. Some
flying bridges are equipped with windshields at the forward sec-
tion. Canvas tops are frequently used. These can attach to the wind-

shield or be the bimini type. Safety rails should be provided for

ladders to flying bridges and along any open sides of the flying
bridges.
Cockpits and Patio Decks. Cockpit areas are often con-

31
sidered to be patio decks on houseboats. Many houseboats have
open deck areas both forward and aft, often with joining walkways
along both sides of the cabin or house. In some cases, there are
roof extensions from the cabin out over all or part of the patio areas.
The patio floors should have a nonskid surface. If they are of
molded fiberglass, the nonskid surface can be molded in. The patio
areas and joining walkways should have protective rails for safety
of crew and passengers.
Engine Access and Engine Rooms. Houseboats with in-
board/outboard or straight inboard power often have engine access
hatches on the aft cockpit or patio floors. How to get to the engine
varies greatly on manufactured fiberglass boats, however. Some
have little more than crawl space around the engine or engines;
others have true engine rooms.
Hatches, Doors, Windows, and Ports. These vary
greatly in type, size, and design. Because houseboats are designed
and constructed for use in protected waterways, they usually have
more and larger windows than typical power cruisers, even picture
windows.
Hatches, doors, windows, and ports should be designed and
constructed so that water does not get inside the cabin or house.
Opening windows can be a special problem, because they can allow
water in even when closed. Early model houseboats often used
trailer house windows. Modem ones have designs and arrange-
ments made especially for houseboats.
Seaworthiness. There is a tremendous range in seaworthi-
ness in the design and construction of manufactured fiberglass
houseboats. While barge structures with houses on them have all
but disappeared from the fiberglass manufacturing scene, there are
still some models available that have very little seaworthiness.

These are often intended more as floating houses than boats.

The trend, however, is to increase seaworthiness and perfor-
mance. In some cases, it is very difficult to draw a line between
a houseboat and a power cruiser.

SAILBOATS
A wide range of sailboats are available in fiberglass. These have
various shapes, sizes, rigs, and so on.

Masts and Sails

One way to start sorting out the types of sailboats is to begin with

32
the rigs. Most manufactured have sloop rigs
fiberglass sailboats
with a single mast positioned about a third of the way between the
bow and stem. Marconi or jib-headed sails are generally used. These
are triangular-shaped sails. Figure 2-11 shows a typical sloop rig
with marconi sails.
Marconi sails have all but replaced sails, which have four

sides instead of three. Gaff sails had some good features. The mast

Fig. 2-11. A sloop rig with marconi sails. (Courtesy of Cape Dory Yachts)

33
could be shorter than for marconi sails. Gaff sails worked well on
all points except sailing close to the wind. But they had some dis-
advantages, too, which offset the advantages and allowed marconi
sails to take over. Perhaps the most important factor was that mar-
coni sails give much better performance close Another
to the wind.
disadvantage of the gaff was that itneeded a gaff spar, which was
usually heavy, made it difficult to hoist the sail, and could be dan-
gerous.
Another four-sided sail is the lug sail. Variations of this are used
on a few offshore fiberglass sailboats. These have an unstayed mast
and full-length battens. These boats are designed and constructed
especially for offshore passage making.The sails can be handled
and reefed from the cockpit. Because the lug sail is used on such
a small percentage of manufactured fiberglass boats, it will not be
considered further here.
Other types of sails include lateen and sprite. These are some-
times used on dinghies and other small sailboats.
The most common rig, the sloop, has already been mentioned.
This is a split-rig. Two sails are ordinarily carried, a jib forward
and a mainsail aft the mast.
A variation of the sloop that is gaining popularity is the cutter
rig (Fig. 2-12). This also has a single mast, but it is further aft than
on a sloop. Also, the cutter is usually designed to carry two sails,

a jib and a staysail, forward of the mast.

A very simple rig found on some manufactured fiberglass boats
is the cat rig. This has the mast positioned near the bow ^nd uses
a single sail with a boom similar to the mainsail on a sloop or cut-
ter. With this rig, there is only one sail to worry about. While the
cat rig is most common on small sailboats, manufactured fiberglass
boats 30 feet in length and over are available with this rig.
Another rig used on some small boats is the sliding gunter rig.
Like the cat rig, this setup uses only one sail.

There are two masts. The most common of

also rigs that use
these are the ketch (Fig. 2-13), yawl, and schooner. On ketches and
yawls, the forward mast is the tallest. On the ketch, the aft mast
is usually taller than that of a yawl. On the ketch, the aft mast is

located forward of the rudder; on the yawl it is after the rudder.

In each case, the aft mast is called the mizzenmast and the aft sail
is the mizzen.
The schooner has the mainmast aft, which carries the main-
sail. The forward mast, called the foremast, carries two foresails

34
 ~ Uammcm CnmKnQ
SHEET TWOCl
"
aC*L£ l/y i FT || ALTEHNATt SAILPUW- CUTTER Ij DESIGW 430 || \ . ytctU. UK ' »l12lt0

Fig. 2-12. A cutter rig on 32-foot Allied Seawind 11. (Courtesy of International
Cruising Yachts, Inc.)

and a staysail. Various combinations of jib-headed and gaff-headed

sails areused on schooners.
The schooner rig is rare on manufactured fiberglass boats.
Ketch and yawl rigs are options on some boats that come standard
with sloop or cutter rigs. These rigs are seldom found on boats
under 25 feet in length. On larger boats, they reduce the size of
any single sail as compared to a sloop or cutter, and they give many
more options for sail combinations. Because they require two masts,
additional rigging, and more sails, they add considerably to the cost
of the boat.

Sailboat Hulls
There are two main types of hulls: displacement and planing.
Displacement Hulls. Most manufactured fiberglass sailboats
have displacement hulls. The weight of a displacement boat mov-

35
 o ~
SCALE lit- -IFT SAILPIAN- KETCH Dt SIGN 430 SHEET TWO.« InwrnMonjI Cn<Wg Y.<:tH» Inc H^^JtO
^ J ]^ |

Fig. 2-13. A ketch rig on 32-foot Allied Seawind II. (Courtesy of International
Cruising Yachts, Inc.)

ing through the water is equal to the weight of the water displaced.
The maximum speed is usually limited by the length of the boat
at the waterline. To determine this speed, multiply the square root
of the waterline length by 1.34. More details on this are included
in Chapter 3.

Planing Hulls. At slow speeds, planing hulls perform as dis-

placement boats. As speed increases, however, a point is reached
where the hull raises higher in the water and planes on the sur-
face. Some planing hull sailboats can reach speeds over four times
as high as displacement sailboats of the same size.
Planing hulls are specially designed with a minimum wetted
surface and nearly flat bottoms on the after section, usually from
before midship to the stem.
stability, which makes for tricky sail-
Planing hulls can lack
ing. Speed is the main asset.
Full Keel. Full-keel sailboats have long keels with attached
rudders, as shown in Fig. 2-14. These keels almost always are bal-

36
lasted. The ballast is placed at the bottom of the keel. This hull

shape is very traditional for heavy-displacement sailing boats.

Full-keel sailboats of heavy and moderate displacement are
popular for ocean cruising. The long keel provides outstanding

Fig. 2-14. The Cape Dory Typhoon has a full keel with attached rudder.
(Courtesy of Cape Dory Yachts)

37
Fig. 2-15. Full keel with full forward section.

tracking or ability to hold a course. They have a smooth motion

in rough water and are very seaworthy.
There are actually many possible designs for full keels. Wine-
glass configurations are typical. The forward edge can be full (Fig.
2-15) or cutaway (Fig. 2-16). The rudder can be after the transom,
or more forward with the rudder tube passing through a port to
the cockpit. In either case, the rudder is hinged to the aft section
of the keel.
Full-keel boats tend to be slow in comparison to those with fin
keels (described later in this chapter). Full-keel boats have a proven
record for long-distance cruising, however.
Anyone considering world cruising in a small sailboat should
realize,however, that some argue that full-keel boats are too slow
for long-distance cruising. These people argue in favor of fin keel,
spade rudder boats, or even trimarans.
For years I have heard these arguments. I have cruised in both
fin keel and full-keel boats. I have seen the condition that people
have arrived in from long ocean passages in the two types of boats.
In my opinion, from practically every point of view except perhaps
for speed, the full-keel boats win out. I've also noticed that while
many sailors make one or even two long passages in fin keel boats.

Fig. 2-16. Full keel with cutaway forward section.

38
those who have made ocean cruising a way of Ufe for periods of
years usually do so with full-keel boats.
The fact that the rudder on the full-keel boat is hinged to the
aft section of the keel is an important advantage. This type of rud-
der mounting is much stronger than a spade rudder. Using a skeg
with the rudder on a fin keel boat, however, can partially offset
this difference.
Some full-keel boats have partial cutouts, such as shown in Fig.
2-17. This can give greater speed while still retaining most of the
advantages of the full keel. While this design and variations seemed
popular a few years back, the present trend seems to be back to
the full keel again for cruising boats.
In recent years, many new designs of full-keel fiberglass boats
have come on the market. There is now a wide choice available
in practically all sizes. These boats are often advertised as ''full-

keel" or "full-keel cruising" sailboats.

Some boats with long full keels also have centerboards. With
the centerboard up, these boats have shallower draft. This arrange-
ment is not common in manufactured fiberglass boats.
Fin Keel. Fin keel boats can give a lively performance. A fin
keel boat with a spade rudder is shown in Fig. 2-18. The rudder
shaft usually passes through the hull to the cockpit sole or aft deck
by means of a rudder port= This type of rudder is quite vulnerable
and subject to damage.
A fin keel with a transom-hinged rudder is shown in Fig. 2-19.
The rudders can also have skegs. Fin keel sailboats generally have
less wetted surface than full-keel designs.
Centerboards. Some day sailers, small racing sailboats, and
have centerboards instead of fixed
trailerable sailboats (Fig. 2-19)
keels. The centerboard might or might not have added weight. In
some cases it is just a metal plate or a smooth piece of wood.

Fig. 2-17. Full keel with partial cutout.

39
Fig. 2-18. The Hunter 33 has a fin keel and spade rudder. (Courtesy of Hunter
Marine)

A variation of the centerboard is the daggerboard. The dagger-

board fits in a trunk and can be raised or lowered while underway.
Still another arrangement is the leeboard, which is mounted on
the side of the boat. This is generally not as efficient as a center-

40
board or daggerboard. It does have the advantage of not requiring
a trunk in the center of the boat.
Both displacement and planing hulls are available with center-
boards.
Twin and Bilge Keels. Twin and bilge keels have never been
very popular in the United States. A number of them are manufac-
tured in fiberglass in England, however. They usually have shal-
low draft and will stand upright if the tide goes out. I once owned
and cruised extensively in one of these boats and found the twin
keel arrangement highly satisfactory.
Multihulls. Some catamaran designs are available in fiber-
glass. There are a number of racing classes of these. Most are small
catamarans with fabric trampolines between the two hulls and
frames joining the hulls. These boats can be fast and lively.
Large cruising catamarans with cabins are also available in
fiberglass. While catamarans have made ocean passages, they are
not self-righting, a disadvantage should they capsize. Even small
racing catamarans are difficult to right when they capsize.
Trimarans become popular boats for home construction in the
1960s. While trimarans are no longer very popular, some manufac-
tured fiberglass versions are available. Trimarans are extremely
fast on some points of sailing. They have made many ocean pas-
sages, but they also have the disadvantage of not being self-righting
should they capsize.

Interior Accommodations
Many larger fiberglass sailboats have cabins with interior accom-

Fig. 2-19. The Hunter 22 has a transom-hinged rudder and a retractable cen-
terboard for easy trailering. (Courtesy of Hunter Marine)

41
modations (Fig. 2-20). A minimum overnighter might have two V-
berths, a portable toilet, and little more. From here, the interior
accommodations become more elaborate. Larger boats have more
space. Longer boats have wider beams. Some small cabin sailboats
have less than standing headroom. Sailboats from about 25 feet in
length may have standing headroom, although this depends on the
particular design. One popular cruising 20-foot sailboat has 6 feet,
2 inches of headroom; some 25-foot or larger boats have consider-
ably less. Because high cabins reduce performance, the cabins are
kept as low as possible. Very large sailboats typically do not ex-
ceed 6 1/2 feet of headroom.
The accommodations must be designed to fit into the shape
is why V-berths are forward near the bow. Dinettes
of the boat. This
and galleys are further aft in the main cabin in the widest part of
the boat. Quarter berths often extend aft under cockpit seats.
Figures 2-21 and 2-22 show accommodation plans for various size
sailboats.
Sleeping Accommodations. Manufactured boats are often
advertised as sleeping so many people. For example, a 30-foot sail-

boat might have berths for six people (two V-berths forward, a di-

nette that converts to a double berth in the main cabin, and two
quarter berths further This boat would be advertised as sleep-
aft.

ing six. It would not be practical, however, to have this many peo-
ple sleeping aboard a 30-foot boat, at least not regularly.
When selecting a boat, it is important to examine the quality
of the berths in addition to the number of them. The berths should

Fig. 2-20. Arrangement plan for the 32-foot Allied Seawind II. (Courtesy of In-

ternational Cruising Yachts, Inc.)

42
Fig. 2-21 . Accommodation plan for the Cape Dory 5. (Courtesy of Cape Dory
Yachts)

be long enough and wide enough for the people who will be sleep-
ing in them. They should also have thick, comfortable mattresses.
When possible, some of the berths should be separate from loung-
ing and dining areas. Converting tables to berths can be incon-
venient.
Eating Areas. The dining area consists of a table and seat-
ing.The seating should be comfortable and at the right height for
looking out the windows or ports. The table should be stable, at
a convenient height, and firmly held in position. In smaller sailboats,
the dining areas often double as lounging areas.
GaUey Areas. Galley areas vary depending on the size of the
boat, design, intended use, and other factors. Most have a counter,
sink, storage areas, a cooking stove, and an icebox. The area can
range from simple to quite complex. One boat might have a two-
burner cooking stove, another a four-burner stove with an oven.
Some boats have small refrigerators and/or iceboxes.
Ample storage space is important. Drawers should be self-

locking and must be lifted up before they can be opened. Sea rails
around the galley counter will keep things from sliding off.
Galleys can be located near the companionways or further for-
ward and to one side of the boat. Some galley areas are L- and U-
shaped.

Fig. 2-22. Accommodation plan for the Hunter 54. (Courtesy of Hunter Marine)

43
 Lounging Areas. Comfortable lounging areas are important.
On smaller boats, the lounging area is often also used for sleeping

and dining. On larger sailboats, this can be a separate area.

Toilet Compartments. Small sailboats might have a toilet
located forward between V-berths. Larger boats often have enclosed
toilet compartments. If possible, there should be enough space for

changing clothes. Toilet compartments often also have small vanity

counters and sinks, some even have showers. Legal types of toi-
lets include those with approved treatment systems for discharge
overboard and those with holding tanks for shoreside pumping out.
Cockpits. Most manufactured fiberglass sailboats with cabins
have cockpits that are self-bailing. The cockpits vary greatly in size.
While most have rectangular-shaped wells, some have other shapes.
The cockpit seating should be comfortable.
For use on protected waters, the cockpits can be quite large.
Cruising sailboats designed for offshore work have comparatively
small cockpits. If the cockpit fills with water, there will be less
weight, and the smaller volume of water will drain out faster.
Most sailboats have aft cockpits. These often have storage
areas under the cockpit seats and sometimes in a compartment at
the aft end of the cockpit. These should have lids with gaskets to
keep water from getting inside the storage areas.
Some sailboats have center cockpits. This allows an aft cabin.
In some cases, there are walkways below between the cabins. This
arrangement can greatly increase the interior space. Cockpit soles
should have nonskid surfaces.
Some sailboats have tiller steering. Others have wheel steer-
ing. There are advantages and disadvantages for each method. The
tiller is simple. Wheel steering is more complicated, but many
sailors prefer thewheel arrangement. Some tiller steering can be
converted to wheel steering by using manufactured components.
In others, custom components must be fabricated.
Engines. Many sailboats, especially larger ones, have auxiliary
engines. The simplest and most common power for small sailboats
is the outboard, which may be mounted in a transom cutout, on

a bracket, or in a specially designed well. Steering with the engine

is possible in some cases. This greatly increases maneuverability,
especially for docking. In other cases, the outboard remains in a
fixed position while the steering done with the rudder.
is

To keep the prop from coming out of the water when the boat
pitches, long shaft outboards are frequently used. To give the neces-
sary power for larger sailboats, special power props are often used.

44
 Larger sailboats usually have inboard power. Both gasoline and
diesel engines are used. Gasoline engines cost less, but they have
a higher fuel consumption. Diesel engines are more expensive, but
they have lower fuel consumption and use diesel fuel. Diesel en-
gines are also safer. Because of the explosion hazard that gasoline
presents, many cruising sailboat owners opt for the diesel.
In most cases, the prop shaft passes through the boat hull by
means of a stuffing box designed to keep water from leaking in
around the shaft. A recent trend is to use special inboard/outdrive
units that are designed for sailboats. These are suitable for fin keel
boats where there is a reasonably flat area forward of the rudder

on the hull bottom. In each case, the engines have gear boxes or
other arrangements for providing forward, neutral, and reverse.
The steering is done with the boat's rudder.
'Ture" sailboats don't have any auxiliary engine. Boats of this
type have made voyages around the world. A recent trend is to use
oar power. This seems to be practical for sailboats up to about 25
feet in length.
At the other extreme is the motorsailer. Motorsailers usually
have good capabilities under engine power alone and some capa-
bilities with sail alone. These can be operated with both engine and

sail power at the same time. There are many variations, especially
in sailing capabilities. Motorsailers usually have inside steering sta-
tions in a deckhouse.

THE RIGHT BOAT FOR YOU

Do you really want to own a boat? The cost and responsibilities
of boat ownership are detailed in later chapters. Do you want to
spend the necessary money and time involved in boat ownership?
How much will you be using the boat? It might come as a sur-
prise to learn that the average pleasure boat owner in the United
States uses the boat less than 12 times a year. When the boat is

first purchased, you will probably be using it regularly. But what

about in a year or two?
Try to get as much experience in as many types of boats as
possible before you buy a boat. Try a friend's boat or rent one.
Learn as much as you can, then decide if boating is really for you.
Once a decision is made for boat ownership, decide what type
and size of boat meets your needs. Consider how and where you
intend to use it and how much money you can afford to spend.
If you are undecided as to whether you want power or sail, and

have never tried sailing, take lessons. From this experience alone

45
you can learn whether or not you're a sailboat person. Sailing is
slow, quiet, peaceful, and takes a lot of practice and skill. Power-
boats are noisy and fast and take little skill to operate, although
it can take considerable practice and skill to operate them prop-

erly and safely.

Next, consider the particular powerboat or sailboat type, de-
sign, and size. This will depend to a large extent on how and where
you intend to use the boat. If you are going to use the boat on par-
ticular waterways, find out what boats are suitable and what boats
other people are using there.
Do you require accommodations? If so, decide on the arrange-
ments that most closely fit your requirements. How often do you
intend to stay overnight aboard the boat? This ranges from never
to full-time onboard living. Many people are now using boats for
their homes. A recommended reference source for those who think
they might be interested in this way of life is my book. Boat Living
(International Marine Publishing Company, Camden, Maine 04843).
Keep in mind that larger boats cost more than smaller ones to
buy and to maintain. Slip fees, for example, are usually based on
boat length. It is important to make a realistic appraisal of your
needs and requirements before buying.

46
 Fiberglass Boat Design
An understanding of the basic principles of fiberglass boat design
is important for boat buyers and owners. The actual designing of
a fiberglass boat is a long and involved process that requires con-
siderable training and skill. Most fiberglass boats designed by
amateurs and actually constructed (fortunately not many) are un-
successful, if not outright disasters. The few highly successful
results that I have seen were designed by amateurs" in name only.
They did not make their livings by designing boats, but most had
studied boat designing for years and even taken correspondence
courses on the subject.
In spite of this, most people can understand the basic princi-
ples of fiberglass boat design. This can be very useful for select-
ing boats, surveying them, and making repairs and alterations.

FUNDAMENTALS OF BOAT DESIGN

A boat hull must be designed to do many things. It must float or
have buoyancy. It must have sufficient stability. The shape must
be streamlined for moving through water. The boat must be
reasonably light in weight, yet extremely strong. These factors are
often contradictory. More of one quality often means less of an-
other. Compromises must be made.
To understand boat design, there must be standard definitions
for the parts of the boat and standard ways for expressing dimen-

47
sions. In addition, boat designers must be able to show a three-
dimensional form on paper by means of drawings so that the boat
can be constructed.

Buoyancy
The laws of flotation form the basis of boat design. A floating body,
such as a boat an amount of water that exactly equals
hull, displaces

the weight of the body. This law applies to all fluids, including air,
but the concern here is with boats floating in water.
With boats, the displacement is the weight or volume of water
moved aside. This exactly equals the weight of the body. The dis-

placement of a hull is the weight of the boat and everything aboard

it. This is often called hull weight or displacement of the hull, but
it is and not just that of the hull.
actually the total weight of the boat
When any object is placed on the surface of water, it will sink
to the point where it moves aside or displaces a weight of water
equal to itself. An object that has a high density, such as a steel
ball, will sink. A block of wood that weighs exactly the same as

the steel ball, however, will normally float. The two objects have
different densities and thus different volumes. The wood weighs
less per cubic measurement than water. Thus, it floats. The steel
ball weighs more per cubic measurement than water. It sinks.
How then can a vessel with a steel hull float? The hull is shaped
so that it encloses a volume of air from the water. The volume of
this air and the weight of the steel used to form the hull weigh less
than an equal volume of water.
Fiberglass laminates, like steel, normally weigh more per cubic
measurement than water. Density can be expressed in pounds per
cubic foot. Mild steel has a density of about 490 pounds per cubic
foot. Depending on the particular laminate, fiberglass normally has
a density anywhere from about 85 to 125 pounds per cubic foot.
The density of water varies slightly depending on the mineral
content. Salt water averages about 64 pounds per cubic foot. Fresh
water averages about 62.5 pounds per cubic foot.
This explains why the steel or fiberglass in solid ball or block
form sinks, whereas wood normally floats. Sitka spruce, for exam-
ple, has a density of about 25 pounds per cubic foot, and even white

oak, which is considered to be a heavy wood, only has a density

of about 42 pounds per cubic foot.
Note that the water is actually displaced or pushed aside. When
a boat hull of a certain weight or displacement is placed in a body

48
of water, the water level rises. The water that rose weighs exactly
the same as the weight or displacement of the boat.
Most bodies of water that are used for boating are so large that
the rise in water level would not be noticed, but the experiment
can be carried out with a block of wood placed in a bucket of water.
First, fill the bucket exactly full. Place the bucket in an empty pan
so that water spilling over from the bucket can be collected. Use
a block of wood that weighs about one pound. Place it on the sur-
face of the water in the bucket. The water level should increase
and overflow from the bucket into the pan. Weigh the water that
spilled over from the full bucket when the block of wood was placed
on the surface. The weight of the water should equal the weight
*

of the block. The hull and block of wood are 'buoyed" or pushed
up by a force exactly equal to the weight of the displaced water.
It is interesting to note that a hull will immerse approximately

3 percent deeper in fresh water than salt water. This is because

salt water weighs approximately 3 percent more than fresh water.

Hull Nomenclature
Before continuing with the fundamentals of boat design, hull nomen-
clature must be discussed.
The means toward
following terms refer to directions. Forward
the front of the hull. Aft means toward the rear of the hull. In be-
tween is amidship. Abaft means further aft than something else.
Port is the left side of the boat when looking forward. Starboard
is the right side of the boat when looking forward. Abeam is off
to one side of the boat perpendicular to a fore-and-aft centerline.
Athwartships means across the boat. Astern means behind the boat.
While these terms are relics of an earlier age, they still apply.
In addition, more commonly understood "land" terms are used
more and more frequently, such as front of boat, back of boat, left
side of boat, and right side of boat. Old salts will tell you that cor-
rect nautical vocabulary is and
essential for safety, giving orders,
whatnot, but I nonsense from a pleasure boating
think that this is

point of view. Nautical language is largely a language of code and

exclusion. Many newcomers are having little or no part of it. A
kitchen is a kitchen and not a galley; a toilet is a toilet and not a
head; and so on.
The bow is the forward part of the hull (Fig. 3-1). The stem is

the forwardmost part of the bow. The stern is the after or rear part
of the boat. The transom is the aftermost part of the stern. The

49
 Cabin

Fig. 3-1. Hull nomenclature.

actual level of the water on a floating hull is called the waterline.

There is also a designed waterline, which is often indicated by a boot
top hne painted on the hull. Under certain conditions, the actual
waterline may vary somewhat from the designed waterline. The
designed waterline is also where the designer's calculations say it
is going to be. It can be a great embarrassment to the designer if

the actual waterline turns out to be considerably different from the

designed waterline.
The boat sides from the waterline to the rail are the topsides.
For powerboats, the keel is a main structural member running lon-
gitudinally from the stem to the stern along the bottom. For sail-
boats, the keel is a vertical downward extension on the bottom of
the hull. The keel is often ballasted and gives stability and lateral
resistance. The forefoot is the part of the hull between the bow and
the keel. The rudder extends vertically from the hull and is used
for steering the boat. Rudders are usually flat vertical members;
there are many shapes, sizes, and methods for mounting them. The
counter is the part of the boat extending from the waterline to the
bottom of the transom.
The deck is the platform extending from one side of the boat
to the other, often at or near the level of the rail. The foredeck is

50
the forward part of the deck. The cabin house or trunk is a raised
structure that extends up above the deck to give more headroom
below. The cabin is the enclosed area below. The cockpit is a deck
well where the tiller or wheel is often located. Cockpits are usually
located aft, but sometimes are midship and called center cockpits.

The coaming is a raised area around the cockpit designed to keep

water out. Coamings are also raised areas around hatches and other
deck openings.

Hull Dimensions
The length overall (LOA) is the boat's greatest length, not count-
ing rudders, bowsprits, or other protuberances (Fig. 3-2). The max-

Length Overall (LOA)

Fig. 3-2. Hull dimensions.

51
imum breadth of the hull is called the beam. The length of the hull
at the waterline is called length of waterline, LWL, or waterline
length. The draft is the distance from waterline to bottom of keel
and is equal to the least depth of water the boat can operate in with-
*
out 'grounding." The draft is the amount of water that the boat
draws.
These are dimensions commonly used in boat advertising.
There are many others that are used in boat design. These will be
detailed as they occur later in this chapter.

Lines Drawing
Early boats were probably natural objects, such as logs. It would
be only natural that people would observe that some shapes were
better than others. Over the centuries boats changed from natural
shapes to constructed shapes. Trial and error gradually led to im-
proved designs. At what point plans drawn on paper or other ma-
terial were first used remains a matter of conjecture. Before this
stage was reached, small models of boats were being carved from
wood, and these shapes were transferred to actual constructions
of boats. This type of boat designing was much more an art than
a science.
Today, most boat designs are first drawn on paper. These are
called lines drawings. They are essentially two-dimensional
representations of three-dimensional objects. These lines are
topographical maps of solid objects.

Body
Plan

Fig. 3-3. Line drawings showing outlines of three views: profile, plan, and body
plan.

52
Fig. 3-4. Stations represent athwartship vertical slices.

Three views are usually drawn (Fig. 3-3): a side or profile view,
also called sheer and elevation projections; a top or plan view, also
called waterlines and half-breadth plans; and a head-on or body plan,
also called a section plan.
The hull shape is defined by three principle sets of lines. All
of these appear (sometimes as straight lines and other times as
curved lines) in all three views or projections.
Stations (also called sections) are athwartship vertical slices or
vertical cuts in a transverse plane (Fig. 3-4). Stations appear on
profile and plan views as straight lines and on body plan views as
curved lines. Stations are placed at regular intervals along the length
of the boat.
Waterlines represent horizontal cuts in a longitudinal plane (Fig.
3-5). These are at regular intervals from deck to bottom of keel.
The plane on which the boat floats is called the horizontal water-
plane, and the line on which the boat is designed to float is called
the designed waterline or load waterline. Waterlines appear on pro-
file and body plans as straight lines and on plan views as curved
lines.

Buttocks lines represent vertical cuts in a longitudinal plane (Fig.

3-6). These are at regular intervals. They are parallel to the cen-
terline of the boatand perpendicular to the waterlines. Buttocks
lines appear as curved lines on profile plans and as straight lines
on plan views and body plans.
The following table summarizes how the lines appear on each
of the three views.

53
Fig. 3-5. Waterlines represent horizontal slices in a longitudinal plane.

Profile Plan Body Plan

View View View

Stations Straight Straight Curved

Waterlines Straight Curved Straight
Buttocks Curved Straight Straight

Each set of Hnes (stations, waterHnes, and buttocks) appears

on all three views or drawings (profile, plan, and body plan). On
two views, each set of lines appears as straight lines; on the third
view each set of lines appears as curved lines.
There is one other important set of lines called diagonals. These

Fig. 3-6. Buttocks lines represent vertical slices in a longitudinal plane.

54
lines are difficult to understand because they do not represent any
shape that can be observed on a hull from any viewpoint. They are
drawn in the body plan view at angles that will cross the curved
station Hnes at as close to right angles as possible. These lines are
useful for fairing a set of lines. They are a valuable aid for the boat
designer, although they won't be much help to a layman in under-
standing a hull shape.

Displacement
The boat designer must determine the displacement of a boat on
the "drawing board." This roundabout way. The final
is done in a
weight of the vessel (including materials, hardware, engine, and
everything carried aboard) is first estimated. This requires com-
plicated calculations. This estimated weight is then used for design-
ing an underwater shape and waterline for the required
displacement.
After a drawing has been made using the estimated weight,
first

various calculations based on cross-sectional areas below the water-

line are used to determine (or get a better estimate) of the actual
displacement. The process
involves using an instrument called a
planimeter to measure the distance around the perimeter of the sta-
on the plan view below the waterline (Fig. 3-7). From this
tion lines
measurement, calculations are made to give the area of irregular

Fig. 3-7. The perimeters below the waterline are measured and
of station lines
used to calculate the total underwater volume.

55
shapes, which in turn are used to calculate the total underbody vol-
ume. The formula used— Simpson's Rule— is fairly involved.
The displacement is then calculated by multiplying the volume
by the weight per cubic foot of either fresh or salt water. This fig-
ure is compared with the designer's original estimated weight. If
the two figures are not close, necessary modifications are made ei-
ther in the displacement requirements or the drawings.
Basically, you have a planned weight for the boat and a calcu-
lated displacement. If the calculated displacement is less than the
planned weight, the volume of the underbody must be increased.
If the planned weight is less than the calculated displacement, the

volume of the underbody must be decreased.

Center of Buoyancy
Buoyancy is an upward force from the pressure of the water that
is concentrated at one point on a floating object. Fig. 3-8. This point
is the center of buoyancy (CB).
With hulls that are symmetrical athwartships, as most boats
are, the center of buoyancy is somewhere on the centerline of the

boat when the boat is upright (not heeled). This gives one refer-
ence plane for determining the center of buoyancy.
Next, the longitudinal location of the center of buoyancy along
the centerline is located by various calculations, which are beyond
the scope of the discussion here. (The interested reader should con-
sult one of the standard yacht design references.) In a similar man-
ner, the vertical location of the center of buoyancy is located. The
center of buoyancy is then located. The transverse center of
buoyancy was on a plane vertical to the centerline. The longitudi-
nal location on this plane was then located. Finally, the vertical cen-
ter of buoyancy was located. This is vertical to the waterline, since
the force of buoyancy acts vertically upward.
This gives a more complete picture. In addition to the total vol-
ume of the underbody, it is now known how the volume is dis-
tributed around a single point.

Center of Gravity
Buoyancy is an upward force. A second major force that acts on
a floating boat is gravity, which is a downward force. The center

of gravity is a point on or near the object that is the focus of gravita-

tional force on the object.
The center of gravity is located on drawings in a manner simi-

56
Fig. 3-8. Buoyancy is an upward force; gravity is a downward force.

lar to locating the center of buoyancy, except that this time the con-
cern is with weight rather than volume (see Fig. 3-8). Further, the
concern is with all weights on all parts of the boat, rather than just
those of the boat's underbody.
The transverse center of gravity is located on a plane vertical
to the boat's centerline, provided that all weights are arranged sym-
metrically (such as a center-mounted engine) or properly counter-
balanced. If this is not the case, the completed boat will heel over
to one side or the other, as indeed happens with poorly designed
boats or boats that have equipment improperly located.
The location of the longitudinal center of gravity is the point
along the length of the boat where there is equal weight fore and
aft. This is also the balance point.
To locate this point on the drawings, all weights to be used in
the construction and carried aboard and their locations must be con-
sidered. The calculations used to determine this point are quite in-
volved. The center of gravity is a fulcrum; weights act differently
on this point depending on how far away from the point they are.
The further away from this point a given weight is placed, the more
effectit will have. Thus, not only the weights, but also the refer-

ence distances enter into the calculations. This process usually be-
gins with calculations of bare hull weights. This is then extended

57
to includedeck and cabin structures, rigging, and other similar fac-
tors,even crew weight if this is significant. Next, heavy items such
as engines and ballast keels are added to the calculations.
It is important that the longitudinal center of gravity be aligned
with the longitudinal center of buoyancy. If the designer sees from
the calculations that this is not the case, slight shifting of heavy
components on the drawings can be used to give the proper align-
ment. At this stage of the designing process, some weights will have
to be estimated.
Once the longitudinal center of gravity has been located and
adjusted so that it is in vertical alignment with the previously de-
termined center of buoyancy, the vertical center of gravity must
be determined. The method is similar to that used for determining
the longitudinal center of gravity, except that this time the move-
ments are measured vertically.
The vertical center of gravity is in vertical alignment with the
previously determined transverse and longitudinal centers of
gravity. This gives the single point, which is the center of gravity.

Stability

Stability of a boat is an important consideration. The boat must

stay right side up, but beyond this, stability of various boat designs
varies greatly. This can affect comfort and performance.
There are three conditions involved in considering stability: sta-
ble, unstable, and neutral. These conditions apply both to objects
on land and to floating ones. Certain forces, such as gravity, at-
tempt to move a body in an unstable position to a stable one.
As already detailed, two important forces that act on floating
boats are buoyancy, which is always upward, and gravity, which
is always downward. These are two equal forces acting in oppo-

site directions. In engineering terms, two forces acting in opposite

directions form a "couple." A twisting motion or torque results
when these two forces are not on the same straight line. If the "cou-
ple" or two forces are acting on the same straight line, the result
is static stability (Fig. 3-9).

This principle can be demonstrated by placing a block of wood

on the surface of a table. Place your index fingers directly across
flat

from each other on opposite sides of the block. Press your fingers
toward each other. If your fingers were placed directly opposite
each other, the block of wood did not move. The "couple" or two
forces acting in opposite directions were on the same straight line.
This resulted in a condition of static stability.

58
 Force Force

Fig. 3-9. Two forces acting on the same straight line result in static stability.

Next, position your index fingers on opposite sides of the block

as was done previously, except this time place them out of align-
ment (Fig. 3-10). Press your fingers toward points directly across
the block. This time the two forces are not on the same straight
line. The block turns. This is the resulting twisting motion or torque.

You have set up a ''couple." The Hnes of force are parallel to each
other but not on the same line.
Repeat the above experiment, except this time have the lines
of force further apart. The block of wood should twist more easily
this time. The stability of the system is directly related to distance
between the Hnes of force.
This same principle can be applied to the center of buoyancy
and center of gravity on a boat. The designer does this at the draw-
ing board. A constant placement for the center of gravity is as-

sumed, at least for heavy displacement boats where a movable crew

would have minimum effect. Assume a fixed center of gravity,
which is located as already detailed in this chapter. In light dis-
placement vessels, however, a shifting center of gravity is often
taken into account in stability calculations.
The center of buoyancy is the point that moves. When wind.

Force

Force

Fig. 3-10. Two forces acting out of alignnrient result in a twisting motion or torque.

59
wave, or some other force heels the boat, the center of buoyancy
follows the volume shift to the side of greater immersion.
When the boat is upright with no forces causing it to heel, the
center of buoyancy and center of gravity are in line and neutral-
ized, as shown in Fig. 3-8. No twisting couple exists.
When the boat is heeled over by some force, the center of
buoyancy moves to one side because of the change in shape of the
submerged underbody of the hull. The center of gravity does not
change because the placement of weight aboard has not been
changed. The two forces are not in line. A couple exists. In this
case, the torque of the couple tends to right the boat or twist it back
to a neutral position (Fig. 3-11).
If the center of gravity were placed high enough, such as by

adding a very heavy deck load, a disastrous torque could be set

up when the boat heels over. This would cause the boat to capsize
(Fig. 3-12). Notice that this time the torque is in the wrong direction.
As the boat heels, the hull shape gives outboard buoyancy. This
gives stability thatis called form stability. Various hull shapes give

different amounts of form stability. A narrow hull with slack bilges

has low form stability. A broad hull with full bilges has high form
stability. Sharp chines, keels, and other similar shapes and protru-
sions can enhance stability by providing lateral resistance to rolling.
The designer must be concerned with more than one water-
line. One of these is the waterline when the boat is static or level.
This is called the static or level waterline. When the boat is static

or level, the up and down forces of buoyancy and gravity are in

line and the center of buoyancy, center of gravity, and centerline
of the boat are aligned vertically.
For each angle of heel, there is a different waterline. The

Center Of
Gravity

Center Of
Bouyancy

Fig. 3-11. Situation where torque of couple tends to right boat.

60
 Center Of
Gravity

Center Of
Bouyancy

Fig. 3-12. Situation where torque of couple tends to capsize boat.

designer determines the waterlines and centers of buoyancy for a

number of heel angles. For each angle of heel, a line is drawn ver-
tical to the heeled waterline in a position so that it passes through
the center of gravity. A parallel line is drawn through the center

Metacentric Height
Or GM

line

Fig. 3-13. The righting arm or GZ at a given angle of heel.

61
of buoyancy. The distance between the two lines is the righting
arm or GZ (Fig. 3-13). The distance that the center of buoyancy
moves with a given change in angle of heel is a function of form
stability.
The downward force is considered next. This opposes the up-
ward buoyancy force. As the angle of heel changes, so does the
relative effectiveness of the couple. The righting force exerted
through the righting arm or GZ is equal to the total displacement
or weight of the boat in pounds times the length of the righting
arm in feet.
The transverse metacenter or M is located next at the intersec-
tion of the boat's centerline and a vertical line drawn upward from
the center of buoyancy at a given angle of heel (Fig. 3-13). The
distance between the transverse metacenter point and the center
of gravity is called the metacentric height or GM.
The metacentric height is an important gauge of the stiffness
of the boat. If the metacentric height is relatively large, the boat
will be very stiff. If it is relatively small, the boat will be tender.
As the metacentric height increases, so does the transverse
metacenter. Thus, a tender boat will have a long roll period. A stiff
boat will have a short roll period.

As long as the transverse metacenter is above the center of

gravity when a boat is heeled, the boat has a positive metacentric
height and will right itself. When the transverse metacenter is below
the center of gravity, the boat has a negative metacentric height
and will capsize from heel. When the transverse metacenter and
the center of gravity coincide, the boat has neutral equilibrium.
There is no tendency to roll in either direction. Notice that in this
case the metacentric height is zero.

Resistance
Another major consideration is hull resistance. While some float-
ing houses are permanently moored, most boats are intended for
moving from one place to another. Because various forces resist
movement of a boat that is floating on water, a propulsion system
must be provided to move the boat. This propulsion system, be it
from an engine or sails, must provide enough motive power to over-
come resistance to the boat's forward motion. At a constant speed,
thepower of the boat's propulsion is equal to the resistance to for-
ward motion. The greater the resistance, the greater the power re-
quired to move the boat at a given speed.

62
 The greatest resistance acting on a boat results from the water.
(Another type of resistance acting on a boat is wind resistance.)
There are two main types of water resistance: frictional and
residual.
Frictional Resistance. As water passes along the surface
of a moving hull, the water molecules close to the hull surface tend
to move along with the hull. This causes skin friction.
A smooth hull surface has less skin friction than a rough hull
surface. Barnacles on a boat's bottom can increase skin friction.
Greater skin friction requires more power and fuel consumption
to move the boat at a given speed.
The actual process by which water molecules move along with
a hull is quite involved. Basically, the molecules closest to the hull
skin are induced by adhesion to move along with the hull. By co-
hesion, these molecules induce neighboring molecules to move
along also. As the distance from the hull skin increases, fewer par-
ticles move along with the hull skin, and the velocity of the ones
that do decreases. There is, then, a zone of water that is moved.
This is called the boundary layer.
Energy is required to move the boundary layer of water along.
With a powerboat, the power is supplied by the engine at the cost
of fuel. With a sail, the wind is "free," but moving the boundary
layer of water along results in a loss of speed.
As the boundary layer of water moves along the hull from bow
to stem, the skin friction becomes less and less. The water is at
rest when the bow of the moving boat hull first meets it. The fric-
tional resistance is greatest at this point. As the boat continues to
move forward, more and more water is brought along. When this
water reaches the stem, some of it is travelling nearly as fast as
the boat. The frictional resistance is the least at this point. The
greater the distance, the less the frictional resistance. This means
that a longer boat has an advantage over a shorter one.
The boat designer tries to keep frictional resistance to a mini-
mum by making the hull smooth and streamlined, keeping wetted
surface area to a minimum, avoiding hull projections when possi-
ble,and streamlining unavoidable projections.
Residual Resistance. When a powerboat or sailboat moves
through the water, it makes undesired waves. The waves cause
a residual resistance to increases in hull speed.
Because two things cannot occupy the same space at the same
time, the water must be pushed away as the hull moves forward.

63
It then rushes back to fill the void left by the hull as it moves fur-
ther forward. This forms waves, which are generated continuously
by a moving hull.
There are two kinds of waves: divergent and transverse. Diver-
gent waves move diagonally away from the boat and play only a very
small part in residual resistance. The familiar bow wave is a diver-
gent wave.
Transverse waves follow alongside the hull and recombine again
aft. They are called transverse waves because their crests are at
right angles to the centerline of the hull. When the hull is moving
slowly, these waves are short and many along the hull. The waves
become longer at higher speeds, however, and there are less of them
along the length of the hull. This wave lengthening process con-
tinues as the hull speed is increased to the point where the wave
length is such that the second crest of the bow wave and the first
crest of the stem wave coincide. At this point, the wave length
equals the waterline length, and the hull is "trapped" between bow
and stern wave crests.
In the case of a displacement hull, it would take exponentially
more horsepower to drive the boat any faster because any further
speed would spread the crests. This puts the boat in a "hole," and
considerable horsepower is required to get out.
Displacement hulls are thus, for practical purposes, limited to
a certain speed, which is called hull speed. The hull speed can be
calculated as the square root of the waterline length times 1.34 to
give the hull speed in knots.
The underbody shape of displacement hulls, however, is also
important because it power required to reach hull speed
affects the
and even to drive the boat beyond this speed. A slim, lightweight
hull of a given waterline length takes less power to reach hull speed
than a fuller, heavier boat with the same length of waterline. The
boat designer must take all of these factors into consideration when
designing a particular boat.
Another type of residual resistance that must be taken into con-
sideration is eddy-making. This resistance is created by the water

filling the partial vacuum created by the moving boat. Flat sections

at the stern and protrusions increase eddy-making.

Basic Plans
So far the focus has been on hull lines and points to consider when
designing a particular hull. The three principle sets of lines (sta-
tions, waterlines, and buttocks) that appear on three projections

64
(profile, plan, and body plan) define the hull shape so that the hull
can be constructed. It is common practice to lay off these lines at
full size for the actual construction. This process is called lofting.
A model might be constructed from the designer's hull
first

hnes. This will be tank tested. The purpose is to determine if the

Hnes are satisfactory before actually constructing a full-size hull.
Hull lines are only one of a number of basic plans for a boat.
Others include construction plan, accommodation plan, sail plan,
and so on.A boat designer might make 30 or more sheets of draw-
ings for a single design.

Computer Designing
The computer is used more and more for boat designing. Twenty
years ago, boat designers were still using slide rules to make cal-

culations. Then came electronic calculators, which made slide rules

obsolete. (I'm saving my old slide rule; it should soon be an antique.)
Finally, computers. At first, boat designers used these mainly as
calculators. Presently they are used for the actual designing process,
even eliminating the traditional ''drawing board" method for design-
ing boats.

Who Are Boats Designed For?

The type of plans, number of sheets, and details and instructions
vary depending on the intended use of the plans. A boat manufac-
turer requires one type of plans, an amateur boatbuilder quite
another.
Another important factor is the construction material and
method to be used. The present trend is to design for a specific
construction material (usually fiberglass) and a specific construc-
tion method (usually contact molding for fiberglass boats that are
to be manufactured). This applies not only to construction plans
but to most others as well, including plans for hull lines.

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
The structural design of a boat should accommodate all possible
loadings and still maintain its structural integrity. In fiberglass con-
struction, the structural designis complicated because the loads

to which a fiberglass boat is subjected are not well defined.

The problem is essentially this. The outside shell of the boat
hull is of a predetermined shape. Various loads will be placed on

65
the hull when it is in use. The structural design of the hull (shell
thickness, size and placement of supports, and so on) must not break
up or lose its shape from these loadings. Because the loadings are
not clearly defined, classical engineering analysis is difficult to
apply. Instead, the usual process is to measure the load-carrying

capabilities of boat hulls that have proven satisfactory in the past

and then to apply these to new designs.
Early fiberglass boats were designed conservatively. This re-
quired more materials and construction time to make the shell
thicker than it really had to be, then use of more and larger sup-
ports than were absolutely necessary, and so on. Conservative de-
sign was "playing it safe."
Traditional wood boatbuilding with wooden frame and plank
construction based on many years of experience. Successful de-
is

signs are continued and improved upon. The unsuccessful ones are
weeded out. Standard, workable rules for the construction of
wooden boats have been formulated.
Fiberglass is a different construction material than wood. The
planked wooden hull requires heavy framing and strong fasteners
to hold the many separate pieces of wood together and keep them
from working and leaking. A fiberglass hull shell is usually one piece
with nojoints, and fiberglass has different physical properties than
wood.
Some were essentially
of the first fiberglass boats constructed
fiberglass shells with most everything else, including the support
framing for the shell, made of wood. This does not take best ad- <

vantage of fiberglass as a construction material, however. Today,

most manufactured fiberglass boats are specially designed for fiber-
glass construction.
While early fiberglass boats were often conservatively designed
and constructed, many manufacturers gradually reduced the shell
thicknesses, the number and spacing of supports, and so on. Per-
haps this was done to reduce material and labor costs to remain
competitive. In any case, these reductions continued until failures
began to occur when the boats were in use. Some of these struc-
tural failures caused injuries and even loss of human life.
These failures also provided design data. The boats could be
examined to determine why the failures had occurred and additional
strength was required. The information was then applied to the de-
sign and construction of other fiberglass boats. This lead to a com-
promise between providing a structurally sound boat and keeping
the production costs down to a minimum.

66
 Fiberglass boats are designed for intended uses. A boat that
is designed for use on protected waters and is structurally sound
for this purpose would probably not be suitable for use at sea, nor
should itbe expected to be. For the boat to be safe and sound at
sea, it would have to be "over" built for its intended use. This would
not be economically feasible. No boat, regardless of how it is de-
signed or constructed, can be proof against everything.
While a number of countries have had rules and standards for
the design and construction of fiberglass boats for some years, until
recently the United States was not one of them. The American Bu-
reau of Shipping recently prepared guidelines for scantlings for
fiberglass boats as well as for boats of other materials. For infor-
mation, write to the American Bureau of Shipping, 65 Broadway,
New York, NY 10006.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FIBERGLASS LAMINATES

To this point in this book, strength and other mechanical proper-
ties of fiberglass laminates have been considered only in a very
general way. To design a structurally sound boat, however, the
designer requires specifics on a number of mechanical properties
of fiberglass laminates. There is great variability in fiberglass
laminates due to factors such as the care and skill used in fabrica-

tion, quality of materials, type and arrangement of reinforcing

materials, and thickness of laminate. This makes testing fiberglass
laminates quite complex. Here are some specific mechanical
properties.

Tensile Strength
Tensile strength is the resistance of a material to a force tending
to pull it apart. This can be expressed in pounds per square inch
(psi). Two types of tensile strength can be measured: yield and ul-
timate. Ultimate tensile strength is the load the material can stand
before failure; yield tensile strength is the load a material can stand
before deforming. Because boat designers use ultimate tensile
strength measures for designing hulls, I will use this strength in
the discussion here.
Fiberglass laminates have high tensile strength in directions
parallel to the layers of the laminate (Fig. 3-14). The tensile strength
with loading perpendicular to the layers of the laminate (Fig. 3-15),
is usually much less.
In a fiberglass laminate, it's the fiberglass reinforcing mate-

67
 Fiberglass
Laminate

Fig. 3-14. Tensile strength in directions parallel to the layers of the laminate.

rial that provides the strength. The resin provides a means of hold-
ing the glass fibers in position. This, in turn, explains why the tensile
strength is greater parallel to the layers of the laminate. The ten-
sile strength perpendicular to the layers of the laminate is less be-
cause loadings perpendicular to the laminate tend to pull the
weak resin areas. This must be con-
laminate apart in the relatively
sidered when assembling and attaching separate moldings together
and when attaching things to moldings. Let's look at ultimate ten-
sile strength of some typical laminates with the loadings parallel

to the layers of the laminate.

Three basic types of glass fiber reinforcing material are com-
monly used in fiberglass laminates: mat, cloth, and woven roving.
A single material or any combination of materials can be used for
forming the layers of a laminate. Polyester resin is used for produc-
tion fiberglass boat manufacturing, and the test data included here
is for polyester resin laminates. Fiberglass reinforcing materials
and laminating and molding methods are detailed in Chapter 4. For
now it is important to understand that mat, cloth, and woven rov-
ing have different mechanical properties.

Fiberglass
Laminate

Fig. 3-15. Tensile strength in directions perpendicular to the layers of the

laminate.

68
 A typical mat laminate has an ultimate tensile strength of about
12,000 pounds per square inch. This is a little higher than some
types of wood (mahogany is about 11,500 spruce is about
psi, sitka

10,000 and lower than others (such as white oak, which is about
psi)

15,000 psi). These figures for wood are with the grain, however.
Typical types of wood used in boat construction often have ulti-
mate tensile strength of less than 1,000 psi across the grain. This
is one of the reasons why a wood frame and plank hull requires

such heavy framing to hold the planks together.

One type of aluminum alloy used in boat construction has an
ultimate tensile strength of 40,000 psi, which is over three times
that of a typical mat laminate. Mild steel has an even greater ulti-
mate tensile strength— about 60,000 psi.
It should be noted, however, that each of these materials has

a different density. The mat and resin laminate has a density of

about 87 Ib./ft.^; mahogany about 29 Ib./ft.^; sitka spruce about 25
lb./ft.3; white oak about 42 Ib./ft.^; aluminum alloy about 166

Ib./ft.^; and mild steel about 490 Ib./ft.^ If you consider ultimate

tensile strength divided by the density of the material, you will find
that the mat and resin laminate has 138 psi/lb. ft.^ Mahogany has
400 psi/lb. ft.3; sitka spruce, 408 psi/lb. ft.^; white oak, 362 psi/lb.
ft.^; aluminum alloy, 241 psi/lb. ft.^; and mild steel, 122 psi/lb. ft.^

Only mild steel has a lower value than the mat and resin laminate.
Woven roving laminates generally have much higher ultimate
tensile strength than do mat laminates. If standard weave woven
roving is used, the ultimate tensile strength is usually about 28,000
psi. When unidirectional woven roving is used, it is about 40,000
psi, which is comparable to that of aluminum alloy. The standard
woven roving laminate has a density of about 103 lb. ft. 2; the
unidirectional woven roving, about 122 Ib./ft.^ The ultimate ten-
sile strength divided by the density for the standard woven roving
laminate is about 272 psi/lb. ft.^; for unidirectional woven roving,
about 328 psi/lb. ft.^ These figures are higher than those for most
boat metals (as given in this section), but lower than those for most
boat woods.
Cloth and resin laminates have ultimate tensile strength even
higher than those of woven roving laminates, often over 40,000 psi.
Mat and woven roving are frequently combined in laminates
used in The mat
boat construction, usually in alternating layers.
fills weave pattern of the woven roving and gives bet-
in the coarse
ter bonding between layers than when woven roving is used alone.
The ultimate tensile strength of a typical mat and woven roving

69
(alternating layers) laminate is about 18,000 psi, which is higher
than that of a typical mat and resin laminate, but lower than that
of a typical woven roving laminate. The density of the mat and
woven roving laminate is about 89 Ib.ft.^, only slightly greater
than that of a typical mat and resin laminate, but considerably less
than that of woven roving laminates.
Tensil strength is more closely related to the volume of glass
fiber in the laminate than to the type (mat, woven roving, or cloth)
of reinforcing material used. Mat laminates have the lowest ten-
sile strength because mat absorbs the most resin when wetted out

in the lay-up process. Woven roving uses less resin and thus has
a higher tensile strength in a laminate. Even less resin is used with
cloth, giving a laminate with the highest tensile strength.
might appear that the strands of glass running continuously
It

along the length and width of the material gives the higher tensile
strength than for mat laminates, which is made up of short strands
of glass fiber. Tests indicate, however, that this is not the case.
There is little loss of tensile strength until the strands become less
than 3/4 inch in length. It's mainly the ratio of glass fibers to resin
that makes the difference.
The cloth and woven roving laminates have the greatest ten-
sile strength in the warp and fill directions.(Assuming the same
amoimt of glass fiber in each, the strength would be the same in
each of these directions; in unidirectional weaves, it is usually
greater in the warp directions.) They have relatively less tensile
strength in diagonal and all other directions in the plane of the lam-
inate parallel to the plies. These directions can be varied in a lami-
nate, however, to give the highest tensile strength in the directions
where most needed.
it is

Mat laminates have the lowest tensile strength because of their

high resin content. They have the most uniform tensile strength
in the plane of the laminate (parallel to the plies), however, because
of the randomness of the glass strands. When the physical proper-
ties are essentially the same in all directions, the material is con-
sidered to be isotropic. Aluminum and steel are typical examples.
A mat laminate is considered to be isotropic, at least in directions
parallel to the plies. In directions perpendicular to the plies, this
might or might not be the case, depending on how the laminate
was formed, if the glass fibers are arranged randomly or not, and

other factors. When mat laminates are laid up in layers, and one
layer is allowed to harden before the next is applied, there will
usually be resin-rich areas between plies. In directions perpendic-

70
ular to the plies, the laminate would no longer be isotropic.
When the physical properties vary with direction, the mate-
rial is considered to be orthotropic. Most fiberglass laminates used
in boat construction are orthotropic.

Other Types of Strength

Fiberglass laminates have high flexural strength (in some cases more
than structural steel), compression strength, and impact strength.
Shear strength varies, depending on the type of reinforcing materials
used, the method of lay-up used, and other factors.

Modulus of Elasticity

A main design and construction problem associated with fiberglass

laminates is that they are very flexible. A measure of this prop-
erty is the modulus of elasticity. This is a measure of the ability to
resist deflections and is usually expressed in psi x 10^. A mat and
resin laminate has a modulus of about 1.0 psi x 10^;
elasticity of
a standard woven roving laminate about 1.75 psi x 10^; a
woven roving laminate about 2.10 psi x 10^; and a
unidirectional
mat and woven roving (alternating layers or plies) about 1.30 psi
X 10^. One type of aluminum alloy used in boat construction has
a modulus of elasticity of about 10 psi x 10^. This means that
fiberglass, depending on the particular laminate, is about five to
ten timesmore flexible than this type of aluminum alloy. Mild steel
has a modulus of elasticity of about 30 psi x 10^, which means
that fiberglass laminates, depending on the particular laminate, are
from about 15 to 30 times more flexible than mild steel.
Fiberglass laminates have about the same modulus of elastic-
ity as plywood. The flexibility is similar. Fiberglass laminates are

stronger and more costly, however, than plywood of the same thick-
ness. In boat construction, thin laminates are used, then extra sup-
port and stiffening are added, because it is normally too expensive
to accomplish this by increasing the thickness of the laminates un-
necessarily.
The boat designer must consider all these factors in order to
make the best use of the materials. Stiffening can be accomplished
by extra thickness, shape (a curved panel is stiff er than a flat panel
of the same thickness), added supporting members (frames, bulk-
heads, etc.), and use of sandwich core construction. These methods
are detailed in Chapter 4.

71
 Use of Test Data
The boat designer is faced not only with the problem of what the
loadings will be on the finished boat, but also what the mechanical
properties of the materials used in the construction will be. There
is considerable variability in fiberglass laminates due to the type,
arrangement, and quality of materials used as well as how and
where the laminates were Samples prepared in a labora-
laid up.
tory often vary considerably from those taken from boat moldings
in a fiberglass manufacturing plant. The first is often called "lab
prepared," the latter **shop prepared."
The designer should use data from shop prepared samples.
There are many problems here too. The quality of the laminates
can vary considerably, often to the point where using an average
measurement can be misleading.
Adding to the problem is the fact that most testing of mechan-
ical properties is destructive testing. Laminates tested are destroyed
in the process. As might be expected, fiberglass boat manufacturers
are not too eager to sacrifice parts of their boats for this purpose.
Perhaps the best solution is conservative design.

SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF FIBERGLASS BOAT DESIGN

A primary advantage of using fiberglass instead of other construc-
tion materials is that fiberglass can be molded to a variety of com-
plex shapes. This can be done relatively easily and economically.
Sharp angles and comers are best avoided, however, because these
shapes do not mold easily.Still, by and large, fiberglass has given

boat designers new creative freedom.

most cases, fiberglass boat manufacturers use contact mold-
In
ing (Chapter 4), at least for larger boats. The designer must con-

sider this fact. The boat must be practical to mold, and the assembly
of separate moldings must be considered. Good planning at the de-
sign stage is one of the keys to good fiberglass boats.
I think that it is very important that fiberglass boats be designed

for low maintenance. As I look back over the years that fiberglass
boats have been manufactured, I see a number of stages. The first
fiberglass boats were overbuilt in most regards, but with basic
weaknesses, such as use of wood in ways that dry rot would quickly
form. Of course, this is an oversimplification. There were good,
bad, and indifferent boats. Fm speaking now of trends or directions.
The middle stage, as I think of it, is when the manufacturers
tried to reduce the material and labor costs per boat, perhaps to

72
stay competitive. Again, not all manufacturers did this. Unproven

hull to deck assembly methods were used. These often parted in

use. Many of these boats were "duds." As I look back at fiber-
glass boats from this period, I realize that enough materials were
used to construct a good boat. The problems seem to be in the de-
sign and the way the materials were used. These boats were often
complicated. What could have been better constructed in one piece
was made in two or three. Assembly methods were often poorly
thought out. Some methods, such as joining hull and deck mold-
ings together with an aluminum extrusion, and holding the mold-
ings in place with pop rivets, must have simply been quick and easy
for the manufacturers.
The which is still in progress, is better use of
final stage,
materials. There are now more years of experience and more test
data to design and build from. Fiberglassing chemicals and
materials are improving.

73
Fiberglass Boat Construction
This chapter discusses how fiberglass boats are manufactured us-
ing volume molding methods— that is, where a number of boats are
made from the same cavity molds. (One-off construction methods
are covered in Chapter 14.) There are two basic aspects to fiber-
glass boat construction: molding the fiberglass hull and other com-
ponents and assembling these along with other materials into
completed boats.
«

REINFORCING MATERIALS
Fiberglass originally referred to thin fibers or filaments of glass.
While this definition still applies, it has been extended to feltlike
mat and woven fabrics made from these fibers and the two-part
structural unit consisting of glass fibers combined with resin.

Glass Fiber Reinforcing Materials

Glass fiber a synthetic dating back to the early 1930s. Molten
is

"E" glass, formed from lime, alumina (aluminum oxide), and

borosilicate, is formed into continuous filaments by mechanical at-
tenuation. This is done by pulling the melted glass through small
holes in the bottom of an electrical furnace and stretching it into
thin fibers. The fibers are formed into yams, which are in turn
formed into glass fiber reinforcing materials by weaving on regu-
lar weaving machinery and other means. This material is made

74
suitable for Use with plastic resins by adding special finishes, such
as chroming, which allow the plastic resins to flow around the glass
fibers and minimize trapped air.

Glass fiber reinforcing materials used in boat construction in-

clude cloth, mat, woven roving, chopped strands, combination

chopped strands and woven roving, and milled fibers.
Glass Fiber Cloth. Glass fiber cloth is probably the most fa-
made into threads that are woven into
miliar form. Glass fibers are
cloth using textile weaving machinery. A plain weave is used for
boat construction. Long shaft satin and unidirectional weave pat-
terns are used for some special applications. The long shaft satin
weave gives a smoother surface, and the unidirectional weave gives
greater reinforcing strength in one direction than the other.
Glass fiber cloth is available in various weights per square yard.
Weights from about 4 ounces per square yard to about 20 ounces
per square yard are used for boat construction, with 10- or 12-ounce
weights used for most applications. These are dry weights before
the cloth has been saturated with plastic resin.
When combined with plastic resin to make fiberglass laminates,
cloth gives greater strength but less thickness than other types of
glass fiber reinforcing materials. A 1-inch thick laminate would take
about 40 to 50 layers of 12-ounce-per-square-yard cloth.
Cloth is available in long lengths in various widths up to about
60 inches with salvaged edges to keep it from unravelling. Narrow
widths from about 1 inch to 12 inches with salvaged edges are of-
ten called cloth tape. Because the salvaged edges make the cloth
easier to work with, the width is selected for particular applica-
tions in boat construction work. At unselvaged ends and where cuts
are made, the cloth tends to unravel, requiring special care in han-
dling the dry cloth and applying plastic resin to it.

Cloth works well on reasonably flat surfaces, but is difficult

to keep wrinkle-free when used in curved areas. Square corners

and other difficult configurations require that cuts be made. Cloth
gives a fairly smooth finish when lighter weights are used.
Various reinforcing materials require different amounts of resin.
Cloth requires the least, which makes it very strong. It lacks stiff-
ness, though. Because of the limited amount of resin, it is not very
waterproof.
On is more expensive than other types
a weight basis, cloth
There are many applications in boat con-
of reinforcing material.
struction, however, where its strength and other special proper-
ties make it worth the additional cost.

75
 Both treated and untreated glass fiber cloth are available. Only
the kind specially treated (usually by chroming) for resin and fiber-
glass laminating is normally used in boat construction. Untreated
fabric has a dull appearance, whereas the chroming gives the cloth
a shiny appearance.
The fiberglass cloth usually has a slip weave that lets the
threads slide over each other to some extent. This allows the dry
fabric to be shaped to limited compound curves in one piece with-
out cutting it.

Glass Fiber Woven Roving. Woven roving is a thick, cloth-

like reinforcing material made from rovings or continuous strands
of glass fibers that are grouped together. By weight, woven rov-
ing is less expensive than cloth, but more expensive than mat.
Woven roving is available in various weights per square yard,
with 24 ounces per square yard (dry weight) commonly used for
most boat construction work. Twenty-five layers of 24-ounce-per-
square-yard woven roving gives a laminate about an inch of thick-
ness. In actual practice, woven roving is alternated with layers of
fiberglass mat to fill in the heavy weave pattern, a combination that
give good adhesion, stiffness, and tensile strength.
Woven roving is available in long length in widths up to about
60 inches. The edges are unselvaged, so care must be taken when
handling the dry material and saturating it with resin to keep it from
coming unravelled.
Woven roving has less strength than cloth, but more strength
than mat. Woven roving gives a more rapid buildup of thickness
than cloth, a considerable advantage in boat lay-up work, but the
heavy weave does not give as smooth a surface as cloth. Another
disadvantage woven roving is more difficult to wet out (sat-
is that
urate with resin) than either mat or cloth.
More resin is required for woven roving than cloth. A typical
woven roving laminate properly laid up is about 55 percent plastic
resin and about 45 percent glass fibers. A cloth laminate is about
50 percent resin and 50 percent cloth. Mat requires more resin than
either woven roving or cloth, however.
Because woven roving laminates only have a resin pej^centage
slightly greater than cloth laminates, they lack waterproofness. To
get around this problem, layers of woven roving are alternated in
a laminate with mat, which takes a higher percentage of resin by
weight. It's the resin and not the reinforcing material that makes
fiberglass laminates highly impervious to water.
Woven roving reinforcing material has a slip weave that allows

76
the rovings to slide over each other to some extent. This allows
the dry fabric to be shaped to limited compound curves in one piece
without cutting it.

Because of the thick basket weave and heavy weight, woven

roving is more difficult to work with than cloth in boat lay-up work.
For laying up boat laminates, however, the advantages outweigh
the disadvantages. Woven roving is used extensively in boat con-
struction, usually alternated with layers of mat to fill in the heavy
weave pattern of the woven roving to prevent a resin-rich laminate,
which tends to be brittle. The mat is also used to give a smoother
outside surface.
Glass Fiber Mat. Fiberglass mat is made by laying down
chopped strands of glass fiber in a random pattern on a flat sur-
face. The strands are held together in a feltlike material by means
of a bonding agent.
Mat is available in various square foot (unlike cloth and woven
roving which are by the square yard) weights from about 3/4 ounce
to 3 ounces. It comes in various widths up to about 60 inches in
long lengths. Like cloth and woven roving, it usually comes in rolls.
On a weight basis, mat is the least expensive of the reinforc-
ing materials. This advantage is partially offset because it requires
more resin than either cloth or woven roving.
Like the other types of fiberglass reinforcing materials, mat
must be treated, such as by chroming, before it can be used with
plastic resins in lay-up work.
In a mat laminate, the resin is usually from 25 to 35 percent
by weight, and the rest is glass mat. This resin percentage is much
lower than in cloth or woven roving laminates. A mat laminate is
weaker than either cloth or woven roving because of the higher
proportion of resin. The mat forms the stiffest laminate, however.
Because of the random pattern of the glass fibers in mat, its

strength is nondirectional, and it has the best inner bonding strength

when used in a laminate. For this reason it is used extensively be-
tween layers of woven roving in fiberglass boat lay-ups.
The high resin content in a mat laminate makes it highly water-
proof. It is much better than cloth or woven roving.
Mat is an easy reinforcing material to lay up; it is easy to satu-
rate with resin. Dry mat is fairly stiff and does not shape easily
to compound curves. When wetted out or saturated with resin, how-
ever, the resin dissolves the binder holding the glass strands to-
gether. The mat can then be easily shaped to compound curves.
Note that the short strands of chopped fibers in mat, about 3/4

77
inch to 1 1/2 inches, do not necessarily make a mat laminate weaker
than one of cloth or woven roving. Tests show that mat laminates
are weaker because of the higher resin content and that the length
of the glass strands have little effect on the strength.
It takes about 20 layers of 1 1/2-ounce-per-square-foot mat to
give a laminate 1 inch thick. The higher resin content, however,
gives the mat laminate lower strength and modulus of elasticity
than a cloth or woven roving laminate of equal thickness. To have
approximately equivalent strength and modulus of elasticity proper-
ties, mat laminate would have to be thicker.
the
Chopped Glass Fiber Strands. Chopped strands of glass
fiber rovings are frequently used in fiberglass boat construction.
The strands measure about 1/4 inch to 2 inches in length and must
be treated, with croming, for instance, before they can be used with
plastic resins.
Chopped strands are added to resin to give a mixture that will
form a laminate similar to one of mat, only weaker. This is similar
*

to a mixture sprayed from a 'chopper gun," as described later in

this chapter.
Combination Chopped Strands and Woven Roving.
Chopped strands or mat are combined with woven roving in a sin-
gle material to speed up lay-up work. This can save considerable
time in the build-up of large fiberglass moldings. Instead of laying
up a layer of woven roving and then a layer of mat, both can be
applied in a single operation.
It comes in various weights per square yard, with 24 ounces
per square yard frequently used in boat construction. It's availa-

ble in various widths up to about 60 inches in long lengths.

Surfacing Mat. Individual glass fibers (rather than whole
strands as are used in regular mat) are used to form a special pur-
pose mat that has a thin body and gives a very smooth surface. It's
sometimes used in boat construction for surfacing and overlay work.
It's available in thicknesses from about 0.01 inch to 0.03 inch and
in various widths up to about 60 inches in long lengths.
M Uled Fibers. Milled fibers are made from glass strands that
are hammer-milled into a fluffy material. They are added to plas-
tic resins to form a putty or filler material. This material has many
uses in boat construction work.

Nonfiberglass Reinforcing Materials

A number of nonfiberglass reinforcing materials can be used in-
stead of fiberglass with plastic resins to form a material similar to

78
fiberglass and often still called fiberglass. These materials include
Vectra polypropylene, Dynel acrylic, Xynole polyester, DuPont
Kevlar 49 Armid, and carbon fiber. These reinforcing materials
are more expensive, some considerably more, than fiberglass rein-
forcing materials and thus are seldom used for production boat con-
struction. Their special properties make them useful, however, in
the construction of offshore racing sailboats and other custom boats.
Vectra Polypropylene. Vectra polypropylene is made from
an extremely lightweight polypropylene textile fiber. When formed
into standard 4.3-ounce-per-square-yard cloth, it has about the same
bulk and absorption of plastic resin as 10-ounce fiberglass cloth.
The polypropylene laminate gives a higher strength-to-weight ra-
tio than when fiberglass reinforcing material is used. This results
in a useful combination of light weight and high tensile strength.
Compared to fiberglass, it gives greater abrasion resistance, greater
elasticity, and better bonding adhesion wood. Unlike fiberglass
to
reinforcing materials, the polypropylene nonallergenic and does
is

not cause skin irritation during sanding and handling.

Disadvantages include higher cost (presently about a dollar
more per yard than fiberglass cloth with the same bulk and resin
absorption capacity); a tendency to float in wet resin, making it dif-

ficult to work with; and a tendency to hold its creases. The high
abrasion resistance of laminates laid up with polypropylene makes
it difficult to sand.
Polypropylene cloth is available in various widths up to 60
inches with selvaged edges. It has large openings in the we^ve to
allow for easy penetration of resin during lay-up work.
Dynel Acrylic. Dynel acrylic is made from acrylic yarn from
Japan that is woven into fabric in the United States. It's available
in a 4-ounce-per-square-yard dry weight in a 63-inch width in long
lengths. It weighs only about half as much as fiberglass cloth with
the same thickness.
Compared to fiberglass, it has greater abrasion resistance, is

easier to stretch around sharp comers and curves, and has a higher
tensile strength. Unlike fiberglass, it does not cause skin irritation
when handled or sanded. The acrylic laminate provides a slick fin-
ish when sanded, making it useful as an overlay. A canvaslike non-
skid surface is possible by using a minimum of resin in the lay-up.
Dynel acrylic is easy to wet out and provides better adhesion
to wood than fiberglass. A main disadvantage is the higher cost.
It is presently priced higher than polypropylene cloth.
Xynole Polyester. Xynole polyester is available in a

79
4.2-ounce-per-square-yard dry weight cloth, which has about the
same absorption of resin and bulk as 10-ounce-per-square-yard dry
weight fiberglass cloth. The polyester cloth is available in various
widths up to 60 inches, including tape form in widths from 1 1/2
to 12 inches.
This material is easy to wet out and useful for overlay work.
It wets out rapidly without leaving air bubbles. It conforms well
to compound curves and around sharp corners. As compared to
fiberglass, it has better laminating adhesion, greater toughness and
abrasion resistance, and better weight-to-strength ratio. The poly-
ester does lack stiffness, however, and for this reason is not used
alone for laminating in high-stress areas. It is useful, though, as
an overlay for a fiberglass laminate. Its main disadvantage is that
it is more expensive than fiberglass reinforcing cloth of the same

thickness.
Dupont Kevlar Reinforcing Fabric. Kevlar is a synthetic
long-chain polymer fiber developed by DuPont in 1972. It's a
5-ounce-per-square-yard reinforcing material that is available in long
lengths in 38-inch and 50-inch widths. It has greater tensile and
impact strength than when fiberglass reinforcement is used, but
it is not as strong in compression or bending.
The main disadvantage is that it is much more expensive than
fiberglass reinforcing material. For the added
tensile and impact
strength, however, worth the extra cost for special applica-
it is

tions, especially where light weight is important.

Carbon Fiber Reinforcing Material. This material is ex-
pensive, so its use is limited to custom boat construction where high
strength with minimum weight is called for. For laminating pur-
poses, it is used with epoxy resin, which is more expensive than
the polyester resin normally used in production boat construction.

RESINS
There are two main types of plastic resins used in fiberglass lay-
up work in boat construction: polyester and epoxy.

Polyester
Polyester resin is used for most of the molding and lay-up work
in production fiberglass boat construction. Polyester resin is a ther-
mosetting plastic that is set or cured by heat applied chemically from
inside the resin (exothermic heat) or outside, or by some combina-
tion of the two.

80
 To start the chemical reaction that causes internal heat, an ac-
celerator (a highly active oxidizing material) and a catalyst are
added to the liquid polyester resin. This heat is the setting agent.
In liquid form, the molecules in polyester resin lay side by side in
no set pattern. The addition of heat causes the molecules to link
together in chains to form a solid plastic. This hard mass is not
softened by the application of heat. This process of changing from
a liquid to a solid is called polymerization.
The polyester resins used for most boat manufacturing work
are manufactured for room temperature cures. These already have
the necessary accelerator added to the liquid resin. The commonly
used accelerator is cobalt naphthanate. To room
start the cure at
temperature, only a catalyst, usually methyl-ethyl-ketone (MEK)
peroxide, added to the polyester resin that already has the
is ac-
celerator added to it.
Even without the addition of the catalyst, polyester resin will
harden at room temperature. With the catalyst, however, the resin
hardens quickly— five minutes to an hour— depending on factors
such as how much catalyst is added, room temperature, and hu-
midity. The curing rate is also affected by the thickness of the layer
of resin applied. A thin layer does not keep heat inside as well as
a thicker layer, causing a thin layer to cure slower than a thick layer.
Polyester resin will cure in time even in sealed containers at
room temperature. Because polyester resins have a limited shelf
life, always purchase and use fresh resin that has not started to
cure in the container.
There are two basic types of polyester resin that are used ex-
tensively in boat construction: laminating resin (also called lay-up
and bonding resin) and finishing resin (also called surfacing resin).
The laminating resin is air-inhibited. The presence of air does
not allow the surface of the resin to fully cure. It remains tacky,
when additional layers of fiberglass are to be
a desirable condition
added to a laminate, such as when molding boat hulls and other
components. There is no waxy surface to prevent bonding addi-
tional resin layers together properly.
The finishing resin is nonair-inhibited. It fully cures in the pres-
ence of air. This is desirable for the final layer applied to a fiber-
glass laminate when a complete cure is desired. Wax or a similar
ingredient is added to polyester resin to make it nonair-inhibited.
When the catalyzed resin is added to a laminate, the wax rises to
the surface, sealing off the air and allowing the resin to fully cure.
This surface can then be sanded. The tacky surface that is present

81
when air-inhibited resin is used is gummy and will quickly clog
sandpaper.
Air-inhibited laminating polyester resin can be converted to
nonair-inhibited resin by adding a special wax that is readily avail-
able to the resin before application. Many boat manufacturers use
thismethod so that one type of resin can be purchased for both uses.
Another method of achieving a surface cure when an air-
inhibited resin is used is to seal the surface from the air. This hap-
pens when the resin is applied against a mold surface or when the
surface of a laminate is sealed from the air by covering it with cel-
lophane or by other means so that the air cannot get below.
Finishing resin cures with a waxy surface. To add another layer
of laminate to this, the wax should first be removed by sanding or
with a solvent such as acetone.
There is also a general-purpose resin that is supposed to work
as both a laminating and finishing resin. Most fiberglass experts
feel, however, that this type of resin does not do either job well.
Polyester resin is available in various viscosities. Higher vis-
cosity resins contain a thixotropic or thickening agent, which results
in less dripping and sagging when used on vertical and overhead
surfaces.
Special thickening agents and thixotropic powders can be
added to regular viscosity polyester resin to give it a higher vis-
cosity. While clay and inert earth weaken the resin, some types
actually strengthen the resin.
Polyester resins can also be formulated for various degt-ees of
flexibility when cured. These range from quite flexible to very rigid.
Most resins used for boat construction are somewhere in between.
Highly flexible polyester resin is often used with nonfiberglass rein-
forcing materials that have greater stretch or elongation than fiber-
glass reinforcing materials do. When flexible resins are used, a
laminate will crack and craze less from impact. More rigid resins
give greater stiffness, however, which is desirable for many appli-
cations.
When regular polyester resin is used, a laminate will support
combustion about the same as plywood. Special polyester resins
are available that are more fire retardant. They are also more ex-
pensive, but there are areas in boat construction where this extra
cost is warranted for the added fire retardancy.
To achieve fire retardancy, a coreactant compound is combined
with the liquid resin. This results in a slower curing time for the
resin. Adhesion, flexibility, and impact resistance are not usually

82
affected, however. When coreactants are added to resin, a white
opacity results and the usual translucency is lost. For most appli-
cations this does not matter.
Working Temperatures. Most polyester resins are formu-
lated for aworking temperature of about 70 to 75 degrees Fahren-
heit. With additional catalyst, this resin can give good results in
a temperature range of 60 to 70 degrees Fahrenheit; with less cat-
alyst, satisfactory results can still be achieved in a temperature
range of 75 to 90 degrees Fahrenheit. Thus, regular polyester resin
is satisfactory for use in a temperature range of 60 to 90 degrees

Fahrenheit, with difficulties and working problems increasing near

the extremes. For this and other reasons, many boat manufacturers
try to keep the molding and lay-up sections of their factories in a
temperature range of 70 to 75 degrees Fahrenheit.
Also available are special low-temperature resins that are for-
mulated for a 45-to-60-degree Fahrenheit range. A special acceler-
ator is added to these resins at the factory. They are catalyzed in
the same manner as regular polyester resins. The low- temperature
resins have an even shorter shelf life in containers than regular re-
sins, usually only about three or four months.
Gel Coat Polyester Resin. Gel coat polyester resin is a spe-
cially formulated resin used as a protective color surface on a fiber-
glass molding (Fig. 4-1). It's available in clear form to which color
pigments can be added or with the color already added.
Gel coat resin is usually air-inhibited. It's applied over a mold
release agent in a cavity or female mold. The reinforcing material
and resin lay-up follows. In the finished molding, the gel coat forms
the outside color surface, something like building a house inside
a layer of paint. The nonair-inhibited gel coat cures because it is
sealed from air against the mold.
In the early days of fiberglass boat construction, gel coatings

Gel Coating

Fiberglass
Laminate
Fig. 4-1. The gel coat is a thin layer of special resin.

83
were a problem. Cracking, crazing, and uneven color were com-
mon. Over the years, the formulations of gel coatings have improved
greatly. In addition to giving a color coating, the gel coat must also
provide a protective waterproof barrier.
Polyester gel coat resin ismanner similar to regu-
catalyzed in a
lar polyester resin and is sprayed inside the mold over a release
agent. The gel coat layer does not have any glass reinforcement,
so it must be thin if cracking and crazing are to be prevented.
Other Considerations.

Polyester resin is available in various quantities and types

of containers. Most manufacturers of fiberglass boats purchase it

in 55-gallon drums. Its limited shelf life must be kept in mind, and
the resin should be properly stored in a cool place.
Use quality brands of resin. Most boat manufacturers do,
but a few try to cut costs here, which lowers the quality of the result-
ing boats in a way that is very difficult for the buyer to see.
The amount of catalyst, methyl-ethyl-ketone (MEK) perox-
ide, must be carefully controlled when added to polyester resin.
Special containers with scales on the sides are often used so that
the desired amount of catalyst can be added to resin. Manufacturers
purchase the catalyst in bulk quantities and then use special squirt
applicators that control the outflow.
Styrene is a coactive thinner that can be used with polyester
resins; it is frequently used when spraying is done. Up to 40 per-
cent by volume may be added. Styrene presents safety hazards to
workers; special precautions must be taken to use it safely.
To suppress bubble formation in polyester resins, bubble
inhibitors are used. This additive does not affect the curing of the
resin.
Polyester putty and filler compounds are used in production
fiberglass boat manufacturing. Some companies used manufactured
versions; others mix their own, often by mixing polyester resin and
milled glass reinforcing material.

Epoxy
The second main type of plastic resin used in boat construction is

epoxy. Like polyester resin, epoxy is a thermosetting plastic that

is set or cured by heat applied either chemically from inside the
resin (exothermic heat) or from outside, or from a combination of
these.
Even though epoxy resin has a number of advantages over poly-

84
ester resin, its high cost (more than double that of polyester resin)
limits its use in production boat construction. Some early produc-
tion boats were up with epoxy resin
laid back when epoxy resin
was and these boats have proven to be outstanding.
fairly cheap,
Today, epoxy resin is only used in production boats in areas where
its superior qualities can justify the high cost.
Epoxy resins are formulated in various viscosities from thin
liquids to thick pastes. Epoxy resins use a hardener or curing agent
that actually enters into the reaction. With polyester resin, only
a small amount of catalyst is added. A large proportion of hardener
or curing agent (about 30 to 50 percent by weight or volume) is
added to the epoxy resin. The volume of the cured epoxy resin will
be approximately equal to the combined volume of the epoxy resin
and the curing agent or hardener that was added to it. This involves
considerable differences in thinking as compared to working with
polyester resins. A half gallon of epoxy resin and a half gallon of
hardener or curing agent is equivalent to approximately a gallon
of polyester resin.
Epoxy resin offers a number of advantages over polyester resin.
The epoxy has greater strength and superior adhesion. It bonds
well to hardwood, metals, and glass, whereas polyester resin bonds
poorly to these surfaces. Epoxy resin has lower shrinkage on cur-
ing than polyester resin, an important advantage in some applica-
tions. While cured polyester resin has good chemical resistance,
epoxy has even better chemical resistance.
Epoxy resin also has a number of disadvantages as compared
to polyester resin. One of these, cost, has already been mentioned.
This limits the use of epoxy resin in production boat manufactur-
ing to areas where its special properties are required, which means
only when polyester resin will not suffice. Epoxy resin is compati-
ble with polyester resin provided that one resin is allowed to fully
cure before the other is added. This makes composite construc-

tion possible, using epoxy resin only where it is absolutely essential.

Epoxy resin is more difficult to work with than polyester resin.
Epoxy resin requires higher temperature and more time for cur-
ing. The formulation of some epoxy resins, however, have been
improved to the point where they are only slightly less convenient
to use than polyester resins. Heat lamps and other flameless heat-
ing devices can be used to accelerate the curing of epoxy resins.
Safety. Epoxy resins present greater health hazards to
workers than do polyester resins. Cured epoxy resin is considered
innocuous physiologically. The problem occurs when the epoxy re-

85
sinsand curing agents or hardeners are in their liquid form. Vapor
exposure can cause sensitization, skin irritations, and other prob-
lems. Skin contact can lead to dermatitis. Strict health and safety
precautions should be observed whenever epoxy resins and curing
agents or hardeners are used.
Epoxy resins also have a potential danger of spontaneous com-
bustion. Proper storage is essential.
Mixing. Epoxy resins come in two parts in separate containers.
One part is the basic resin. The other part is the curing agent or
hardener. Depending on the particular formulation and the type of
work being done, the ratio of epoxy resin to curing agent or
hardener varies, usually four parts by volume of resin to one part
by volume of curing agent up to about a fifty-fifty mix. The exact
amount of curing agent or hardener used for a particular formula-
tion also varies depending on desired pot life, working and curing
temperatures, and other factors.
Once the two parts are combined in a container, the mixture
hardens rapidly. The mixture hardens more rapidly in the container
than when spread in a thin layer on a surface because the at-
mosphere cools the surface, reducing the heat generated in the mix-
ture. Once the epoxy is applied in a thin layer, external heat directed
at the surface (a heat lamp for instance) reduces the curing time.
Other Considerations.

A special epoxy thinner can be added to reduce viscosity

without affecting strength or adhesion factors. Addition of up to
40 percent by volume of the epoxy thinner usually will not affect
the amount of hardener to be used or the curing time.
A special curing agent is available to use with epoxy resin.
It gives greater flexibility to the cured plastic than when a regular
curing agent is used.
The same color pigments and thixotropic thickening pow-
ders used with polyester resins can be used with epoxy resins. A
variety of epoxy putty and filler compounds are manufactured.
Some boat manufacturers mix their own using regular epoxy resin
and milled glass fibers or other ingredients. Epoxy resin putties
are formulated for a variety of uses. There is even one that cures
underwater for making emergency boat repairs.
Using quality epoxy products is extremely important. There
are many different formulations on the market, and the handling
qualities and properties of the cured resins vary widely. Most boat
manufacturers find dependable brands and stick with them.

86
 Epoxy be formulated without reinforcing
resins can
materials for use as paints, sealers, and glues. Epoxy has outstand-
ing bonding and adhesion properties.

SOLVENTS
Acetone is commonly used as a solvent for uncured polyester resin.
It is useful for cleaning tools and brushes. It should be used before
the resin has set up or hardened. Acetone is also useful for remov-
ing the wax layer from a polyester fiberglass laminate if an addi-
tional layer be added to the laminate. Acetone is not
is to
recommended as a thinning agent for polyester resin because it
evaporates rather than participates in the cure, which causes
shrinkage.
Although many workers in fiberglass molding plants routinely
wash their hands with acetone, this is definitely not recommended
from a health and safetv' point of view. A special epox^/ solvent is
formulated for cleaning uncured epox^r resin from tools, brushes,
and so on. This solvent is not recommended for hand cleaning. Spe-
cial hand cleaning solutions are available for this purpose that are

much safer and more pleasant to use.

MOLD RELEASE AGENT

Special paste or hquid release agents are used inside molds so that
finished fiberglass moldings can be removed without sticking or
bonding to the mold. Wax releasing agents and polyvinyl alcohol
(PVA) are frequently used. A variety of formulations are available
for specific molding applications.

CORE AND FORMING MATERIALS

A variety' of core and forming materials are used ir. :hr rr.^r. iiac-
ruring of fiberglass boats. Unlike the molds, i-r : :"r :

finished boat moldings themselves.

The core and forming materials might "
— ^r.: -
-
: : : ii: , :r^ -

rural strength to a fiberglass laminate. A ; :ore in a fiber-

glass deck not only separates two fibergiasc . irr. 7.1:-^ z n also adds
considerable structural strength— that is. :: ii-r rr. _; .-
n:cTe
just separate the layers of fibergJass (Fig. 4-2 >. Ck: -- y.-- ~ \

such as plastic foams, may serve merely as - ^

shaping fiberglass stiff eners. in whkh casc , -::

stiffener and not the core material itself that a 1 : r - r 1 1:

87
 Fiberglass
Skins
Plywood
Core

Fig. 4-2. A plywood core used in sandwich construction.

to the fiberglass laminate. Many materials serve both structural

and forming functions.

Phenolic Microballoons
Phenolic microballoons are hollow microscopic balloons that can
be combined with either polyester or epoxy resin to form a light-
weight material that can be trowelled in place. With the cells filled
with nitrogen, phenolic microballoons have a density of about 10
pounds per cubic foot. When mixed with resin, a material that will
float is formed.
The phenolic microballoons make sanding much easier than if
resin (with or without reinforcing material) would be used without
adding the microballoons. This is useful when largeareas must be
shaped or faired by sanding.
Phenolic microballoons have a flourlike consistency and are sold
in bulk by weight. They are frequently used in fiberglass boat
manufacturing in areas where weight must be kept to a minimum
while filling in large spaces. This material is fairly expensive.

Polystyrene Foamed Plastic

Rigid polystyrene foamed plastic is available in precured blocks

and sheets of various densities. As a flotation material, polystyrene
with a density of about 2 pounds per cubic foot is frequently used.
For some applications, polystyrene of 6 to 8 pounds per cubic foot
might be used.
The main advantage of polystyrene foamed plastic as compared
to polyurethane and poljrvinyl chloride (described next) is the lower
cost. A main disadvantage is that polystyrene is attacked by poly-
ester resins, so it cannot be used as a forming or core material when
liquid (uncured) polyester resins are used. The polystyrene works
satisfactorily with the more expensive epoxy resins, however. Poly-
styrene has less resistance to water, decay, and damage from im-
pact than either polyurethane or polyvinyl chloride rigid plastic
foams.

88
 ^
Polyurethane Foamed Plastic
Polyurethane foamed plastic is available in precured blocks and
sheets of various densities. It's also available in foam-in-place li-

quids. This is accomplished by mixing polyol and toluene di-

isocynate (TDI) together, causing the components to foam and cure
into rigid poljrur ethane plastic foam. It is available in pour-in-place
and spray-in-place forms. Proper cure of polyurethane foam is af-
fected by temperature, ratio of components, and other factors.
As compared to polystyrene foam, the polyurethane is usually
more resistant to damage from impact, water, and decay. Poly-
urethane is compatible for use with polyester resins.
Neither polyurethane nor polystyrene, once cured in rigid form,
can be shaped to compound surface curvatures, though they can
both be shaped mechanically by sawing, filing, rasping, etc. Com-
partments and cavities of most any shapes and sizes can be filled

with foam-in-place polyurethane.

Pol3mrethane foamed plastic is more expensive than polysty-
rene. Nevertheless, its compatibility with polyester resins makes
itworth the additional cost for most fiberglass boat manufacturing.
Polyurethane rigid plastic foam is sometimes used as a core
material in sandwich construction. A layer of the foam is sand-
wiched between two layers of fiberglass laminations (Fig. 4-3).

Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Foamed Plastic

For use as a sandwich core material for boat hulls, decks, and su-
perstructures, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) foamed plastic has a num-
ber of advantages over both polystjn-ene and polyurethane. The
PVC foamed plastic is available in a thermoplastic form. It can be
formed into compound curvatures by application of heat. Even at
room temperature it can be bent in simple curves without cell struc-
tures breaking down.
The closed cell structure of pol3rvinyl chloride foamed plastic
does not allow water absorption. It does not become brittle, crum-

Fiberglass
Skins

^— _____ _
—- Polyurethane

XXX xVx~x 'x^'^ "%™"

Fig. 4-3. Polyurethane rigid plastic foam used as core material in sandwich
construction.

89
ble, or deteriorate with age, a common problem with polystyrene
and, to a lesser degree, with polyurethane foams. The chemical re-
sistance of pol3rv^inyl chloride is better than that of either polysty-
rene or polyurethane. The main disadvantage of the polyvinyl
chloride is that it is more expensive than either polystyrene or poly-
urethane.
Polyvinyl chloride foamed plastic is available in 1/4-, 3/8-, 1/2-,
and 5/8-inch thick sheets, usually 36 inches by 72 inches in size.
Polyvinyl chloride rigid foamed plastic is used as a sandwich
core material in some quality manufactured boats. This material
has proven ideal for sandwich cores. It is also used in one-off fiber-
glass boat construction as a planking material that is shaped over
a male plug. A fiberglass skin is then laminated over this. The plug
is removed and a second fiberglass skin is added to the other side

of the foam, which results in a fiberglass laminate of sandwich core

construction. One-off fiberglass boat construction is detailed in
Chapter 14.

Wood
Wood is frequently used as core and stiffening material in fiber-
glass boat construction. In early fiberglass boat construction, it was
used extensively; today it is used less often. Because of problems
and even failures of this material when improperly used in fiber-
glass construction, its merits are often debated by fiberglassing
experts.
The main problem is that fiberglass and wood have very differ-
ent physical and chemical properties. This becomes apparent when
using wood and fiberglass in a composite construction. When the
transition from wood to fiberglass boat construction was taking
place,plywood boats were often sheathed on the outside only or
on both sides with fiberglass. These boats did not last long because
the wood almost invariably dry-rotted. Those sheathed on both sides
seemed to have the shortest life expectancy. These sheaths were
thin layers of fiberglass intended only for waterproofing (which they
failed to provide) rather than structural strength. When used as a
core and reinforcement for thicker fiberglass laminates, the results
seem much better, although there can still be problems if care is

not taken.
End-grain balsa blocks fiberglass boat construction (Fig. 4-4).
The blocks are about 1/4 to 1/2 inch thick and are held together
with a gauzelike backing that allows be shaped to complex
it to
curvatures in a mold or over a form. The end-grain arrangement

90
allows the resin to penetrate into the balsa better. The resin also
fills in the narrow spaces between blocks, which further seals off
the balsa.
Plywood is commonly used as a structural core material and rein-
forcement for fiberglass laminates, especially for boat transoms and
boat decks and superstructures (Fig. 4-5). In many cases both sides
of the plywood are sheathed with fiberglass laminates in sandwich
form. Unlike foamed plastic cores, the plywood itself adds consider-
ably to the strength and stiffness of the finished composite structure.
In some applications the plywood is bonded to the fiberglass
on one side only. My concern here is with plywood used as part
of fiberglass laminates. Other uses of plywood, such as for bulk-
heads and interior structures, are detailed later in this book.
Exterior grades of plywood only should be used, even when
the plywood is to be sheathed on both sides. A common problem
is in bonding the first layer of fiberglass to the plywood. Because

polyester resin does not bond well to wood, epoxy resin is often

91
used for this. After the epoxy has fully cured, polyester resin can
be used for adding fiberglass layers to the laminate.
The plywood should be sealed over in such a way that the ply-
wood does not become saturated with water. Otherwise, dry rot
is likely. A special problem is in drilling holes for fasteners. These

should be set in bedding compound in such a way as to prevent

water leaking around the fasteners.
in
Over the years I've had the opportunity to tear into a number
of fiberglass moldings with plywood sandwich cores that had been
used long periods of time, often 10 years or more. In some cases
there were areas of dry rot, usually around fastener holes. Only
in a very few cases did this lead to serious structural problems, es-
pecially if substantial fiberglass laminates were used on both sides
of the plywood core. Sometimes the plywood was not bonded well
to the fiberglass, but only in a few cases did this cause serious prob-
lems. Epoxy resin has the advantage of not only giving a better
bond, but it also provides a better water barrier to protect the
plywood.
Various types of softwood and hardwood cores and reinforc-
ing members are also used in fiberglass boat construction. Wood
frames and beams are often added to fiberglass moldings after the
moldings are completed.
Bonding wood members to fiberglass, especially hardwoods,
can be difficult with polyester resin. For this reason, the more ex-
pensive epoxy resin is sometimes used. Substantial fiberglass
laminates are required to fully protect the wood from moisture. This
keeps swelling and cracking of the wood from damaging the sur-
rounding fiberglass laminate.
The wood is sometimes treated with a wood preservative in
an attempt to prevent dry rot. Most wood preservatives make it
difficult to adequately bond fiberglass to the wood, although opin-
ions vary on this point. Some fiberglass boat manufacturers do treat
the wood with a wood preservative, others don't.
It's important to use only dry, thoroughly seasoned woods. Soft-
woods bond best. Hardwoods do not bond well with polyester resin;
epoxy resin should be used. Select wood for the particular job at
hand.

Other Core and Forming Materials

Other core and forming materials include metal and plastics that
are compatible with polyester resin or other resins being used. Be-
cause polyester resin does not usually bond well to metals, the more

92
expensive epoxy resin is called for. Many plastic materials also pre-
sent difficult bonding situations. Sometimes even epoxy resin does
not bond well. For these and other reasons, metals and plastics are
not often used in modern fiberglass boat construction as core and
forming materials. There are some exceptions to this, however.
Other possible core materials include paper and cardboard, although
these are not generally used in boat constructions.
In the early days of fiberglass boat construction, many materials
were tried and proved be unsatisfactory. For example, ferrous
to
metals tend to bleed rust through the surrounding fiberglass. Some
materials proved too costly or difficult to bond. In sandwich con-
struction, bonding strength must be considered carefully because
it affects the shear strength of the finished composite laminate.

CONTACT MOLDING
Most fiberglass boat hulls, decks, superstructures, and other com-
ponents are contact-molded. Most production fiberglass boat
manufacturers use female or cavity molds rather than one-off male
molds or forms (which will be detailed in Chapter 14).
In contact molding, the fiberglass lay-up is in or over a mold
without pressure, other than contact pressure, being applied to the
side of the laminate that is away from the mold. Basically, the
weight of the reinforcing materials and resin holds the mixture
against the mold surface until it cures.

Hand Lay-Up and Spray-Up Methods

There are two basic methods of contact molding: hand lay-up and
spray-up. Hand lay-up is, at present, still considered to be the best
method. In method the resin is applied to the mold surface and
this
reinforcing material by brush, rollers, squeegees, and other simi-
lar means. The main disadvantage of this method is that it is labor
costly. Fiberglass lay-up work is unpleasant work, and it is often
difficult to get workers to do this job.
In the spray-up method, the resin and reinforcing material are
sprayed on the mold surface with a chopper gun. With this device,
and acetone are supplied under pressure to the nozzle
resin, catalyst,
for spraying. The acetone is used for cleaning the nozzle and does
not mix with the resin that is sprayed into the mold. There is a
special release button for the acetone. The spray gun mixes the
catalyst and resin in the desired proportion and sprays it out a noz-
zle. The second part of the device is the chopper, which chops up

93
fiberglass strands or rovings into short lengths of chopped fibers
and combines them with the resin spray at the nozzle of the gun.
The result is a spray-up of a material similar to a hand laid-up mat
laminate.
The spray-up method results in laminates that are weaker than
those laid up by hand with cloth, woven roving, and even mat rein-
forcing materials. Nevertheless, this device is widely used in fiber-
glass boat manufacturing, especially for boats that seU in lower price
ranges for the particular type and size of boat. Another disadvan-
tageis that the chopper gun equipment and necessary safety equip-

ment for industrial use are quite expensive.

The advantages are that it greatly speeds up molding work.
One worker can do the job that requires a number of workers by
the hand lay-up method. The cost of the equipment is not prohibi-
tive when these factors are considered.
Some manufacturers use both spray-up and hand lay-up for the
same molding. For example, woven roving layers in a laminate can
be laid up by hand. The "mat" layers between the layers of woven
roving can be sprayed up. This reduces the amount of hand labor
considerably and can still result in a molding with adequate
strength.
For hand lay-up, spray-up, and combination methods, the gel
coat resin is usually sprayed onto the mold surface.

The equipment and tooling for contact molding are much less
expensive than that required for pressure molding, as detailed later
Large fiberglass structures, such as large boat hulls,
in this chapter.
can be constructed by contact molding that would be impractical
(at the present time) using pressure molding.
Contact molding does have some disadvantages, however. One
of these is that the back side of the laminate (side away from the
mold surface) is not as smooth and fair as the side against the mold
surface because the opposite side of the laminate can't be molded
during curing.
Another disadvantage is that contact molding is slower than
pressure molding. Contact molding also requires more hand labor
and is somewhat less accurate.

Molds
There are two types of molds for contact molding. In one type the
smooth and finished side of the laminate goes against the mold sur-
face. This method is used for almost all production fiberglass boat
manufacturing. The required molds are expensive, but once the

94
Fig. 4-6. Female or cavity mold for a boat hull.

molds are constructed, the same molds can be used over and over
again. Figure 4-6 shows a typical female or cavity mold for a boat
hull that uses this type of molding. A typical cockpit mold is shown
in Fig. 4-7. Notice that it is shaped like what might be considered
a male or plug mold, though there is an important difference. The
desired smooth and finished side goes against the mold surface.

Fig. 4-7. A typical cockpit well mold.

95
 This method eliminates extensive sanding. A smooth finished
surface matching that of the mold is on the molding. A color gel

coating can even be sprayed into the mold over the release agent
before the fiberglass laminate is laid up.
Imagine the problem a manufacturer would face if this were
done in reverse. With the boat hull, the desired finished outside
would be the rough side away from the mold. It would take con-
siderable sanding to smooth and fair the hull, not to mention the
problem of adding a color coating. This is the problem faced in most
one-off boatbuilding methods (see Chapter 14). The exchange is
basically an expensive female or cavity mold from which many iden-
tical moldings can be made or inexpensive molds or forms that re-

quire considerable sanding and fairing and usually allow only one
boat to be constructed, especially if the form becomes part of the
boat. Even if more than one hull can be constructed from the same
male mold or plug, each will be slightly different from the sanding
and fairing operations.
Sanding and fairing large areas of fiberglass is so expensive
and difficult to do well that most fiberglass boat manufacturers go
to extremes to avoid it. For example, you want a finished gel coat
surface on both the outside and inside of a hull. To accomplish this
by contact molding, two separate molds and moldings are used:
one for the outside of the hull and a separate liner that fits inside
this (Fig. 4-8). The two moldings are then bonded together to form
a Jiull that has smooth gel coat surfaces on both sides.
Most production fiberglass boat manufacturing is accomplished
by using female or cavity molds. This means that the desired fin-
ished side is formed against the mold surface, regardless of whether
the mold surface is shaped like a pan or a plug. A quality female
or cavity mold can cost a lot of money to make, but hundreds of
fairly accurate duplicates can then be made of moldings from the
same mold. In the case of a boat hull, the mold is the form for mak-
ing the moldings, which are boat hulls.
The moldings must, however, be made one at a time. In a hull
mold, one hull molding is laid up, usually over a period of time.
A hand lay-up of a large boat hull might take several days to a week
or more to lay up. After the lay-up, the molding is allowed to cure
and is then removed from the mold. Then the next molding can
be started in the mold.
It is not unusual for a hundred or even a thousand moldings

of a boat hull or other components to be made from a single mold.

There are limits to the useful life of a mold, however. Eventually

96
they wear out or become damaged and have to be repaired or re-
placed.
Most manufactured fiberglass boats start with a designer's
plans. From the lines and tables of offsets provided by the plan,
a mold can be constructed. Most modem designs used by fiber-
glass boat manufacturers were created especially for fiberglass con-
struction.
This is not the only possibility, however. A mold or series of
molds (such as one for hull, another for deck and cabin, and so on)
can be taken from an existing boat, regardless of whether it is made
of fiberglass, wood, metal, ferrocement, or another material. Prob-
lems can arise, however, if a boat designed for construction in one
material is not suitable for fiberglass construction. The method can
be used if certain design and construction standards can be met.
The general trend today is to design boats especially for con-
struction of a certain material, as detailed in Chapter 3. With fiber-
glass, this makes the best use of the material, sound structure, and
easy molding.
From the design lines, plugs are made in the shape of the fin-

ished surfaces desired for the fiberglass moldings. Lips, flanges,

overlaps, and other details for the later assembly of separate mold-
ings must be considered at this stage.

Plugs
The plug for a boat hull mold looks just like a boat hull on the out-

97
side. This is why an actual existing boat could be used as a plug
for making a mold. In fact, when a mold becomes worn or dam-
aged beyond repair, a replacement mold can be made by using a
molding that was previously made in the mold as a plug. Fiberglass
boat manufacturers often use this method. More than one mold for
the same molding can be constructed to speed construction, which
is beneficial since storage space at many fiberglass boat manufac-
turing plants is limited.
Plugs for making molds can be constructed from wood, plas-
ter of paris, concrete, clay, various plastics, or from a combination
of materials.The plug must be a duplicate of the desired shape of
the molding to be made from the mold. The mold will be taken from
the plug. Any lack of fairness or unevenness in the plug will be
transferred to the mold and in turn to moldings made in the mold.
While some changes can be made in the mold itself, this is ex-
tremely difficult and best avoided. Time should be taken to get the
plug as exact as possible.
Why not skip the plug and just make the mold? Although ex-
tremely difficult, this has been done. You are working with the
shape surrounding the desired molding, however, rather than with
the shape to be molded. This is difficult to do. In most cases, mak-
ing a plug first works out best, and most fiberglass boat manufac-
turers use this method.
Tooling of quality plugs is expensive, but this job must be done
properly to get a quality mold. This cost is usually absorbed by the
production of many moldings from a single mold.

Making the Mold

The plug is used as a mold for the mold. Molds can be made from
a variety of materials, but boat molds are usually made from fiber-
glass with wood, steel, or other reinforcements. The mold is con-
structed by laying up a fiberglass laminate over or on the plug. The
term **plug" means the shape of the desired finished object that
is to be molded. A boat hull looks like the outside of a boat hull.

A plug for a cockpit looks like a tub or pan. A plug for a flat sur-
face looks like a flat surface.
Because polyester resin has some shrinkage, epoxy resin is
sometimes used to lay up a mold.
The plug is coated with a wax and polished out. A polyvinyl
alcohol (PVA) parting agent is sprayed over this. This allows the
mold to be removed from the plug when the lay-up is finished and
cured.

98
 A tooling gel coat of a color that contrasts sharply with the gel
coat colors to be used on moldings is applied next. This is a spe-
cial, tough coating formulated for use on molds. It is usually sprayed
on.
After the tooling gel coat has cured, a layer of fiberglass mat
is added. The mat layer is wetted out with resin. This mat layer
gives a smooth mold surface. When cloth and especially woven rov-
ing are used, the weave patterns often show through.
Additional layers of reinforcing material are laminated to this
with resin. Alternating layers of mat and woven roving give a mold
that is strong and stiff. Construction must be such that the mold
will not flex, sag, or otherwise change shape when a molding is

being laid up.

After the mold has been laid up, additional reinforcing is

added. This may be from wood, metal, or other materials in the

form of ribs, frames, and so on. The reinforcing members often
serve additional functions— a base or stand, a frame for wheels to
move the mold from one area to another, a frame that allows the
mold to be rolled or turned to any desired angle.
An individualmold can be in one piece if there are no under-
cuts.Even with undercuts, the mold could be removed from the
plug by destroying the plug, but this would not solve the problem
of later removal of moldings without destroying the mold.
If there are undercuts, the mold can be constructed in two or
more pieces, which can be bolted or clamped together for molding
work. The mold is then taken apart each time a cured molding must

be removed.
Some molds are made in more than one piece to eliminate dif-
ficult molding jobs. The individual pieces are then molded
separately and bonded or otherwise attached together later. Ideally,
a boat would be molded in one piece, including hull, deck, cabin
structure, cockpit, etc. This is impractical because the molding lay-

up would have be done inside a tunnel-shaped mold with closed

to
ends. Usually there are at least two separate moldings for the main
boat shell: one for the hull and another for the deck and cabin struc-
tures. Sometimes there are three or more separate molds. Ade-
quately attaching separate moldings together can be difficult,
however, so the number of separate moldings used for the main
boat shell should be kept to a minimum. The assembly of separate
moldings must also be taken into account in the tooling for the plugs
and in the molds.
A special trouble area has been the molding of hulls in two half
99
sections, which are later bonded together. This method is some-
times used to avoid lay-up work in deep keel areas and other diffi-

cult places. Later bonding of the separate moldings together is

difficult, though, and a number of boats made in this manner have
split apart in use.
Two factors must be taken into account in the design and mold-
making stages: First, molds can be constructed so that they can
be taken apart to remove moldings that have undercuts and so on.
The second factor is the assembly of separate moldings that will
be made from the molds. This assembly is detailed later in this
chapter.
When the lay-up of the mold is completed,
the resin is allowed
to cure.Necessary reinforcements are often added to the back side
of the mold before the mold is removed from the plug. Attachment
of reinforcements can be made using fiberglass bonding strips and
angles and other means. Methods for bonding reinforcements to
fiberglass laminates are detailed later in this chapter.

Lay-Up of a Molding
A completed mold is prepared for making the first molding. Fiber-
glass lay-up work is best done on a level or near-level surface. In-
clined and vertical surfaces increase the difficulty. Most difficult,

and generally avoided, are overhead surfaces.

In fiberglass boat manufacturing, the mold is angled so that
the lay-up work area is as near level or horizontal as possible. Hoists
and other special equipment are used to change the angles of boat
hull molds and other large molds. Some large hull molds are
mounted on large rings or wheels that allow the mold to be rolled
to desired working angles.
Before laying up a molding, the mold is thoroughly cleaned.
Then wax is applied to the mold surface and buffed out. Next, poly-
vinyl alcohol (PVA) or other parting agent is sprayed on. This is
few laminates. Wax along is suffi-
especially important for the first
cient to remove moldings from the mold later on. Improper appli-
cation of the release agent can make it very difficult to remove a
molding from a mold, and could damage the mold and/or molding.
Next, a color gel coating is usually sprayed into the mold. A
recent trend is and then spray paint
to eliminate the gel coating
the molding with two-part polyurethane paint after the molding has
been removed from the mold. The reasons for this include the dif-
ficulty of applying a gel coat and frequent cracking, crazing, and
color fading problems. The gel coating is often damaged in some

100
areas when the molding is removed fro the mold. This necessitates
difficulttouch-up work. Two-part polyure thane gives a gel coat-
likeappearance that is often more durable than traditional gel coat
applications. The use of gel coating is still the method used by most
production fiberglass boat manufacturers, however.
The gel coat is applied to the mold surface and becomes the
finished side of the molding. The gel coat is allowed to cure. This
is usually an air-inhibited resin so the surface on the side away from
the mold will be tacky.
To prevent cracking and crazing, the gel coat must be sprayed
on in a very thin, even layer. This is a touchy and difficult area
in fiberglass boat manufacturing. A worker who has mastered the
**art" of is a valued person in most plants.
properly applying gel coat
mat forms the next layer of the laminate. Sometimes
Fiberglass
a lightweight cloth with a smooth finish is used instead of mat. Some
manufacturers use a chopper gun spray-up instead of a hand lay-
up of the mat.
The usual method for hand lay-up is to apply a thin layer of
resin to the gel coat with a brush or roller. The mat is placed over
the wet resin. Additional resin is applied to the mat until it is prop-
erly saturated with resin and smoothed out.
The hand lay-up of large moldings is done by a team of work-
ers. To keep seams in reinforcing material to a minimum, the mat
often nms the full length of the molding. Depending on the partic-
ular application and other factors, either butt or lap joints join sep-
arate pieces of mat reinforcing material. This becomes somewhat
less crucial as the laminating gets further away from the gel coating.
From this point on, a laminating schedule is followed. Careful
control and inventory must be taken so as not to leave out or add
wrong reinforcing material.
extra layers to the laminate or to use the
The mat layer might be followed by a cloth layer. Sometimes
is allowed to harden before the next layer is applied.
the cloth layer
Other times two or more layers are applied before they have time
to cure. After the cloth layer, another layer of mat might be used.
For a on a large boat, the remainder of the laminate
hull laminate
is often alternating layers of woven roving and mat. The total num-

ber of layers and weights of reinforcing material used on a partic-

ular laminate depends on size and many other factors. The hull for
a 30-foot sailboat will usually be at least 1/4 inch thick near deck
level and 1/2 inch or more at the keel. This varies considerably with
type of boat, size, design, etc.
Considerable care must be taken to produce quality lay-up

101
work. The proper ratio of resin to reinforcing material, which varies
depending on type of reinforcing material used, must be maintained.
If too much resin is used in comparison to the glass reinforcing ma-
terial being saturated, the laminate becomes "resin rich" and brittle.

Instead of using hand lay-up, sometimes the entire laminate

is sprayed up with a chopper gun for some small hulls. This method
has even been used for large boat hulls, though it has largely proved
inadequate. Most manufacturers producing large boat hulls and
other moldings entirely by spray-up have gone out of business be-
cause of the many failures of these boats. Unfortunately, there are
hundreds of existing boats still around with sprayed-up moldings,
and a few boats are still manufactured by this method. A number
of manufacturers who primarily use the hand lay-up method also
use spray-up with a chopper gun for less crucial moldings or com-
bine hand lay-up and spray-up in the same moldings.
A highly skilled operator is required for chopper gun spray-up
work. The laminate must be sprayed up to the desired thickness
without having a resin-rich or resin-starved mixture. The ratio of
chopped glass fiber reinforcing strands and resin is controlled by
the operator by adjusting the gun.
The hand lay-up of large moldings presents special problems.
Even though the reinforcing materials might run the full length of
the moldings, a number of seams still are required. When sepa-
rate pieces of reinforcing material are joined, they are usually over-
lapped about 1 to An uneven thickness would result if
6 inches.
a number were made in one area. To avoid this, the
of overlaps
overlaps are spread out, either in set patterns or at random. The
patterns of overlaps can also be used to give strength in areas where
it is most needed.

Moldings for boat hulls, cabin and deck structures, and other
components require laminates of varying thicknesses. With a hull
molding, the laminate might be 1/2 inch or more in the keel area
and taper to 1/4 inch near deck level. This presents added lay-up
difficulties. The high cost of materials makes it necessary to put
them where they will do the most good.
The designed lay-up must be followed closely. Just one extra
layer of reinforcing material added to a large laminate could add
considerably to both the labor and material cost.
If the laminate is to be a sandwich core construction, the core

material (balsa, rigid plastic foam, or plywood) is added to the first

skin by setting the core material into wet resin. The second fiber-
glass skin is then laminated in place over the core material. This

102
 '
is done while the molding is still in the mold.
After the laminate has been completed, it is allowed to cure
for several days before being removed from the mold. Many fiber-
glass boat moldings require additional reinforcement, such as bulk-
heads, beams, stringers, ribs, frames, hat sections, etc. Others
require fiberglass liners. These reinforcements are added either
before or after a molding is removed from the mold.

Removing the Molding

Fiberglass boat manufacturers want to remove moldings from
molds as soon as possible so that other moldings can be started
in the same molds. If a molding is removed too soon, however, it
can be damaged or ruined.
Moldings are often difficult to remove from molds even though
the molds were waxed and a release agent applied before the lay-
up. Hoists and other mechanical lifting devices are used for break-
ing a molding from a mold. A boat hull, for example, might have
the plywood bulkheads bonded in place while it is still in the mold.
Attachments are then made to the bulkheads, and a hoisting de-
vice works the hull molding free of the mold. The sounds of a large
boat hull molding breaking free from a mold can be alarming.
After the molding has been removed from the mold, the wax
and polyvinyl alcohol or other release agents are cleaned from the
gel coat. Perfection is difficult to achieve in contact molding. Most
moldings require at least some touch-up work on gel coatings. Some
moldings may be rejected for one reason or another, although this
is rare. Repairs will be required on some moldings to make them

satisfactory. Standards vary. Itseems safe to say that some mold-

ings from the same mold come out better than others (Fig. 4-9).
After a molding has been removed from a mold, the mold is
then prepared for the next lay-up. It might seem that the time re-
quired for molding would hold up fiberglass boat production, and
this is sometimes the case. But assembling the moldings into com-
pleted boats and added fittings and other components is a more
common cause of bottlenecks.
The quality of fiberglass boat moldings depends on the mold-
ing method used, original design of the mold and molding, quality
of molds and other equipment, quality of materials used, care and
skill in fabrication, and many other factors. Fiberglass boat

manufacturing is a highly competitive business. Quality costs more

money to produce, which means a higher selling price. A lower qual-

103
Fig. 4-9. Molded fiberglass hull for 42-foot Allied sailboat. (Courtesy of Inter-
national Cruising Yachts, Inc.)

ity boat produced at a lower cost might result in greater profits,

however.

REINFORCING FIBERGLASS LAMINATES

Fiberglass laminates are very flexible, about twenty times more
flexible than steel with thesame strength and about six times more
flexible than aluminum with the same strength. Its flexibility is a
major design factor in fiberglass boat moldings.
Fiberglass laminates are springy but not rubbeiy. They have
a flexibility similar to that of plywood, though fiberglass laminates
are more and stronger than plywood. In most constructions
costly
the fiberglass must be thinner than if plywood were used. Because

it is too expensive to achieve the necessary stiffness by increasing

the thickness of the laminate, some other type of extra support and
stiffening is needed.
A variety of methods are used for stiffening fiberglass boat
moldings. Some are incorporated in the design and shape of the
laminate; others are external additions.
The shape of a molding has important bearings on the result-
ing stiffness. A curved panel or a panel with corrugations in it has
greater stiffness than a flat panel of the same thickness. Corruga-
tions, such as those shown in Fig. 4-10, are frequently used to add
stiffness to powerboat hull bottoms. This adds a lot of stiffness

104
Fig. 4-10. Corrugations add stiffness to a fiberglass panel.

with minimal increase in weight and cost over that of molding a

flat panel. The fiberglass lay-up in the mold is more difficult,

however.
Hull shapes with simple and compound curves can add con-
siderable stiffness as compared with a similar hull with flat sec-
tions. Yet curved moldings are not much more difficult to lay up
than flat sections. Fiberglass laminating works well with gradual
curves and angles; it is the sharp comers and angles that are diffi-
cult to mold. This reverses the situation in plywood boat construc-
tion where hard chines and large flat areas are the rule. A fiberglass
boat constructed to the same shape would require an extra thick

Fig. 4-1 1 . A curved fiberglass panel has greater stiffness than a flat panel of
the same thickness.

105
laminate and/or a large amount of extra stiffening by means of
added frames, bulkheads, and so on. Curved sections add stiffness
to a fiberglass laminate with minimal increase in weight and cost
over that of molding a flat panel (Fig. 4-11).
Increasing the thickness of a fiberglass laminate beyond a cer-
tain point is a very costly way to increase stiffness. It also adds
an undue amount of extra weight to the laminate. It is often practi-
cal to add thickness selectively to certain areas of the laminate, how-
ever. Contact molding allows adding additional layers to areas of
a laminate where more stiffness is needed.
When adding thickness to a laminate, abrupt changes in thick-
ness should be avoided to prevent a stress concentration at a sin-
gle point, also known as a hard spot. Changes in thickness should
be gradual. This can be achieved by progressively adding larger
and larger pieces of fiberglass reinforcing material to the laminate
(Fig. 4-12). Progressively smaller pieces of reinforcing material
could also be added, but this leaves more open edges of reinforc-
ing material, which might tend to delaminate.
A molded-in flange at the edge of a laminate (Fig. 4-13) stiffens
the edge of the laminate. This method is frequently used along the
edges of hull and deck moldings in areas where the hull and deck
will be bonded together.

Sandwich core construction is another way to add stiffness to

a molding. In this method, the two fiberglass skins are positioned
apart by placing a core material in between. An effective sandwich
core construction links the two skins together. When properly de-
signed and constructed, a stiffer laminate is formed than when the
two skins are sideby side in a single laminate. If a lightweight balsa
or rigid plastic foam core material is used, very little weight is
added for the considerable gain in stiffness. Sandwich core con-

Added Layers

y, jzzr-.y—^
y

Fiberglass
Laminate
Fig. 4-12.A gradual change in thickness of laminate is achieved by using
progressively larger pieces of reinforcing material.

106
 Flange

Fig. 4-13. A molded flange at the

edge of the laminate stiffens the
laminate.

struction also adds insulation and sometimes buoyancy.

To be effective, the core material must provide a certain amount
of structural support to hold the two fiberglass skins in position.
The entire sandwich should act as a single structural unit. The bond-
ing of the core material to the fiberglass must provide adequate
shear strength. The core material itself must also have adequate
shear strength.
Sandwich core construction also creates problems for attach-
ing things and using fasteners. These can cause the two fiberglass
skins to pull apart from the core or squeeze the two skins toward
each other to crush the core material. Methods for solving these
problems are detailed later in this chapter.

ADDING STIFFENERS TO FIBERGLASS MOLDINGS

Even after molding in stiffness, additional stiffening might be re-
quired for both single-skin and sandwich core moldings.

Plywood Bulkheads
Plywood bulkheads are frequently used in fiberglass boats. These
structural members attach not only to hulls, but also to deck and
cabin structures and elsewhere. Sometimes the plywood bulkheads
are the primary stiffening and strengthening members for the fiber-
glass moldings.

107
 Plywood bulkheads are commonly attached to the fiberglass
moldings with fiberglass bonding strips. These strips, usually 12
inches wide, form an angle between the bulkhead and the fiber-
glass molding with half the width attached to the plywood and the
other half to the fiberglass laminate. This fiberglass reinforcing ma-
terial is bonded in position with resin.
High stress areas or hard spots might form in the fiberglass
in the area where the plywood bulkhead meets the fiberglass mold-
ing. This is caused by the slight expansion and contraction of the
fiberglass laminate with temperature changes, while there is almost
no expansion and contraction of the heavy plywood. The twisting
and working of the boat molding when the boat is in use causes
further stress. To prevent this, a space is left or a polyure thane
rigid plastic foam padding is used between the plywood and the
fiberglass molding. The plywood bulkhead is cut short, about 1/4
to 3/8 inch, and the padding is placed in the gap. The padding is
shaped to give a more gradual angle for the fiberglass bonding
strips.
To gradually taper the fiberglass angle strips into the fiberglass
molding, progressively wider strips of reinforcing material are used
(Fig. 4-14). This avoids an abrupt change in thickness and spreads
the load over a wider area of the molding to which the bulkhead
is being attached.
Major bulkheads are bonded in place on both sides. Minor bulk-
heads and other similar plywood attachments, such as the top of

Fiberglass
Foam
Molding

Fig. 4-14. MethcxJ for bonding plywood bulkhead to fiberglass molding.

108
berths and counters, might be bonded on one or both sides, depend-
ing on the particular situation.
This method of attaching plywood bulkheads to fiberglass hulls,
though still in common use, seems to be losing favor. The recent
trend is for fiberglass boat manufacturers to use molded liners, as
detailed later in this chapter. The liners are bonded to the shell
moldings, and plywood bulkheads, if used, are bolted to the fiber-
glass liners. For the manufacturer, bonding plywood bulkheads to
hull and other moldings present difficult finishing problems, such
as sanding or covering up the fiberglass bonding strips on the ply-
wood bulkheads.

Molded Fiberglass Stiffeners

Molded fiberglass stiffeners are frequently used to stiffen boat hull
moldings and other components. The stiff ener is laid up in a mold.
After it has cured and been removed from the mold, it is bonded
in place to the hull or other molding either before or after the mold-
ing isremoved from the mold.
Molded fiberglass stiffeners come in various designs, sizes, and
shapes. When properly designed and constructed, they can be very
effective, adding considerable stiffness without undue increase in
weight. They also serve additional purposes, such as adding
strength to the molding, serving as a mounting base for an engine
or other equipment, and providing a means for attaching seats, bulk-
heads, and other items.
Molded fiberglass stiffeners are bonded in place. One way to
accomplish this is to set the stiffener in place in a wetted-out layer
of fiberglass reinforcing material. The stiffener could also be
mechanically fastened in place, but this is not ordinarily done in
fiberglass boat construction. For a boat hull, it would mean drill-

ing holes through the hull for bolts or other fasteners, something
that is best not done.
The stiffeners are designed and bonded in place in such a way
that the original molding being stiffened retains its designed shape.
The contact areas between the molding being stiffened and the
molded stiffener is large and abrupt changes in thickness of lami-
nate should be avoided. In areas of contact, the stiffener tapers to
the molding being stiffened (Fig. 4-15). Hard spots are avoided as
the molding, especially a hull molding, works during use. If high
stress areas are present, the laminate could fail.

Hollow spaces between molded stiffeners and moldings that

109
 Molded
Stiffener

Fiberglass
Molding
Fig. 4-15. Molded stiffener tapers to molding being reinforced.

are being stiffened are filled with rigid plastic foam. This can give
positive flotation to some boats.

Stiffeners Laminated in Place Over Core Materials

Stiffeners can also be laminated in place over the core materials.
In some cases, the core material adds strength; in other cases it

is used merely as a male mold or form for laminating the fiberglass

stiffener in place.
The molded fiberglass stiffeners described in this chapter have
a molded, finished side that is usually gel coated. Molding stiffeners
in place is akin to one-off boat construction. The desired finished
side is away from the mold or form and does not have a molded
appearance. This may or may not be important, depending on where
the stiffener is used.
A variety of core materials can be used, but most fiberglass
boat manufacturers stick to wood and rigid plastic foam. The
stiffener can be added to the molding to be stiffened either before
or after it has been removed from the mold.
Figure 4-16 shows a typical hat-section stiffener. This stiffener
is half round, but shapes such as rectangular and triangular can

be used. The stiffeners can also form web and other patterns.
Stiffeners are designed to give maximum stiffening and sup-
port while keeping weight addition to a minimum. The manufac-
turer also strives to be cost, material, and labor efficient.
Special care must be taken when using heavy beams of wood
as cores for stiffeners because wood has different physical proper-
ties than fiberglass. First the area of the fiberglass laminate where
the stiffener is to be added must be stiffened with extra layers of

110
fiberglass laminated to the original laminate.
A typical procedure for adding a stiffener is to first shape the
core material, be it wood, rigid plastic foam, or some other mate-
rial. The core material is then bonded in position by setting it down
in reinforcing material wetted out with resin, by epoxy gluing it

in place, or by merely setting it in position.

The stiffener is next laminated in place with strips of fiberglass

reinforcing material. The particular lay-up depends on the stiffener.
It might be three or four layers of1 1/2-ounce-per-square-foot mat

for a small stiffener in a noncrucial area. Heavy wood beams would

probably include fiberglass cloth and/or woven roving in the
laminate.
Progressively wider strips of fiberglass reinforcing material are
used. The narrowest goes on first. Catalyzed resin is first ap-
strip
plied to the core materialand areas of the fiberglass molding where
the strip will be bonded. The reinforcing material is then set in
place. Additional resin is appHed until the reinforcing material is
properly saturated. The material is smoothed out and any air bub-
bles are worked out.
The next wider strip of reinforcing material is then applied,
either before or after the first layer has set up. An experienced fiber-
glass worker can properly apply three or more layers before the
resin of the first layer hardens.
This procedure continues until all layers of reinforcing mate-
rial needed for the particular stiffener have been applied. By ap-
plying progressively wider layers of reinforcing material, the
laminate tapers to the molding being stiffened. Only the edges of
the top layer are exposed. Edges of reinforcing material are most
subject to delaminating, so these should be kept to a minimum.
 This method gives better bonding to the molding being stiffened
than molding the stiffeners and then bonding them to the mold-
first

ing being stiffened. The main disadvantage

of molding the stiffeners
in place is the unfinished appearance. To sand these and give a fin-
ish similar to that of a molded gel coat surface is a long and in-
volved job, one that most fiberglass boat manufacturers go out of
their way to avoid.

Laminating Stiffeners in Place

with Removable Forms and Molds
This method for laminating stiffeners in place allows the forms or
molds to be used over and over again. A typical angle mold or form
(Fig. 4-17) attaches to the molding to be stiffened by clamps, props,
or other means. A release agent is applied to the contact surface
of the fiberglass angle mold or form so that it can be removed af-

ter the lay-up of the stiff ener is completed. The angle stiff ener is

then laid up using strips of fiberglass reinforcing material, which

are wetted out with catalyzed resin. The reinforcing materials used
and the number of layers depends on the particular stiffener. In
most cases, progressively wider and wider pieces of reinforcing ma-
terial are used to form a taper into the laminate being stiffened.
After the angle stiffener has been allowed to cure, the angle mold
or form is removed.
Sometimes a second angle is molded against the first angle to
form an upside down *T" section (Fig. 4-18). Before the' second
angle is laid up, all wax is first removed from the contact area of
the first angle section.
A stiffener with two angles shaped like a "Z" can be laminated
in place using a removable mold in a similar manner (Fig. 4-19).
Other shapes are also possible.

Molding In Place

Fig. 4-17. Angle form used to laminate stiffener in place.

112
 Laminated In Place

Fig. 4-18. A second angle stiffener is laminated in place using the first stiffener
as a form.

Adding Braces, Frames, Knees, and Ribs

A variety of other stiffeners and reinforcing members can also be
used. Comer braces or knees can reinforce the transom areas of
fiberglass dinghies, as shown in Fig. 4-20. Frames and ribs of vari-
ous shapes and sizes are possible. These are often made of wood
and bonded to fiberglass moldings with fiberglass bonding strips.
These members must be well designed and constructed if they are
to effectively stiffen, strengthen, and support fiberglass moldings
without creating high stress areas that could deform or damage the
fiberglass laminate. Appearance may or may not be important, de-
pending on how and where the member is to be added.
When using braces, frames, knees, ribs, and other similar mem-
bers made from wood or metal, the different physical properties
of the materials should be considered.

Molding In Place

Fig. 4-19. A double-angle stiffener is laminated in place.

113
Fig. 4-20. Knee used to reinforce a transom on a dinghy.

Molded Fiberglass Liners

Most fiberglass boat manufacturers try to avoid the stiffening
methods previously described— except for the molded fiberglass
stiffeners— especially if they show in the finished product. A lot

of hand labor is required, and unless considerable care is taken,

they can leave much to be desired in theway of appearance. To
get around these problems, many manufacturers make extensive
use of molded fiberglass liners.
Molded fiberglass liners are essentially molded fiberglass
stiffeners but are designed to serve additional purposes. They can
give a good appearance; provide a means for attaching things; serve
as interior furnishings, such as galley counters, berths, and shower
stalls;and so on.
The main problem faced by most manufacturers is that the con-
tact molding method normally used gives only one molded finished
side to each molding. This is the side that was in contact with the
mold surface.
The basic idea of molded fiberglass liners is to place them rough
side to rough side with the moldings that they go with. The result
is a single laminate (provided that they are well-bonded together)
with finished molded surfaces and color gel coatings on both sides.
The molded liners do not necessarily make a matched contact,
however. The molded liners used in fiberglass boats often make
contact only in certain areas. The spaces may then be filled with
rigid plastic foam for flotation purposes, left hollow, form storage
areas, or be used in some other way.
Two popular types of liners in fiberglass boat construction are
hull liners and cabin (head) liners. Other partial liners can include
an engine mounting and pan liner, a head and shower compartment

114
liner, a galley counter and sink arrangement, etc. The typical liner
isdesigned not only to stiffen shell moldings, but also to support,
reinforce, and form functional parts of the boat. They also provide
a means for attaching bulkheads and other items.
A typical hull liner forms most of the interior components, gives
a neat finished appearance, and provides a convenient means for
attaching wood trim. The amount hand lay-up
of labor required to
the molded fiberglass liner is minimal compared to the hand labor
that would be required to construct a similar interior from wood
components by traditional methods.
The manufacturer must design and construct an expensive
mold for each liner required, but once constructed, the cost of the
mold can be amortized by molding hundreds of units in the same
mold. And total construction time per boat is usually reduced con-
siderably.
One common complaint about manufactured
liners in typical
boats is that the interiors look like the inside of iceboxes. Unless
large areas are covered up with upholstery, wood, or other
materials, this seems to be a valid criticism. Also, fiberglass alone
does not provide very good insulation, and condensation is likely
to be a problem. Using a rigid plastic core material between the
fiberglass laminates helps.
After liners have been molded and allowed to cure, they are
then ready for bonding to the main shell moldings. Various methods
are used. A typical one is to set the liners into a resin-saturated
layer of mat reinforcing material. Though polyester resin is used,
epoxy resin gives a better bond. Another possibility is to use
mechanical fasteners to hold the liners in place, usually in combi-
nation with fiberglass bonding. This method is only used where
fasteners would go anyway, such as at hull to deck joints. The liners
are sometimes tied in with the same through-bolt fasteners.
There are a number of problems associated with liners. They
can make it more difficult to repair damage to the outside fiber-

glass shell. Should there be damage, it might be necessary to cut

out part of the liner to make the repair. Liners make it difficult
to examine the back side of moldings that are covered up. Some
liners have hollow spaces that water can get inside. This problem
can be corrected by providing a way for all hollow compartments
to drain to the bilge or be pumped out. It is difficult to find leaks
though, because the water might drip out long distances from where
it is leaking in.

115
REINFORCING MOLDINGS TO SUPPORT HEAVY LOADS
This is a somewhat different problem than stiffeners. A boat deck

and cabin top must support people walking (and jumping) on it.
Chain plates and other attachments must support heavy loads. A
boat hull molding must support the weight of a heavy engine. Loads
are not only downward but can be in any direction or combination
of directions. A cleat can stress a boat deck in a number of direc-
tions, depending on the angle of pull of an attached rope.
Fiberglass moldings must be reinforced to support the heavy
loads. The main principle is to spread the load over a wide area
of the fiberglass laminate. Stiffening reduces distortion when heavy
loads are supported or applied, and this is part of reinforcing mold-
ings to support heavy loads. A boat deck, for example, can be rein-
forced by thickening the laminate, using core construction, adding
frames or other reinforcing members, or by some combination of
these.
Engine mountings (Fig. 4-21) pose special problems. The fiber-

glass molding is usually thickened in the laminate in the area where

the engine bed is to go. The engine mounts or bed is constructed
in such a way that the engine weight and torque (the propeller turn-
ing in the water one direction twists the engine and boat hull in
the opposite direction) are spread over a wide area of the hull. The
bed frames often attach to major structural members, such as bulk-
heads and stringers.
The engine mounting must withstand the vibrations ^rom the
engine when it is running. If the mounting is inadequate, fiberglass
bonds might delaminate, cracking might occur in heavy stress areas,
or bulkheads might work loose. Engine mounting platforms and
beds are often part of hull liners.
In the case of transom mounted outboards, the transoms must
be well reinforced. Thick plywood cores with fiberglass sandwich
construction are frequently used (Fig. 4-22).

Bonding Wood Core

Laminate -V ^^-^

f ^Reinforcing
Hull Molding^ Laminate

Fig. 4-21. Engine mounts bonded to a hull molding.

116
 Plywood
Core

Fiberglass
Molding

Fig. 4-22. Transom reinforced with thick plywood core for mounting of outboard.

SUPPORTING FIBERGLASS MOLDINGS

Another problem faced by fiberglass boat manufacturers is sup-
porting moldings. Moldings must be well supported when they are
moved and stored. This is especially a problem with moldings just
removed from a mold. While the polyester resin is in a hard state,
the actual cure continues for a long time. Moldings just taken from
a mold are subject to distortions if a heavy load is placed on one
part of the molding. Such distortions could be permanent.
Boat hulls and other moldings must be supported so that they
retain their designed shape. Special care must be taken before
stiffening and reinforcing members are added. Cradles and support
stands should be designed and constructed so that the support load
is spread over large areas of the moldings being supported.

FROM MOLDINGS TO FINISHED BOATS

The most finished boats. The
fiberglass moldings are only part of
moldings must be joined together and other components and fit-
tings added.

Assembling Moldings
From the beginning of fiberglass boat construction, joining sepa-
rate moldings together has been a major problem. Ideally, the com-
plete boat shell (hull and cabin and deck structures) should be

117
molded in one piece. Small open boats can be, but present contact-
molding techniques do not make it practical to do this on boats with
cabins and decks. A mold could be constructed that would allow
this, consisting of separate pieces that are clamped or bolted to-
gether for molding and taken apart for removal of the molding from
the mold. This boat would probably be structurally superior to one
molded in sections that are then assembled together by bonding
and/or mechanical fasteners. Perhaps future pressure-molding tech-
niques will allow not only this, but two finished color coated sides
as well. Today, however, most manufacturers must join separate
moldings together to form completed boats.
A typical manufactured fiberglass boat has a hull molding, a
separate cabin/deck/cockpit molding, and perhaps inner linings.
Hatches, doors, rudders, and other items might also be fiberglass
moldings, but these are attachments that present different assem-
bly problems. They will be discussed later in this chapter. The con-
cern now is two or more separate moldings to be
joining
approximately the same as if they had been molded as a single unit.
These joinings are not normally intended to be taken apart again.
The hulls themselves are sometimes molded in halves. These
sections are then joined together with fiberglass bonding strips
across a butt joint (Fig. 4-23). This is no simple matter, and a num-
ber of hulls constructed in this way have split apart or otherwise
failed. While the bonding strips can form a laminate strength equal
to or greater than the moldings being joined, the bonding strength

Centerline

Fig. 4-23. Using bonding laminate to join hull sections together.

118
 Fiberglass

Bonding Moldings
Laminate

Bonding
Laminate

Fig. 4-24. Butt joint with moldings tapered to point.

between the moldings and the bonding strips seldom approaches

this. The situation is somewhat improved if the bonding strips are

added to both the inside and outside of the hull moldings, but this
then presents a difficult sanding and finishing situation on the out-
side of the hull moldings.
It's little wonder that most fiberglass boat manufacturers are
now molding hulls in one piece. I only know of a few manufacturers
who are still molding hulls in halves. Ironically, some of them ad-
vertise that the hulls are molded in halves; that the halves method
allows the workers to do better lay-up work and that the bonding
laminate is actually stronger than the hull molding. In my opinion,
this doesn't speak very well for their hull moldings.
Fiberglass boat moldings are joined together by bonding or
mechanical fasteners or a combination of these two methods.
Bonding. Two moldings can be joined together with either
butt or lap joints. A butt joint has limited contact area between the
two moldings. Lap joints have greater contact area.
In manufactured fiberglass boat construction, butt joints are
avoided because of the main problem with split half hull molding.
If butt joints are used, the bonding is done with fiberglass bonding

strips. To be effective, these should be on both sides of the mold-

ings. Because the contact area between the fiberglass moldings is
so small, epoxy gluing is ineffective. In fact, the edges of the mold-
ings can taper to a point where they join. This allows the bonding
strips to build up to a level with the original moldings (Fig. 4-24).
Otherwise, the bonding strips have to extend outward (Fig. 4-25).
Sometimes the moldings are tapered to one side, and the fiberglass
bonding strips are laid up to a flush level on one side and extend
outward on the other (Fig. 4-26). Progressively wider bonding strips
cover up the edges of the fiberglass reinforcing material on all but
the top layer. This arrangement reduces possible delaminating or

119
 Laminate Molding

Fig. 4-25. Bonding strips extend outward fronfi an untapered butt joint.

'peeling." To be effective, the bonding strips must extend outward

*

on each side of the butt joint for some distance. For light laminates,
this is often several inches or more. For heavy laminates, a foot
or more in each direction is not uncommon.
Angle butt joints (Fig. 4-27) and 'T" butt joints (Fig. 4-28) are
other possibilities.
From much to be
a structural point of view, butt joints leave
desired, especially moderate or heavy stresses will be placed on
if

them. Also, these joints are difficult to sand and finish in areas
where appearance is important. Again it's the problem of laying
the fiberglass up over something instead of forming the desired fin-
ished surface against a mold.
In some early fiberglass boats, little thought was given to the
assembly of separate moldings. Butt joints were fairly common,
as were failures of these joints. Manufacturers and designers
searched for better methods.
Lap joints offer a number of advantages over butt joints. The
larger contact surface allows more effective direct bonding using
epoxy glue or other means. Fiberglass bonding strips are more ef-
fective, especially if they can be applied to only one side. Lap joints
can be more easily reinforced using mechanical fasteners. Mold-
ings or rails made from metal, wood, or other materials are often

Bonding Laminate That

Extends Outward

Flush Bonding
Laminate
Fig. 4-26. Bonding that is flush on one side and extends outward on the other.

120
Fig. 4-27. Angle butt joint.

used to cover up the lap joint on the finished side. Hull-to-deck joints
can be formed with a lap joint, bonding, mechanical fasteners with
a rail on the finished side of the moldings, and fiberglass bonding
strips (Fig. 4-29).

Lap joints are specially designed so that the primary loads

placed on the joints put them in compression (Fig. 4-30) rather than
tension (Fig. 31). Compression pushes the joint together; tension
pulls it apart.

Molding Joint

Fig. 4-28. T-butt joint.

121
Fig. 4-31 . Primary loads place this type of lap joint in tension, wtiich pulls the
joint apart.

Joining moldings of sandwich core construction with either butt

or lap joints presents special problems. To solve them, during the
molding lay-up work the sandwich moldings are tapered into a sin-

gle skin in areaswhere moldings are to be joined, then lap joints

are used. This method makes standard lap joints possible and also
conceals and protects the core material. A
typical hull-to-deck joint
with sandwich core moldings in shown in Fig. 4-32.
Joining Moldings with Mechanical Fasteners, Mhitfiggt
can be attached together w.:: : :5 r- e:s. and other mechanical
:

fasteners. The fasteners are ; ^ s s t : ugh h:!es tiat go drrc'izh

:

both moldings at lap joints, ~ i ; : : - Moded togetht: ii

described previously.
Mechanical fasteners must be properly spaced for maximum
strength. This depends on the required strength of the joint, tlie
thickness of the laminates, and the type ai fasteners osed Tfarou^
boks or rivets are most often used in fibergfass boat ooostmctkMi.
These must be spaced at least a certain distance from the edge of
the moldings. Metal plates, washers, etc. are used
fasteners to spread the load over a larger area. Screws arc uns^r s
factory for boat coostnictioQ.
Soooetimesa joint of dos type -s imz^e-i s^: .z :az
"

123
apart again. A cockpit well is an example. This may be mechani-
cally fastened in place, yet arranged so that it can be removed for
taking out the engine should this ever be necessary. In other cases,
the joints are permanent, and the joints are both bonded and
mechanically fastened together.
Mechanical fasteners are often used with a rail of wood, metal,
or other material. This forms a backing for the fasteners and
spreads the load over a wider area of the moldings. Boat hull-to-
deck attachment is accomplished with a lap joint, bonding between
contact areas, through fasteners that pass through a rail before go-
ing through the two moldings, large backing washers, and fiber-
glass bonding strips on the inside.
This method for attaching hull and deck moldings has proven
highly satisfactory. Because the rail covers up the lap joint on the
finished side of the boat, little or no sanding is required. Consider-
able time and labor are required, however, to make this joint.
Manufacturers have tried other methods that are faster and less
expensive, but none have proved as satisfactory.
Using a Common Member to Join Two Moldings. An
early attempt to use this method for a hull-to-deck joint attached
the two moldings to a common wood member using bolts or other
mechanical fasteners (Fig. 4-33). This method was not satisfactory,
however. A similar joint was formed using a metal angle piece and
through bolting the moldings to this (Fig. 4-34). This also proved
unsatisfactory.

Fig. 4-32. A hull-to-deck joint with sandwich core moldings.

124
 Fiberglass

Fig. 4-33. Joining two fiberglass moldings by attaching them to a common wood
member using through bolts.

About 10 or 15 years ago, an "H-shaped" aluminum extrusion

for joining hullsand decks was introduced. Figure 4-35 shows a
typical assembly. The edges of the moldings are set in slots and
do not make direct contact. A section of aluminum separates them.

Fiberglass
Molding Through
Bolts

Metal
Piece

Fiberglass
Molding

Fig. 4-34. Joining two fiberglass moldings by attaching them to a common metal
member using through bolts.

125
 Deck
Molding

Fig. 4-35. Using aluminum extrusion for joining hull and deck moldings.

The two moldings are set in the slots with bedding compound and
then are mechanically fastened in place using rivets or other
mechanical fasteners.
Some manufacturers aggressively claim that this method is su-
perior to the one previously described. The method cut costs for
the manufacturer— it was inexpensive and fast— but it had the bad
habit of failing when the boats were used. Some manufacturers lost
all of the increased profits in lawsuits. The method gained such
a bad reputation that it is difficult to sell boats with this type of
joint. Most manufacturers who tried this method have gone back
to the proven method. There are many boats on the used market,
however, that have this type of joint. It is something to look out for.

Over the years, I have seen attempts to reinforce this inade-

quate method of joining boat moldings. So far, I haven't seen any
practical modification that will accomplish this.
In actual fiberglass boat assembly, interior components, and
other items— including engines— can be installed before the hull-
to-deck joining is done. In other cases, these components are in-

stalled after the hull-to-deck assembly.

126
 Attachments to Fiberglass Moldings
In assembling most fiberglass boats, attachments must be made
For example, bulkheads, interior woodwork,
to fiberglass moldings.
fittings, and hardware need to be attached. Commonly used

methods include gluing, bonding with fiberglass, and mechanically

fastening, or combinations of these methods.
Gluing. Epoxy glue is sometimes used for attaching things to
fiberglass moldings. Unless used with another means of fastening,
however, gluing is only suitable for things that will have light load-
ings placed on them. One example might be attaching a small piece
of wood to a fiberglass molding. A curtain rod bracket might then
be attached to the block of wood by means of wood screws.
Similar to gluing is setting the attachment into a wet layer of
fiberglassing material placed between the fiberglass molding and
the attachment. This method can work reasonably well for attach-
ing soft woods. Using epoxy resin instead of polyester for wetting
out the reinforcing material sometimes makes it possible to satis-
factorily attach other materials to fiberglass moldings.
Various soft materials, such as rubber gaskets, weatherstrip-
ping, and upholstery fabrics, can be attached to fiberglass by glu-
ing, though there can be problems. I haven't yet seen, for example,
a satisfactory method for gluing nonskid treads to fiberglass mold-
ings. It seems only a matter of time, and sometimes not much of
that, before the edges start peeHng upward. Regardless, gluing
alone is used for some attachments by many fiberglass boat
manufacturers, even if it is a source of frustration to boat buyers
to have things come unglued and a poor advertisement for the par-
ticular boat.
Bonding with Fiberglass. Attaching bulkheads and
stiffeners in place by bonding with fiberglass has already been
detailed. This is also a primary method for attaching wood and other
materials to fiberglass. This method might be compared to weld-
ing in metal construction. Strong attachments are possible with-
out making holes in the fiberglass moldings for bolts and other
fasteners. In some cases it's supplement bonding with
practical to
fiberglass with mechanical fastenings. Also, wood can be fiberglass-
bonded to a fiberglass molding. Items can then be attached to the
wood with screws or other mechanical fasteners. With this method,
holes through the fiberglass molding for fasteners are unnecessary.
Wood and fiberglass interior components are commonly at-
tached to fiberglass moldings by fiberglass bonding without the use
of mechanical fasteners. For example, the top sections of plywood

127
for berths can be attached to the hull molding by laminating progres-
sively wider fiberglass bonding strips in place (Fig. 4-36). Depend-
ing on the particular attachment, this can be on one or both sides.
Fiberglass boats with interiors mainly of wood components
make extensive use of fiberglass bonding. The method is slow and
requires skilled labor, however. To get around some of this, many
manufacturers are now using molded interior fiberglass liners.
Liners must be bonded or otherwise attached, but this is fast work
compared to extensive fiberglass bonding of wood components.
Mechanical Fastenings. This is comparable to riveting and
bolting in metal work. Use of mechanical fastenings is extremely
important in the assembly of most fiberglass boats.
Through-hull fittings for drains and other purposes are installed
in fiberglass moldings. Typical installation begins by drilling the
appropriate size hole through the molding in the desired location.
A backing block of wood is then fitted. Bedding compound is ap-
plied to the fitting and around the hole, and the fitting is passed
through the hole in the fiberglass molding and then the one in the
wood. The holes are drilled to a close tolerance and the through-
hull fitting threaded through. The nut is then threaded on and tight-
ened down to hold the through-hull fitting in place. Figure 4-37
shows a typical installation.
Hinges, latches, and similar fittings are attached to fiberglass
moldings using through bolts. In order to spread the load over a

Fig. 4-36. Plywood bonded to fiberglass hull molding using bonding strips.

128
Fig. 4-37. Through-hull fitting.

wider area, large backing washers, plates, or blocks are used. Some-
times the fiberglass moldings require reinforcing by laminating ad-
ditional layers of fiberglass in place or other means.
In some cases, the loads placed on fasteners will be in com-
pression. In other cases the loads will be in tension with the
fasteners. The latter situation requires large backing washers,
plates, or blocks.
A typical cleat installation to a fiberglass boat deck is shown
A hardwood backing block is shaped so that the edges
in Fig. 4-38.
taper to the fiberglass molding. The cleat is through-bolted in place
using bedding compound and large backing washers, lock washers,
and nuts.
A sailboat chain plate might be through-bolted to a reinforced
area of a hull molding. In addition, hardwood backing blocks and
large backing washers are commonly used. An alternate attachment
favored by some fiberglass boat builders is to run the chain plate
through a molding and to bolt it to an interior,
slot in the fiberglass
usually plywood, bulkhead. A
deck plate is bedded in place over
the chain plate on deck and through-bolted to the fiberglass mold-
ing to prevent leaking. It has been my experience, however, that
leaking is common when this method is used.
Some boats have chain plates attached externally. While this
method provides strong and simple attachment, many manufac-
turers don't like it because of the appearance. Thus, most manufac-

129
 Cleat

c Fiberglass
Deck
Molding

^Wood Backing
Block

Fig. 4-38. Cleat installation to fiberglass deck molding.

tured fiberglass boats now have chain plates attached internally that
pass through slots in the fiberglass moldings.
While chain plates are typically bolted to fiberglass moldings
or plywood bulkheads, they can also be fiberglass bonded in place.
This method is not often used, however.
Sandwich moldings with cores of balsa, rigid plastic foam, and
other "soft" materials present special problems for mechanical
fastenings. A compression load on a fastener, such as by tighten-
ing the fastener, forces the moldings together and compresses the
core material. To prevent this, a section of core material can be
removed and fiberglassed in, or a section of the core can be replaced
with wood or an insert of some other suitable material. Some
manufacturers install these substitutes in areas where mechanical
fasteners are required during molding; sometimes they are added
later. The purpose of the inserts is to take the compression from

the fastener.

Logistics
Methods for assembling fiberglass moldings into completed boats
have been explained. Because there are many workers in the typi-
cal fiberglass boat manufacturing plant, and a number of boats are
under construction at any given time, logistics is important.
Some of the larger fiberglass boat manufacturers use a system
resembling an assembly line, but many do not, even though they

130
stillconstruct a number of boats at a given time. The boats stay
in one place during assembly, and the workers move about to the
various required jobs. Parts of boats are sometimes subassembled.
For example, the interior woodwork might first be assembled be-
fore being installed in the boat hull molding. Exterior hardware and
fittings, including ports and windows, might be installed on deck

and cabin molding before the deck is mated with the hull.
Considerable assembly work is often done on hull moldings be-
fore the cabins and decks are added. Ballast is added on boats re-
quiring this. Engines are installed; bulkheads and interior compo-
nents are added; rudders are assembled to the hull molding; and
so on. To what extent this is done depends on the particular boat,
but access to work areas is often better before the hulls and decks
have been mated than afterwards.
There are many other jobs required before the boats are com-
pleted: wiring and plumbing must be installed, hatches and win-
dows added, upholstery installed, and cushions made.
Many boats are not completely fitted out and rigged by the
manufacturers. For sailboats, the spars are mounted in cradles for
shipping. The remainder of the assembly is called commissioning
and is done at the dealer level. Sometimes the boat buyer does his
or her own commissioning (see Chapter 8).
Because many boats have hundreds of separate fittings and
components, logistics become very important. Just keeping an in-
ventory of materials, supplies, equipment, fittings, hardware, etc.,
on hand is a large order. Some fiberglass boat manufacturers have
departments or sections for doing canvas and upholstery work, sail-
making, and constructing spars and rigging. Other manufacturers
contract some or all of this work out.

QUALITY OF FIBERGLASS BOAT CONSTRUCTION

Most fiberglass boat manufacturers are in business to make a profit.
The amount of profit that a particular company makes is not neces-
sarily directly related to the quality of the boats produced. In some
cases, a lower quality boat that can be sold for a lower price will
result in a higher profit for the manufacturer.
To a person unfamiliar with fiberglass boats, they might look
like they are constructed to more or less the same standards. But
on closer examination, this is found to be far from true. Fiberglass
boats are not all The quality of manufactured boats
created equally.
depends mains on soundness of design, quality of materials used
in the construction, and care and skill used in the fabrication.

131
 Soundness of Design
To construct a quality fiberglass boat, the manufacturer must first
have a sound design. This requires the services of competent boat
designers. Some large boat manufacturing companies employ their
own boat designers, others hire this work out.
Compared with other manufacturing businesses, fiberglass boat
manufacturing can be a fairly inexpensive one to get started. Many
new companies start with poor designs, however, possibly because
they can't afford the services of competent designers or because
they don't know any better. Unless they switch to better designs,
these companies usually don't stay in business for long. At the op-
posite extreme, I know of a company that was started on very lit-

tle money. About the only thing that it had going for it was an
outstanding and proven design. The company is a success.
Design means more than just the shape of the boat or how it
looks. It also means function or how the boat works and how the
boat is constructed, including materials used, lay-up of laminates,
assembly, etc. Part of the construction might be left up to the
manufacturer.

Quality of Materials
Because some of the materials used in fiberglass boat construction
are more or less hidden from view on the finished boats, some
manufacturers are tempted to use cheaper materials to lower
production costs. This is especially true of materials that are used
on inner layers of fiberglass laminates.
As a rule, fiberglass boats are designed and engineered so that
they have sufficient strength. To this is added a safety margin. Us-
ing lower quality construction materials than are called for in the
design reduces the safety margin, sometimes to a dangerous level.
A number of manufacturers who have built their reputations
on quality fiberglass boats have gradually lowered the quality of
materials used over the years in an attempt to keep price increases
to a minimum. The cost of most materials used in fiberglass boat
construction is now at a record high. This is partially offset by the
fact that some of the materials have been improved to the point
where less are required.
Fiberglass boat manufacturing is a highly competitive business.
The companies might consider it in their own best interests to lower
the quality of materials used. At present, there are no accepted stan-
dards for materials. Other companies stick to high-quality construc-

132
tion materials. Probably most manufacturers use materials of some
intermediate quality. Cheap and poorly formulated materials are
often difficult to work with. What is saved in the purchase of the
materials is lost in production difficulties and added labor required.

Care and Skill In Fabrication

A third main factor in determining the quality of manufactured
fiberglass boats is the care and skill used in their fabrication. At
the present time, both the materials and labor are expensive. It is

difficult to find skilled fiberglass workers. Improved industrial

health and safety standards for workers have increased the cost
of using this labor because the working environment must meet
certain standards and expensive health and safety equipment must
be used.
Even when skilled craftsmen can be hired, they are often not
allowed enough time to do each job right. The trend in fiberglass
boat manufacturing has been to reduce the need for highly skilled
labor by eliminating difficult jobs and finding easier or simpler ways
of doing other tasks. For example, using molded liners greatly
reduces the amount of skilled labor required.

Reputation of Manufacturer
The reputation of the manufacturer is an important clue to qual-
Poor quality of construction shows up in time. Boat owners talk,
ity.

and from this, manufacturers gain a reputation for quality construc-

tion or lack of it.

Talking to owners of particular boats will often reveal consider-

able information regarding the quality of construction. Some boat-
ing magazines even have an information exchange on manufactured
boats. This can be quite different from the manufacturer's adver-
tising. It is interesting tonote that boat owners report construc-
tion failures in the very things that manufacturers boast about in
their advertisements.

Visiting Manufacturing Plants

Another clue produced by a particular manufac-
to quality of boats
turer is a visit to the plant. Most manufacturers
will show you the
facilities, and some offer tours. Their purpose is to sell boats, and

they will try to show you what they want you to see. You can often
see beyond this once you know what to look for. And you can ask
questions.

133
 Boat Specifications
Most manufacturers provide information and specifications on re-
quest. This is often part of the advertising hterature. Specifics on
the laminates used in the lay-ups, the hull-to-deck joining method,
and other construction features can be helpful in attempting to de-
termine the quality of construction. If the information you seek is

not included in their literature, request additional information.

Judging Construction of Existing Boats

Judging the construction quality of existing boats presents some-
what different problems, regardless of whether the boat is new or
used. Evaluating construction quality is not exactly the same thing
as surveying a boat, which focuses on the condition the boat is in

(see Chapter 5).

The problem here is to judge or evaluate how an existing boat,

whether new or used, was constructed. In most cases, this evalua-
tion must be done by nondestructive means. You won't, for exam-
ple, be able to cut holes in the moldings to see how thick they are
or examine the interior of the laminate. You won't be able to pound
on the hull with a sledgehammer to see how strong the molding
is. The evaluation must be made by eye and by very simple tests.

General Appearance. While general appearance is not

necessarily related to quality of construction, it is certainly a clue.
Fiberglass boat manufacturers strive for a neat and finished ap-
pearance. It must look manufactured and not homemade, which
is different from the desirable custom, handcrafted appearance.
Some manufactured fiberglass boats look finished, others don't.
If a manufacturer takes the trouble to give a boat a neat and fin-

ished appearance, an indication that the same care was taken

it's

"underneath" where you can't see.

Quality of Moldings. Damage and deterioration of fiberglass
moldings is one sign that the moldings were of poor quality. You
can damage almost any fiberglass molding by some means, so this
must be taken into account. As a general rule, poor-quality mold-
ings are more easily damaged and deteriorate more rapidly than
high-quality ones. Evaluating the condition of moldings is part of
surveying a fiberglass boat (see Chapter 5).
The quality of moldings depends on the materials used and the
construction. While it is often difficult to judge the quality of
materials used in a molding by examining an existing molding, the
workmanship that went into the construction is more easily visible

134
once you know what to look for.
Does the thickness of the moldings appear adequate? Does the
lay-up appear neat and clean on the ''rough" side that was away
from the mold? Are there any voids, wrinkles, or signs of delami-
nations? Are there any signs that too little resin was used (resin
drjmess) or that too much resin was used (resin richness)? Are there
any scraps of wood, pieces of paper or string, dirt, or other foreign
inclusions in the laminate? This can be an indication that the mold-
ing area of the manufacturing plant was not kept clean, and that
the molding was contaminated with materials that could reduce the
quality of the molding.
Type and Size of Boat. When evaluating construction, the
type, size, and intended use of the boat must be considered. Much
of my early experience was with offshore ocean-cruising sailing
boats. These must be constructed to the highest standards. When
came to the California Delta, I was dismayed at the way most
I first

fiberglass houseboats were constructed. Most of them didn't meet

any of my standards for an offshore vessel. Now I have come to
accept this. They generally don't have to, because they are intended
only for protected waters. In fact, now when I see an offshore ocean-
sailing boat on a lazy stretch of the Delta, it almost looks like too
much boat.
Hull-to-Deck Joints. A sound hull-to-deck joint indicates
quality construction. Any manufacturer who uses a method that
has proven unsatisfactory, probably fudges elsewhere in the con-
struction.
Quality of Hardware, Fittings, Rigging and Other
Visible Items and Attachments. Cheap and inadequate fit-
tings, rigging, rub rails, and other items are a good indication of
poor construction. If a manufacturer cuts comers on items that are
clearly visible, one can only imagine what he did in areas not so
easily seen. If fittings and rigging look too dinky or small for the
boat size, they probably are.

135
Surveying Fiberglass Boats
The primary purpose of a boat survey is to evaluate the existing
condition of a boat, whether new or used. In general, this does not
take into consideration the design and original construction, but
it be included here as part of your survey.
will
I it is valuable to do your own preliminary survey-
believe that
ing. This lets you weed out the hopeless boats. When you find a
boat that looks promising, you can then hire a professional boat
surveyor. If you are going to finance and/or insure a fiberglass boat,
especially a used one, you will probably need this service anyway.
In any case, the cost of a professional boat survey is small in rela-
tion to the cost of most fiberglass boats, and it's well worth the
price, even if it's just for a second opinion. I know a boatbuilder
who has sailed around the world, but before buying a boat, he still
uses the services of a professional boat surveyor.
This chapter is divided into two main parts: doing your own
survey and hiring the services of a professional boat surveyor.

DOING YOUR OWN FIBERGLASS BOAT SURVEY

There is considerable survey work that you can do before hiring
the professional surveyor. Even if you already own a fiberglass boat,
this survey will be valuable for determining what maintenance and
repair work needs to be done. Surveying really boils down to some-
thing simple— how to look at boats. You need to know where to look,
what to look for, and what the implications are.

136
 One reason
for doing this is to determine the present condi-
This appUes not only to used boats, but also to new
tion of a boat.
ones. What repairs are needed?
A second reason is to determine the value of the boat. Is the
boat worth the asking price? What should the boat sell for?
A third reason is to evaluate the original design and construc-
tion of the boat. How is it in general and how does it compare to
similar boats?

Basic Procedures
When you first look at a boat, you see the surface appearance. This
*
'first impression," while it has some value, is only a starting point.
Perhaps this first impression is a good one, like love on first sight.
If it is a bad one, then perhaps this alone is reason enough to reject

buying the boat. I suggest that you give the boat a closer inspec-
tion, however. The more boats you can inspect, the more experience

you will gain in making comparisons. You will get some good ideas
as to what to do and what not to do. If your first impression is a
good one, you will want to thoroughly examine the merchandise
to see if it lives up to your first impression.
In Chapter 3, destructive testing was mentioned as one way
to test the mechanical properties of fiberglass laminates. The fiber-
glass laminates were destroyed, or at least ruined, in the process.
You will most likely be limited to visual inspection and very sim-
ple nondestructive testing in evaluating a boat, however. Even
professional boat surveyors are similarly restricted, although in
some cases they might have instruments for nondestructive test-
ing that you don't have. In rare instances, they can take sample
plugs from the fiberglass moldings for lab analysis. The holes in
the fiberglass laminates would have to be filled back in, however,
so this type of testing is only done in extreme cases.
You can stand on the deck of a boat to see how much it "gives."
You can even jump up and down on it somewhat. But hit it with
a sledgehammer— no.
Where do you start? You could start anywhere and look at every
square inch of the boat, inside and out— but this method generally
leads nowhere. There is a lot of boat that you can't see. Tanks are

in the way, upholstery and liners cover areas, and so on. It is bet-
ter to concentrate on small areas of the boat, thoroughly examin-
ing one area at a time, then moving on to another area.
Another good method is to trace out entire systems. Trace the
fresh water system from tank vents and filler pipes to the water

137
tank and through hoses or pipes to the various parts of the boat
to pumps and spouts and so on.
You will need a reference. This is why it is important to exam-
ine and survey as many boats as possible. In this way you will have
a basis of comparison. Examine every boat you possibly can to what-
ever degree you can. Other people need not even know you are
doing this. Boat shows are excellent places for examining boats,
although I don't recommend on-the-spot boat buying at boat shows.
You will oftenhave an open invitation to examine boats that are
for sale,whether new or used. You can examine boats that belong
to friends, although if your comments aren't complimentary, it is
generally best to keep them to yourself. And ask questions. Most
boat owners like to talk about their boats, and often you can learn
the bad points as well as the good ones.
A boat survey evaluates the existing condition of the boat, not
its performance. Its performance is sometimes related to its

condition— a powerboat probably won't perform at all if the engine

won't run— but equally important is the design and construction of
the boat. A sea trial, as detailed in Chapter 6, won't mean much
unless you have had experience operating and sailing many differ-
ent boats yourself.

Where to Do Surveys
Some survey work can be done with a boat in the water. A more
thorough survey requires the boat out of the water on a cradle, boat
trailer, or some other support system. I like to examine a boat both

in the water and out, the order is not crucial. If the boat is opera-
tional, check it in the water and with a sea trial. If the boat is a
fixer upper and obviously not seaworthy at present, you might want
to purchase it out of the water as-is if you are certain you know
what you are getting into.

Inspecting Fiberglass Laminates

Before going on to specific areas of a boat, inspect the fiberglass
laminates. Because you can only see the two sides of a laminate
in a fiberglass boat, and sometimes one side is even hidden from
view, determining the quality of the laminate can be quite difficult.

To add to the difficulty, one side of the laminate is usually covered

with a color gel coat and the other side painted. Or a fiberglass lin-
ear is used, which essentially gives you a single laminate with a
color gel coat on both sides.

138
 The fiberglass boat manufacturer (assuming you are survey-
ing a manufactured boat) made the fiberglass moldings for the boat.
The manufacturer used fiberglass reinforcing materials, resins, etc.,

that were manufactured by other companies, but assuming

in turn
that quality materials were used, the manufacturer was largely
responsible for the quality of the fiberglass moldings.
is quite different from steel or aluminum boat construc-
This
tion,where the manufacturer uses preformed metal of the correct
specifications without internal flaws. Preformed wood is similarly
used for wood boat construction, although the manufacturer in-
spects each piece of wood for natural flaws and defects. These
materials are fastened together to form boat hulls and other com-
ponents, quite unlike forming components in molds from liquid
resins and glass fiber reinforcing materials.
One clue to quality is the thickness of the laminate. It is diffi-
cult to know how thick the laminate should be, however. If you
can get the designer's laminate specifications, you can measure the
thickness and determine if the laminates were actually constructed
to these specifications. It should be noted, though, that the lami-
nate could be the designed thickness, while still not meeting the
designer's specifications for reinforcing materials, etc. The required
laminate thickness also depends on the spacing and arrangement
of stiffening and supporting members, although a certain minimum
thickness is required to give the necessary resistance to impact.
You will not be able to tell much about the thickness of a lami-
nate by measuring the thickness of visible edges because these
edges are not usually representative. The edges of a hole or other
opening that has been drilled or cut through the laminate is often
a useful barometer.
With hull laminate, you might be able to remove one or more
through-hull fittings. Most people who have boats for sale, how-
ever, will not permit this unless they are extremely anxious to sell
and the sale hinges on this.
If you are able to remove through-hull fittings, you can mea-
sure the thickness of the laminate in these areas easily. If extra
layers have been added to the laminate as reinforcement for the
fitting,take this into account also. Often you will be able to tell
where the original laminate ends and the added layers begin.
If you can remove through-hull fittings from the same area on

opposite sides of the hull, you can compare the laminate thicknesses.
Ifthey are in different areas, however, the varying thicknesses
might be part of the planned design. It is common practice to use

139
varying thicknesses of laminate in a hull. The hull is thinnest at
the sheer and progressively thicker to the waterline, hull bottom,
and keel area.
In other areas of the boat, such as deck and cabin structures,
you can often determine laminate thickness by removing a fitting,
through bolt, or other attachment. Calipers can measure laminate
thickness back away from hatch or other openings. These laminates
often have plywood or other core materials in sandwich form, so
you will actually be measuring the combined thickness of the two
fiberglass skins and the core material. And again, it is extremely
difficult to know how thick the laminates should be. Fiberglass
laminates used in deck and cabin structures, like those of hulls,
same molding. So while
often have various laminate thickness in the
it is measure laminate thickness, it is difficult to know
possible to
what the measurements mean, except perhaps when you find a boat
that has much thinner or even thicker laminates than a similar boat
of the same type and size.
There are other ways to measure laminate thickness that you
probably won't be able to use. One is with ultrasonic test equip-
ment. This equipment is expensive. Most boat surveyors don't even
have it.
Another method is to cut out a plug. This is done in the area

where a fitting is to be installed so it will not be necessary to fill

in the hole. This can give you the thickness of the laminate, as well
as a sample to take to a laboratory for a bum test to determine the
glass-to-resin ratio. Again, this is usually beyond the scope of doing
your own survey work. Even most professional boat surveyors
won't go to this extreme.
A clue to a low-quality laminate are de laminations. This means
that the plies have separated. For some reason, such as stress, over-
loading, improper lay-up, or water saturation, the bond between
pHes has failed or never existed.
You can test for delaminations by using a small metal hammer
or similar metal object. Tap the laminate lightly. A sound laminate
gives a sharp, hard sound. A tap over a delamination gives a dull
thud. In decks and other laminates with sandwich cores, excessive
flexing and/or cracking sounds when you walk on the laminate is
an indication of delaminations. The problem is often failure of the
bond between fiberglass skins and the core material.
Still another clue to a low-quality laminate is the presence of

air bubbles in the laminate. To check for these in laminates with-

out cores, use a strong lamp. Shine this on one side of the laminate

140
while you look at the opposite side of the laminate. It usually works
best to have the lamp on the gel coat side. Air bubbles will show
up as spots that are clearly different from the surrounding area of
the laminate. A few small air bubbles here and there are not much
cause of concern, but large air bubbles and concentrations of small
ones can be. These indicate careless lay-up work and may require
repair (see Chapter 12).
In areas where the laminate makes sharp angles or comers,
it is more difficult to lay up a laminate. This is a likely area for

air bubbles and voids. These often lead to gel coat cracking, which
can be seen by visual inspection. A few of these are not much con-
cern because repairs are fairly easy (see Chapter 12). If they are
extensive, however, repairs could be difficult. This indicates a poor-
quality original lay-up of the laminate.

Surveying Exteriors
The exterior of the boat is a good starting place for making a com-
plete inspection. To examine all areas, the boat must be out of the
water. In clear water, the underwater areas are sometimes in-

spected with the boat in the water by using diving gear. While this
is probably better than nothing, it is a poor substitute for an out-
of-the- water examination. Examination should include all fiberglass
parts as well as other materials that are typically used in fiberglass
boats and engines and mechanical systems.
some distance away, look at the
Start with the hull. Standing
surface.Because gel coating deteriorates with age— a process that
can be slov/ed down by proper maintenance (see Chapter 9)— the
smoothness and gloss of the gel coat will reflect this. Any dullness,
especially in a fairly new boat, probably indicates careless construc-
tion and/or poor maintenance. If the original gel coating has been
painted over, try to find outwhy this was done. Perhaps the owner
just wanted change the color; more likely the old gel coating had
to
deteriorated to an unsightly state, or extensive repairs were made
and it was easier to paint the boat than to touch up the gel coating.
From a distance, professionally applied two-part polyurethane
paint finish is very from gel coating. Up close
difficult to distinguish
you can by examining around rails and other attachments for
tell

overspray, because masking cannot usually be done exactly. If the

paint color is different from the original gel coating, this original
color often shows through on nicks and scratches in the paint.
Amateur-applied paint finishes are easy to detect by brush marks,
runs, uneven color, and so on.

141
 Next, with the boat in sunhght, stand forward of the bow and
sight down the hull. There should be a smooth curve from bow to
stem without any uneven areas. Bumps that stick outward, assum-
ing they weren't the result of an improperly shaped mold, are caused
by bulkheads and other framing and support members that are fitted
too tightly against the fiberglass hull molding before being bonded
in place. These create hard spots— areas of high stress concen-
tration.
Check especially in major bulkhead areas. If deformities exist
here, the problem could be serious. It could have been prevented
by properly installing the bulkheads in the first place. This is ac-
complished by leaving a space between the bulkhead and the hull
laminate before bonding the bulkhead in place with strips of fiber-
glass reinforcing material. Or the hull laminate could have been
padded with layers of mat in the contact area of the bulkhead. Or
a rigid plastic foam pad could have been used between the bulk-
head and the hull molding. Slight deformations might be accept-
able, but check carefully to make certain that this has not caused
fracturing or other damage to the hull laminate.
If you can see areas of the hull that are dished in, the cause
is usually from having too thin a laminate and/or stiffening and sup-
porting hull members spaced too far apart. Heavy loadings then
cause the concave areas. These loadings could still be present. A
chain plate might be attached to an inadequately reinforced area
of the hull molding. In time, even when the loading is removed from
the chain plate, the deformation might remain. A similar condition
can result from boat trailer rollers that do not spread the load over
a wide enough area of the boat hull. These deformations can be-
come "permanent*' in time, even when the boat is removed from
the trailer and in the water. The same thing can happen from plac-
ing the hull on cradles and other supports. The problem can be es-
pecially severe when the hull molding is first removed from the
mold and has not had time to fully cure.
Ease or difficulty of repair depends on many factors. If the lam-
inate returns to the designed shape when the loading is removed,
repair can be made by adding additional thickness to the laminate
in the area and/or adding reinforcing members. If the laminate does
not return to the designed shape when the loading is removed, the
dished in area has, in a sense, been molded into the laminate.
Repairs can be difficult (see Chapter 12).
Next, stand some distance forward or aft of the boat and sight
along the sheerline at the level of the hull and deck joint. Any un-

142
evenness or bumps indicate that the hull and deck do not fit to-
gether properly, are separating in some areas, or have been dam-
aged. These areas should be noted and checked more closely later.
The entire exterior gel coat surface should be examined. There
might be scratches, nicks, or gouges that should be examined care-
fully.Repairs are fairly easy if these defects are in the gel coating
only. If they extend past the gel coating into the laminate, they are
more serious and difficult to repair.

Scratches, nicks, and gouges on the bottom of the keel indi-

cate that the boat has been grounded. Examine these carefully. On
powerboats without ballast, beaching can often cause wear on un-
protected fiberglass. On sailboats with internal ballast keels, frac-
turing of the outside fiberglass laminate can be serious. This can
allow water to enter between the inside of the fiberglass laminate
and the ballast material. If the ballast material is not well bonded
and sealed over, the water can leak inside the boat. Even less seri-
ous damage can cause water to penetrate the laminate, which can
cause delaminations. These defects should be repaired, as detailed
in Chapter 12.
The gel coating should also be examined for hairline cracks
and crazing. These will be most common in areas of sharp corners
and angles. The usual cause here was improper application of gel
coat resin— it was sprayed on in too thick a layer. The surface cracks
and crazing will also appear in areas of applied stress.
If the cracking and crazing is only in the gel coating, they do

not cause a serious structural problem. They do give an unsightly

appearance, however, and repairs can be difficult.
If the cracks extend through the gel coating into the laminate,

the problem can be serious. If applied loads cause the laminate to

repeatedly flex, a condition called oil canning, the laminate will
eventually crack all the way through. This is especially likely in
poorly designed powerboat hulls and in relatively flat areas of the
hull that poimd into the waves. Check these areas carefully.
All exterior metal parts, including through-hull fittings,

propellers, shafts, rudders, and similar items, should be examined

for signs of corrosion, such as pitted areas in the metal. As pitting
continues, the thickness of the metal will be reduced. The causes
of corrosion are quite complicated. It depends on the types of me-
tals used, their locations in relation to each other, whether or not

sacrificial zinks are used, and other factors. Corrosion is much

greater in salt water than fresh water. Corrosion can still take place
in fresh water, especially in marina areas with shore power and

143
where battery chargers are used.
If corrosion is present, try to make a realistic decision of what
metal parts need to be replaced. While minor pitted areas may not
mean replacing parts, further corrosion must be prevented. Other-
wise, it will only be a matter of time before the part fails.

There should not be excessive flexibility in hull, cockpit, deck,

cabin, or other fiberglass laminates. One way to test for this is to
use a rubber mallet. Tap the fiberglass laminate. You will be able
to see and any movement. It takes some experience, however,
feel
before you can tell what is excessive. Compare it to similar boats

of other makes.
If the boat is placed on a cradle, the pods should support the

weight of the boat without excess flexing of the hull laminate. Be

sure the weight of the boat is supported by the craddle pods and
not just by the keel, however.
While repairs can sometimes be made to remove excess flexi-
bility by adding stiffeners or supporting members, this work can

be difficult, especially if the hull has an interior liner. With an in-

terior liner, the problem might be that the liner has separated from
the hull molding.
Decks, cabin tops, cockpits, and other walking areas can be
checked for excessive flexibility by walking on them. You will feel
any flexibility. If the laminate has a plywood core, you can hear
cracking noises if there is excessive flexibility and/or the fiberglass
skins have come unbonded from the plywood core. Another cause
of excessive flexibility is a rotted plywood core. If this is the case,
repairs can be extremely difficult and quite expensive. The prob-
lem often gets started by water leaking in around fasteners that
pass through the laminate.
Be sure down all of your findings. Based on the sur-
to write
vey, you might want to reject the boat completely and not purchase
it. Or you might want to determine what repairs are required and

go ahead with the purchase anyway, perhaps lowering the asking

price in the process. If you already own the boat, you will want
to know what repairs are required.
Special consideration needs to be given to hulls that are molded
in two halves and then joined along the centerline with fiberglass
bonding strips. You can recognize this type of construction by shin-
ing sunlight or artificial light through the laminate. The centerline
joint can then be seen.
The bonding strips are often placed across the joint on the in-
side of the hull only. The crack on the outside of the hull is merely

144
filled with resin putty. The putty often cracks and/or falls out. If

this is the caseon a boat you are inspecting, note this and then in-
spect the joint and bonding strips on the inside of the hull.
A number of these types of hulls have failed. The manufac-
turers who use this method do so because the lay-up is easier be-
cause it does not require working in a narrow deep keel area or
from a scaffold. Fortunately, this method is now used less and less.
While this type of construction might not be a reason to reject
a boat, provided you find no signs the joint is failing, it certainly
is cause for concern. If I knew of just one hull by the same manufac-
turer that had split apart in use along this seamline, I would not
purchase the boat, especially if any offshore boating is intended.
Examine the underwater area of the hull. Usually this is painted
with antifouling paint, which needs to be applied about once a year
on a fiberglass hull (see Chapter 9). The condition of the antifoul-
ing paint will vary with such factors as length of time since it was
applied, type and quality of paint used, surface preparation, and
so on. If the old paint is in good condition with no peeling or chip-
ping, the surface preparation was probably good. This should make
it easier to apply new antifouling paint when required, because there
is probably a good bonding surface under the old paint, making it

unnecessary to remove it before applying the new paint.

If the old bottom paint is chipped and peeling, it must all be
removed and the fiberglass surface prepared for the new paint. This
is in the range of routine maintenance, however, and not of great
concern in surveying the boat.
Blisters that form on the bottoms of fiberglass boats are an-
other story. The cause of these is not fully established. Basically,
a gas or water bubble forms under the gel coating or between plies
of the fiberglass laminate. These sometimes grow in size over a
period of time. The usual repair is to open up the blisters and fill

them with epoxy putty, as detailed in Chapter 12.

If the boat has a fiberglass rudder, as most fiberglass sailboats
do, this should be examined carefully. Rudders are molded in two
halves, then bonded together. The center section is filled with a
core material, but sometimes it is left hollow. If water has gotten
inside, this should be drained out. The hollow area should then be
filled in with foam, a mixture of resin and microballoons, or other
suitable material. This is a common problem with hollow areas in
fiberglass boat structures that cannot be easily drained. Water al-
most invariably gets inside.
Next, examine all external fittings and attachments. This in-

145
 windows and ports, stanchions and lifelines, bow rails,
eludes cleats,
Does the fitting look adequate? Is it firmly
taf frails, chokes, etc.
attached? Has it caused damage to the surrounding fiberglass lam-
inate in the area of attachment?
Examine the hatches and doors. If these are fiberglass, exam-
inethem in the same manner as other fiberglass laminates. Also
examine hinges, slides, latches, and other hardware. These should
be attached with through bolts. Screws tapped into holes in the
fiberglass laminates indicate poor construction. These have little

holding power.

Masts and Rigging

Any meaningful survey of spars and rigging requires extensive
knowledge and experience with sailing and sailboats. The chain
plates must be attached to the hull, deck, or cabin structures so
that they can withstand heavy loadings. Check fiberglass laminates
in attachment areas for signs of stress cracks and other damage.
The mast can be stepped on the keel, on deck, or on the cabin
top. The deck and cabin top arrangements often have a mast hinge
for easier stepping of the mast. A main concern with the deck and
cabin top arrangements is that they are adequately reinforced to
withstand the loadings, which can be considerable. Indications of
trouble include a sunken area in deck or cabin laminate in the area
of mast, cracks in the gel coat in the area of the mast step or hinge,
and delamination of fiberglass skins from core materials iil the area
of the mast step or hinge.
Evaluate the condition of the mast, boom, and other spars. In-
spect all standing and running rigging. Check all sails thoroughly,
hoisting them if conditions permit this. Check all blocks for possi-
ble wear or damage. Check travellers and their attachment to the
boat, which should be with through bolting.

Surveying Interiors
The exterior and interior surveying cannot be completely separated.
Something you see on the exterior will require inspection on the
inside, and vice versa. Sometimes you will have to go back and
forth.
I usually begin with the forepeak area. The visibility of the

rough side of the laminate varies greatly from boat to boat. It might
be partly or completely covered up with a fiberglass liner, panel-
ing, upholstery, or some other material, or it might be exposed or

146
even painted. In some cases, the rough side of the laminate can
be seen inside the chain locker and/or inside the storage compart-
ments under the berths.
Regardless, examine as much of the laminate as you can. This
is like checking a gel coat surface, except this time the cracks or
other damage or defects will be in the clear resin or paint surface.
Look at the overall quality of the laminate. Partially dry glass
fibers, unraveled strands of reinforcing material, and air bubbles
indicate sloppy lay-up work. I like to see woven roving, or at least
cloth, as the last layer of laminate. Least desirable is a matlike lam-
inate thatwas sprayed up with a chopper gun, although a hand lay-
up of mat over woven roving is okay. Look especially in out of the
way areas, such as inside chain lockers and under berths. Inspect
all berths, liners, upholstery, woodwork, and other items in the for-
ward area.
Check that all deck fittings are properly through-bolted with
backing plates or blocks. Inspect for leaking, which usually leaves
rust streakson the fiberglass. With sailboats, be sure the chain plate
for the headstay is through-bolted and has a backing plate or block.
Next check the hull-to-deck joint, starting at the bow area in-
side the hull and working along one side to the stem. Quality fiber-
glass boats have a lap joint that is through-bolted then fiberglassed
over with strips of fiberglass. Check the bonding of the fiberglass
strips. Look for water stains or other signs of leaking. After check-
ing the hull-to-deck joint on one side, continue around the tran-
som and along the other side back to the starting point at the bow.
The hull-to-deck joint is a frequent source of trouble because
hull twisting places heavy loadings on it. A well-designed hull-to-
deck good quality effectively combines the two laminates
joint of
into a single unit. If you find signs of actual separation, the prob-
lem can be serious and repair extremely difficult.
The hull-to-deck joint might or might not be in line with the
rub rail on the exterior of the hull. Regardless, the area opposite
the rub rail attachment should be examined inside the hull. Dam-
age is sometimes caused in this area by the boat banging against
pilings or other boats or obstacles.
When surveying sailboats, also check the attachment of chain
plates. Look any signs of overstressing of the laminates to which
for
they are attached.If fasteners are loose, there might be leakage.
Look for rust and water stains.
Check all remaining deck fittings to see if they are properly
through-bolted with backing plates or blocks. Any fitting that has

147
heavy loadings is a possible source of problems.
Next, check all bulkheads, berth bottoms, countertops, and
other items that are bonded to the shell laminates with fiberglass
bonding strips. Check the bonds to make certain they are secure.
The quality of woodwork varies greatly in manufactured fiber-
glass boats. Lower quality boats use plastic laminates to cover the
edge grain of bulkheads, whereas higher quality boats use wood
trim and wood veneers. Wood pieces should be fastened together
with screws and/or bolts, not with nails or staples that tend to work
loose. Wood attachments to cabin soles should be bolted in place.
Thoroughly check the bilge and other areas below the water-
line. In boats with ballast, check this over carefully. If the ballast

is internal, make certain that it is well sealed over with fiberglass

and has not been leaking. If the ballast is external, check the keel
bolts for signs of rust and leakage. Before this can be done, how-
ever, any water in the bilge must be drained away.
Check rudder and propeller shaft stuffing boxes. Check the at-
tachment to the hull for possible cracks and leaks.
Inspections of Systems
I find it helpful to check systems out as a unit.

Icebox. The icebox should have insulation on all sides and at

the bottom and top, including the door or lid. Check the drain sys-
tem. Iceboxes that drain into the bilge can give a bad odor to the
interior of the boat. A better arrangement is an overboard drain
system, which usually requires a pump. The drain should have a
water trap to insulate the inside of the icebox from outside heat.
Water Tanks and Systems. Examine the water tanks. In-
spect for leakage and contaminated water. Check all water pipes
and hoses, pumps, and faucets. Note any required repairs. Deter-
mine if any tanks or other parts of the system require replacement
and how difficult it is to do. In some cases, access to the water tank
is limited. A removable inspection plate allows you to examine the

interior of the tank and clean the inside conveniently. Ease of tank
removal varies. It could simply be a matter of unbolting mounting
brackets. The tank could also be bonded in place with fiberglass
or even placed under a fiberglass liner; this will make removal more
difficult. In some cases, the fiberglass hull laminate or a fiberglass
liner forms the water tank. These usually have removable top
sections.
Two basic types of pumping systems are used: hand (or foot)
pumps and electric pressurepumps. Check to see that they oper-
ate properly.

148
 Some fresh water systems have water heaters. Most hot water
Some have
heaters operate at dockside with shore electrical power.
heat exchangers to use with the engine when away from shore
power.
Leaks in various parts of the piping systems can be a special
problem. Check out these systems with water running through the
piping.
Sinks and Drain Systems. Sinks and drain systems are sim-
ple arrangements. If the through-hull drain fittings are near or below
the waterline, they should be fitted with seacocks. Brass gate valves
of the type commonly sold at hardware stores are unsuitable. If
these are used on a manufactured boat, it indicates that the
manufacturing was skimpy, which could result in the sinking of the

boat. I've twice had gate valves of this type fall apart as I was open-
ing them, and water then leaked in. Fortunately, the pressure is
low this near the waterline and I easily plugged the flow, but what
would have happened if they had broken when I wasn't around?
Because they were ballast sailboats without positive flotation, they
would have sunk.
Stoves. Galley cooking stoves vary considerably. Fuels used
included alcohol, kerosene, diesel, and liquified petroleum (LP) gas.
The latter is the most dangerous because it is heavier than air and
explosive. The gas bottle for these should be located in gastight
compartments or in the open on deck. When located in gastight
compartments, they should be separate from the rest of the boat.
The bottom of the compartment should be overboard vented. There
should be shut-off valves at the gas bottles and between the stove
and the companion way exit.
Check how the stove is mounted. The stove should either be
firmly attached to the galley counter or attached to the gimbals,
which are in turn firmly attached to the galley counter.
Engines. Unless you are a highly trained and experienced
mechanic, you will probably need assistance here. The engine
should be checked thoroughly to determine the condition and if it

operates properly. This applies also to gearboxes, exhaust and cool-

ing systems, stuffing boxes, and electrical systems.
The fuel systems require special consideration. Fill pipes for
gas tanks should be grounded to the tank and to the grounding sys-
tem. The tanks should be in properly ventilated compartments and
vented to the outside. Gas presents more danger than diesel fuel
because it is heavier than air and highly explosive.
The steering system and engine controls should be followed

149
out and checked for any damage, wear, or improper installation.
Electrical System. Check for proper installation of battery,
wiring, and circuit breakers for running lights, interior lights, and
other electrical hookups. Electrical systems vary greatly in
manufactured boats. Many owners add extra equipment. Some-
times this is done properly, other times it is a mess.
Anchoring Systems. These vary greatly. Some have only
an anchor and line. Others have chain lockers, rope or chain deck
pipes, hand or power windlasses, anchor rollers, etc. It takes con-
siderable experience to know what is adequate for a particular boat.
This depends in part on how and where the boat is to be used.

Other Equipment
Many boats also have other equipment, such as cabin heaters,
canvas tops, covers, and other canvas work, toilets, holding tanks,
bilge pumps, fire extinguishers, trim tabs, davits, and shore power
hookups. Check all these. Specialized knowledge might be required
for evaluating some and you might want to seek
of this equipment,
outside help. This is especially true of electronic equipment such
as marine radios, depth sounders, etc.

PROFESSIONAL SURVEYS AND SURVEYORS

Insurance companies frequently require a satisfactory survey by
an approved professional boat surveyor before they insure a boat,
especially a used one. The same applies to banks and other loan
institutions. They want a survey to decide how much money to loan

on a particular boat.
Selection of a boat surveyor must be done carefully. The sur-
veyor should have extensive knowledge and experience with many
boats. Many good surveyors are also experienced boatbuilders or
designers. It is extremely difficult to determine competency of any
one surveyor, however, because there are presently no qualifica-
tion standards or licensing requirements.
Most insurance companies and banks and loan institutions have
a of surveyors that are acceptable to them. To insure with them
list

or borrow money, you must use one of these surveyors. Before mak-
ing a selection, check their qualifications and reputations. In most
boating areas of the United States, there are one or more boat sur-
veyors who are
considered to be outstanding. Yacht brokers, boat
dealers, and boatyards sometimes make recommendations.
Because you must pay for the survey, you will want to hire the
best surveyor available. In return, the surveyor should work with

150
your interests in mind. One of the main complaints I hear against
surveyors is that they are actually working for the brokers, banks,
loan institutions, and insurance companies, even though you pay
for the survey. There is probably some truth to this.

Hire a surveyor who will thoroughly search the boat for defects,
needed repairs, and trouble spots. A good surveyor can accurately
appraise the boat's present condition and value.
It is common practice for surveyors to give a written report.
A typical survey sheet includes such information as the name of
the vessel, type number, purpose of survey, in-
of vessel, official
tended service, waters to be navigated, date and location of sur-
vey, surveyed on dry dock or afloat, and other information.
This is followed by sections for the hull, propulsion machin-
ery, auxiliary power plant, fuel and water tanks, deck and special
equipment, fire hazards and protection, sea connections and
through-hull fittings, and estimates of market and replacement
values.
Next comes a general statement space. For one survey, the
general statement said, "Survey indicates vessel is basically in
sound condition with exceptions noted." These were then listed.
Finally, there is space for a concluding statement. For one boat
survey, this said, "Unless otherwise stated, survey was made with-
out making removal to expose parts normally concealed, taking bor-
ings to check laminates, testing for tightness or trying the
machinery. This survey based upon facts presented and discov-
is

ered, based on my opinion, without warranty either specified or

impUed." The signature of the surveyor followed. Forms used by
various surveyors vary considerably.
The surveyor will want to know the purpose of the survey; that
is, if it is primarily for obtaining insurance or a loan, for determin-
ing the condition of the boat and its value so that you can decide

if you want buy it, or for a combination of reasons. Before hir-

to
ing a surveyor, you should have a frank discussion with him as to
exactly what you want. The surveyor should in turn tell you if he
can provide this. He should also tell you what his fee will be.
Some surveyors specialize, such as fiberglass boats only, sail-

boats only, or powerboats only. Some will not survey engines and
other mechanical equipment. No one person can be an expert in
everything, so it's important that you know any limitations.
Finally,it should be repeated that a survey is not a guarantee.

It is an opinion and, hopefully, an expert one.

151
Buying Fiberglass Boats
The material covered so far is basic to buying a fiberglass boat.
There are so many types, sizes, and prices for fiberglass boats, both
new and used, that you must have some starting point. By now,
you probably have a certain type and size of boat in mind, narrow-
ing the field considerably. This must be matched with the price
you can afford or are willing to pay. In many cases, this will mean
buying a smaller size of boat or buying used instead of new.
In this chapter, new boats and used boats are discussed
separately. When you start your search, however, you will proba-
bly want to look at everything that is available— both new and
used— in the size range you have in mind. I suggest that whenever
it is convenient to do so, look at whatever else is for sale. You can

learn a lot about boats in this way.

NEW
New boats are sold in various ways. Dealers offer one or more
makes of fiberglass boats. Brokers who sell used boats sometimes
handle new boats too. Some new boats are available direct from
the manufacturers. These sources are listed in phone books. They
also advertise in newspapers and boating magazines.
A good starting place is a boat show. While these vary from
quite small, such as a few dealers displaying boats at a mall, to the
very large ones staged in major cities, they can all be helpful. A
word of advice: Look, examine the boats, ask questions, gather up

152
brochures— but don't buy. There are often boat show discounts that
seem irresistible, but when you first start looking, almost all boats
might look irresistible.
There might be exceptions to the don't buy rule. If you have
already done all your homework and legwork and know exactly
which boat you want to buy, then perhaps the boat show discount
might be the way to go. Boats on display at boat shows do suffer
some minor damage and wear because hundreds of people paw
through them, trying to pull them apart, etc. If you do purchase
here, make certain that the purchase pending a survey and/or
is

inspection to your satisfaction after the boat show and also a satis-
factory sea trial. Make certain that you have the option to reject
the boat and get all of your deposit back.
The point is, don't let the glitter and bright lights of a boat show
carry you away. It's easier to buy a boat than to sell one. If you
purchase a boat that turns out to be unsuitable to your needs, you
might have to take a loss to resell it.
Boat shows give you a chance to look at and compare boats
put out by different manufacturers. As you narrow your choice
down to fewer and fewer boats, you will want to make more detailed
comparisons. In a certain price range, you might have a choice of
two boats that fit your needs. One is larger and plainer, the other
is slightly smaller but better appointed.By going from one boat
to the other,you might be able to decide which means more to you.
Before you buy, its a good idea to see the boats again at the
dealer's showroom. This gives you more time to think about your
choice. The salesman should now be able to spend more time with
you. Although policies vary, you might be able to get an in-the-water
performance demonstration in the boat you are interested in. The
dealer will probably want to be sure you are a serious prospect,
however. Some people are just after free boat rides.
I believe that it is worthwhile to visit the manufacturing plant
before you buy, or even before you make a final decision about what
boat you intend to buy. The cost of this will vary depending on
where you live in relation to the manufacturing plant. Sometimes
the manufacturer will deduct the cost of the airfare from the price
you decide to buy. Don't
of the boat should let this factor influence
your judgement, however.
Some of the larger manufacturing plants have regular tours for
visitors. Most show you around and answer your questions on an
individual basis, at least if they think you are a serious prospect.
Most try to show you only what they want you to see, but if you

153
know what you can see more than this. If the adver-
to look for,
tised specifications say that the moldings are hand laid up and you
see moldings being sprayed up with a chopper gun, you might pre-
tend that you don't know anything about fiberglass molding and
ask what that man is doing over there.
Some of the largest fiberglass boat manufacturers put out some
of the worst boats, some of the smallest ones the best boats. There
is no general rule.

Some manufacturers will sell boats to you directly; others sell

only through dealers. This sometimes depends on whether there
is a dealer in the area where you live. If you purchase direct from

the factory, there could be problems getting the boat transported

to your area and getting the boat commissioned, unless you can
take care of these things yourself (see Chapter 8). If the boat is
trailerable and you purchase it with a trailer, you could tow it home.
This still leaves the commissioning problem, however, that is or-
dinarily handled by the boat dealer. You could also have the boat
commissioned and launched near the factory so that you can power
or sail the boat back to home port, conditions and your boating ex-
perience permitting.
While some fiberglass boat manufacturers market their boats
only through dealerships, others don't have dealerships and sell only
factory direct. This might be less convenient to buy a boat, but it

can mean a much lower price. Dealerships add considerably to the

price of each boat sold.
Regardless of where you buy a new boat, the boats that you
are shown might be for display only. In other cases, these boats
are for sale. Sometimes dealers and brokers use a new boat as a
demonstrator for a period of time, then sell the boat as a new boat
or at a reduced price because the boat was a demonstrator. A boat
could also be the demonstrator until someone buys it. Some boats
are sold as *'new" even though they have been used to give in-the-
water demonstrations or as displays at boat shows or in showrooms.
If the boats are mainly for display, the dealer will order one
for you or a similar one with your choice of color, equipment, etc.
Be sure to ask how long it will take for delivery.

Making the Purchase

Once you have found the boat you want and have agreed on a price,
you must sign a contract or sales agreement. If you are ordering
a boat rather than taking one that is in stock, you must decide on
specifics, such as color, upholstery fabrics, equipment, engine, sails.

154
etc. A deposit of 10 or 15 percent of the purchase price is usually
required at this point. The balance is due when the boat is deliv-

ered, but this should be clearly stated in the contract or sales agree-
ment. It's also a good idea to have the option of cancelling the
agreement and getting your deposit back if the boat is not deliv-
ered by a certain date.
If you are purchasing a boat that is in stock, there are a num-

ber of ways that this might be handled. You can pay the money
and take the boat. You might pay a deposit (the amount will vary)
to hold the boat for you pending satisfactory financing or whatever.
It should be clearly spelled out in the contract or sales agreement

that your deposit will be reftmded if you are unable to get satisfac-
tory financing. If the boat requires fitting out or commissioning be-
fore it is ready for you, you could either pay the full price or a
deposit with the balance due when you take the boat.
Financing can be a problem. Sometimes the dealer offers financ-
ing or arranges this for you. You can often get lower interest rates,
however, if you arrange your own financing through a credit union
that you belong to or elsewhere.
Some dealers accept a boat as a trade-in, although they often
won't give you as much as you could get by selling it yourself or
having a broker sell Other dealers will not accept trade-
it for you.
ins. This is especially true with larger, higher priced boats. If you

do trade a boat in, you only have to pay sales tax on the difference
between the amount you are given on the trade-in and the price
of the new boat, rather than on the full purchase price. This saves
you the trouble and inconvenience of finding a buyer for your old
boat.

Warranties and Guarantees

Warranties and guarantees on new boats vary. Make certain that
these are clearly spelled out in writing. You will want to know who
will take care of any problems that develop. Can the dealer take
care of them? Or
is the manufacturer responsible? If it is a small

trailerable boat and you have a trailer for it, you might not mind
bringing the boat in to the dealer for work. But if it is a large boat
that is kept in the water, will they come to the boat? Or could the
work be done at a boatyard? This should all be spelled out in the
warranties and guarantees. Try to get all of these matters settled
toyour satisfaction before you pay any money. After payment is

made, you will lose most of your bargaining power.

The value of warranties and guarantees often depend on the

155
dealer where you buy the boat. Some have good reputations, which
they want to keep. They honor their (or the manufacturer's) war-
ranties and guarantees prompt and courteous manner. Other
in a
dealers make things as difficult and inconvenient as possible. This
is why it is so important to check the reputation of the dealer be-

fore you buy.

Read all warranties over carefully before you buy. If it is a
limited warranty, make certain you understand what is and what
isn't covered. If it is a full warranty, all items covered should be

promptly repaired or replaced. There should not be any charge to

the buyer with a full warranty.

New Versus Used

There are a number of advantages to buying a new boat rather than
a used one. You can get a guarantee or warranty, which is seldom
available with used boats. You can get the latest model or be one
of the first to get a certain design that has just been introduced
on the market. This might also mean that all the bugs have not
yet been worked out.
Introducing new boats is costly for manufacturers, especially
for larger boats. Many boats are thus kept in production for long
periods of time. One manufacturer might make improvements over
the years, another might start to skimp. I know of some boats that

started out as fairly high quality; then over the years, declined. In
several cases, this was the change of ownership o;- manage-
result of
ment of the manufacturing company.
There is one important advantage to a boat model that has been
in production for many years. You know the reputation of the boat
and also know what the resale value is likely to be. Talk to owners
of the particular boat. Check boating advertisements to find out
what used boats of the particular model sell for.
Another advantage of buying new is that you can get the boat
in the color you want, equipped the way you want it, with the up-
holstery fabrics you chose, etc. There are Umitations, especially
if you don't want to wait for a special order boat but rather pur-

chase a display boat or boat that is in stock.

There something to be said about having it brand new: you
is

can do the care and maintenance properly. If you like to make

changes and alterations however, you might be more hesitant to
do this on a new boat than on a used one. Also, every little nick
and scratch in the gel coat can be more heartbreaking than with
a used boat that already has a few nicks and scratches.

156
 When you purchase a new boat, you won't have to contend with
modifications and additions that previous owners almost invari-
ably, it seems, make. Most of the used boats I've purchased, seem

to have a maze of holes drilled through deck and cabin moldings

and elsewhere that must be filled in. You won't have this problem
with a new boat, though you will have to make certain that added
equipment is installed properly. Some of this work can be done by
the dealer. The quality of workmanship can vary greatly here. While
some dealers have highly experienced workers do these jobs, others
don't.
There are also a number of disadvantages to buying new. You
will probably pay a higher price than for a similar used boat. The
new boat is sold as a basic boat and many items, including essen-
tial ones, are sold as optional extras. This can be costly. Used boats,

however, often already have this extra equipment. Some items can
be put off to a later time when you can better afford them, but others
are essential to the operation and safety of the boat and must be
purchased when you buy the boat or at least before you use the boat.
While you normally think of boat surveys as being only for used
boats, they can be useful for new boats too, especially for larger
and more expensive ones. Some new boats are actually in poor or
unsound condition. Required fiberglass bonding strips, for exam-
ple, might have been omitted in the construction because of poor

inspection, quality control, or some other reason. Or the boat might

have been damaged during shipping, loading or unloading, or at
some other time.
At the very least, you should conduct your own thorough in-
spection of the boat before you take delivery. Have all defects and
problems taken care of before you complete the purchase transac-
tion. Many boat dealers attempt to put you off on this, saying that

they will take care of it later. But remember, after you have com-
pleted the purchase, you have lost much of your control over the
situation. It is extremely important to avoid situations that involve
legal action; this can be expensive and time consuming.
There is always some risk involved when you purchase a new
boat. Itmight not live up to your expectations. It might be defec-
tive. You might have unexpected problems. By learning as much

as possible about fiberglass boats and doing comparative shopping

before you buy, however, you can greatly reduce the risks involved.

New Boat Prices

It is quite difficult to know what a particular model of a certain

157
make of fiberglass boat should cost. There are now a number of
boat buyer's guides that are published, usually annually, but these
seem to include less and less price information, perhaps because
the manufacturers are refusing to release this information to the
publishers of these guides. A more complete source is the New Boat
Directory. It's published byBUC International Corporation, 2455
East Sunrise Boulevard, Fort Lauderdale, Florida 33304, and is is-

sued annually. This publication is expensive, however. Some

have copies, or boat dealers and brokers might let you look
libraries
at their copies.
Manufacturers who sell factory direct usually do so only when
they don't have dealerships representing them, at least not in the
area where you live. Buying direct from a manufacturer might re-
sult in a lower price, although this depends on many factors. While
you can expect to save some money because there won't be a dealer
markup— usually about 20 to 30 percent— you save only part of this.
Without dealerships, the manufacturer has to spend more money
for advertising and handling the sales at the factory, which is a sort
of dealership in itself. Unless you take delivery at the factory, you
also have to pay shipping costs. Some manufacturers might have
their own delivery trucks and can give you rates that are lower than
standard boat hauling firms charge.
Another factor is that manufacturers who sell factory direct
are usually low volume producers. This can mean higher boat prices
than those of a manufacturer with a higher production yolume and
hundreds of dealerships selling the boats.
In most cases, especially with smaller sizes and lower priced
boats, you will be purchasing from or through a dealer. The mark-
ups over the wholesale prices— or what the dealer pays the manufac-
turer for the boat and the selling price— varies, but is usually in
the range of 20 to 30 percent. Sometimes the retail or selling prices
are firmly set by the manufacturer. Sometimes the dealers are al-
lowed to set their own prices. If you can go to more than one dealer
that handles a particular boat, you can compare prices. If the prices
are exactly the same, they are set by the manufacturer. If they vary,
they are set by the dealers. This does not necessarily mean that
the dealer offering the lowest price is the best deal for you. You
also need to consider the dealer's reputation, service department,
and location.
to get as much price information as possible before you
Try
go to a dealer. This can help you find out approximately what his
markup is. Talk to other people who have bought boats recently

158
from the same dealer. They can often tell you what they paid for
their boats. They are also a source of additional information about
the particular dealer and the boat.

Other Considerations
You must make certain that the boat meets all safety requirements
and that it has the required safety equipment aboard.
In many states, you must pay sales tax. This is paid to the dealer
when you purchase the boat, or you are billed for this tax later or
will pay it when you register the boat in your name.
In most cases, you either have to register the boat in the state
in which you are a resident or document the boat with the federal
government. Documentation is handled at the Coast Guard district
headquarters in the district you live in. The process for documen-
tation of a new boat is fairly simple; it can be quite complicated
for a used boat. Most boat dealers will help you with the paper-
work and details.
If you register your boat, you must have registration numbers

on the bow area of your boat. If you have documentation, you don't.
Instead, you get a number that is permanently affixed inside the
boat, often by carving the numbers into a main wood beam.
You still must pay state sales tax if you document, but there
are a number of advantages. Documentation gives a proof of owner-
ship that is more acceptable than registration, especially in other
countries. And because the Coast Guard maintains a record of
documented boats, there is a record that you have clear title. This
is an advantage if you sell the boat. The buyer can easily check

to see that you have clear title. Anyone financing the boat would
prefer that the vessel be documented.
Not all boats qualify for documentation. The boat must have
500 cubic feet of internal space. A formula is used to determine
based on the overall length of the boat, the greatest beam,
this. It's

and depth from deck to top of ballast. This measurement is not the
weight or displacement of the boat, but rather the internal volume
of "air space."
For documentation, you need a Master Carpenter's Certificate.
This is a form filled out by the builder of the boat. When you pur-

chase the boat from a dealer, you should get the Master Carpenter's
Certificate for the boat and two identical bills of sale, which should
be on special Coast Guard forms. You then take these to the Coast
Guard district headquarters in the district where you live. There
you fill out a form designating the name for the boat and another

159
form swearing that you are a citizen of the United States. You are
assigned a permanent number, which stays with the boat no mat-
ter how many times it changes owners. There is always the option
of discontinuing the documentation and going back to regular regis-
tration.
You should get insurance coverage that will be in effect as soon
as you buy the boat. Insurance coverage and premiums vary, so
check with a number of insurance companies and comparison shop
before you buy. You can insure a new boat without a boat survey.
Homeowner's insurance pohcies sometimes cover small boats.
Check to see if yours does before taking out additional insurance.
For trailerable boats, you might want to purchase a boat trailer
along with the boat as a single package, even include the trailer
in the financing. You must register the boat trailer separately from
the boat. Registration fees vary from state to state. You must also
pay sales tax on the trailer. This will be paid to the dealer that you
buy the boat from or when you register the trailer in your name
or at some later time.
In addition to the cost of the boat, interest on any financing,
sales tax, fee for registration or documentation, and other costs at
the time of purchase, there is also on-going costs and responsibili-
ties of boat ownership (see Chapter 7). These should be considered
before you buy a boat.

USED
The main reason for buying used instead of new is financial. A used
boat usually sells for less many
than the same model new. However,
used boatsnow sell for higher prices than the owners paid for them
new because the value of the dollar has gone down due to inflation.
Whether or not the used boat is a better buy depends on many
factors. It's possible to get a better buy in a used boat, but there
are also more risks involved. What type of investment it is depends
on the particular boat and how much you pay for it.
Used boats are sold in various ways. You can buy directly from
a private party. You can buy through a broker. Some boat dealers
also sell used boats. Often, these are trade-ins.
Used fiberglass boats are frequently advertised in newspaper
classified ads and in boating publications. You can tell immediately
which are by private parties and which are by brokers and dealers.
The latter usually gives the name of the firm in the ad.
Banks and other loan institutions sometimes sell used boats that
they have repossessed. These are sometimes sold for a stated price

160
or are offered on a bid basis. The rules and procedures vary on
this,but usually the bids are sealed and must be in before a certain
date. A deposit is sometimes required. This is refunded unless yours
is If yours is the highest bid and you decide not
the highest bid.
to go ahead with the purchase, you lose your deposit, although again
this varies. In most cases, the bank or other loan institution has
the right to reject any and all bids if they so desire.
Purchasing a used boat by this method requires fast action. You
must evaluate and decide if and how much you want to bid by a
certain date. To do this effectively, you must have a thorough un-
derstanding of fiberglass boats and their value. In general, a bid
should be lower than the actual used market value for the particu-
lar boat. It's better to miss out than to pay too much, even though
it might not seem so at the time in the excitement of boat buying.

I do not recommend the bid method for a newcomer to boat-

ing, unless you have access to competent advice from a boat

knowledgeable relative or friend. Otherwise, there are just too many
possible problems and pitfalls. At the very least, do not bid until
you have looked at many used boats offered for sale by private par-
ties and brokers.

Boatyards, waterfronts, and marinas are good places to look

for used boats for sale. These boats often display **For Sale" signs.
They could be in the water, on boat trailers, or in dry storage.
Spend a minimum of several months looking at used boats be-
fore you even think of actually buying one. At first, you might see
a boat that looks like a good deal, then you'll see another that looks
even better. If you purchase the first boat, you're stuck with it.
You might be able to sell the first boat and then purchase the sec-
ond, but this a time-consuming process. If you want to sell it quickly,
you might have to take a loss on it. By the time you sold the first
boat, the second one could be sold already. The second boat might
not be a good choice either, because you'll certainly find even bet-
ter buys later. The point is that the odds are extremely small that
you will find the best buy in the type and size of boat you want
the first time out. After looking at hundreds of used boats, you will
be in a better position to recognize a good buy when it comes your
way.
In my many years of looking at used boats for sale, I saw very
few boats that were outstanding bargains, at least that still seemed
so in light of further experience.By this I mean boats that sold for
thousands less than their market value at the time. It's better to
pay a little more to get a boat that's just right for you than to get

161
a ''bargain" that's not quite right.
If you buy a boat from the owner, there is no set procedure.
You pay the money, the registration is signed over to you, and you
take the boat. You might pay a deposit to hold the boat for you
for a certain length of time. If go ahead with the
you decide not to
purchase, the deposit might be refunded to you. It all depends on

what the arrangements have been made and what written agree-
ment you have. In some cases, the deposit will hold the boat for
you pending your ability to get financing or a satisfactory survey
and/or sea trial. It's important to have this arrangement clearly
stated in a written agreement, especially in terms of refunding your
deposit if you don't go through with the purchase.
Possible problems and difficulties become greater as the price
of the boat increases. This is why boats with higher values are typi-
cally sold through boat brokers.
There are many things to look out for when purchasing a used
fiberglass boat from a private party. First establish if you are deal-
ing with a boat owner who simply wants to sell the boat because
he wants to move up to a larger boat, get out of boating, or has
some other standard reason. You must establish that the person
legally owns the boat without any liens on it. You must clear title
to the vessel in most cases. If the seller still owes money on financ-
ing to a bank or other loan institution, this must be paid off to clear
the title on the boat. The seller might need to use part of the money
you are paying to pay off the balance of the boat loan. How all this
is handled should be clearly stated in a written agreement. Espe-

cially avoid getting caught in a situation where you have paid for
the boat and then find you do not have clear title to it.
Some people buy rundown, damaged, or sunk boats. These are
then fixed up and put on the market as used boats. Some people
do this as a regular business, even though the boats are often sold
as though from a private party.
There are other people who simply buy a used boat at a very
low price, then resell it for a higher price. This often amounts to
a business run with little overhead and without a business license.
Sometimes, these verge on being ripoffs.
And then there are individuals and rings that sell stolen boats.
A few unfortunate people have thought they had bought a boat,
only to find it was stolen property. Watch out especially for people
who want quick cash deals and for boats priced far below market
value.
Some people are embarrassed to check a boat's registration.

162
You shouldn't be. The only people who should really care are those
who don't have valid title. In most states, there is a state agency
that checks boat registrations and titles.

In most cases, used boats that are put up for sale are legiti-
mate offers. Most people used boats because they want to get
sell

out of boating. They found that they didn't get enough use out of
the boat, it proved to be too expensive, or they want to move up
to a larger or different type boat. In only a few cases are boats
pawned by private parties with poorly repaired damaged areas
off
and other cover-ups. You must still look out for these things, but
they are rare.
*

Boats are often advertised as 'excellent condition," or ''good

condition," or "needs tender loving care," or "handyman special."
I am often surprised when I actually see these boats. Some labelled
"excellent condition" are really "handyman specials." Some
"handyman specials" are basically sound boats needing only a good
clean-up job to put them in good condition. Some people try to over-
sell their boats; others tend to undersell. The main point is that

you can tell very little about the boat until you actually see it; you
could be pleasantly or unpleasantly surprised.

Buying Through Brokers

There are both advantages and disadvantages to buying a boat
through a broker. Boat brokers sell boats on a commission basis,
usually 10 percent of the selling price of the boat. If you buy a boat,
the broker keeps 10 percent of the money and turns the rest over
to the seller. Indirectly, the buyer is paying the commission in most
cases because most sellers add at least 10 percent to the selling
price to cover the broker's commission. This is one of the main
disadvantages to purchasing a boat through a broker.
Brokers act as a go-between the buyer and seller. The broker
negotiates the terms of the sale and sees that they are carried out.
The broker also acts as an escrow agent for deposits and other funds
paid by the buyer. These are held until the sale is completed and
title is transferred to the buyer. This can be a tremendous advan-
tage for both the buyer and seller and is especially true with higher
priced boats. SeUing direct works out okay for boats priced
at about
$5,000 or even $10,000, but more than this point can cause con-
siderable problems in negotiating and carrying out the transfer of
funds and other details of the sale. Both buyers and sellers feel more
comfortable having a broker handle these details. The broker is

(hopefully) a professional who makes his living doing this.

163
 The seller might think the broker's services won't cost him any-
thing.He will simply ask at least 10 percent more for the boat to
cover the broker's commission. The buyer, in turn, wants to get
the boat for the same price as he would buying direct from an
owner. The final price is usually a compromise somewhere in
between.
The broker's commission is based on the price the boat actu-
ally sells for, not the asking price. Most boats sold through brokers
end up selling for less than the asking price. In most cases, the ask-
ing price is higher than the broker really expects to sell the boat
for. This might be because the owner set the price too high. The

broker often goes along with this to get the listing, knowing that
most sellers will come down if the boat does not sell in a short period
of time. Or the broker might have set the high asking price in con-
sultation with the seller. It is common practice to leave some room
to come down on the price to close a deal.
Brokers advertise the boats they have listed at their own ex-
pense. They do this by taking out advertisements in newspapers,
boating publications, and elsewhere. The brokers have their offices
in boating areas, often at marinas or nearby. They post their list-
ings on bulletin boards in the windows of their office. Sometimes
photos of the boats are also included. Inside, they have listing books
that described all the boats they list. There are often separate books
for sailboats, powerboats, and houseboats, assuming that the broker
handles all of these. Some brokers specialize, only handling sail-
boats or powerboats for instance. The listing books are further ar-
ranged by boat size and give the make, model, measurements, and
a complete equipment list as well as the asking price. There might
also be one or more photos of the boat, advertising sheets, accom-
modation plans, and other materials about the boat if the seller has
provided these.
Many brokerage firms are highly specialized. Many only han-
dle boats that are in certain price ranges. A small, local broker at
a marina might handle mainly boats selling for under $20,000.
Slightly larger firms with several salesmen might concentrate on
boats priced from about $15,000 to $40,000. Larger firms with
offices in several large boating centers might specialize in handling
boats that sell for over $40,000. Some of the largest brokerages
might only handle boats that are priced over $100,000. When you
start looking for a boat, go to those brokers that sell boats in your
price range.
You can go to a broker and look at his listings. If you see some-

164
thing you might be interested in, ask to see the boat. Also look at
other boats listed in the general size and price range that you are
interested in.

If you like, tell him what you

the broker doesn't have anything
are looking for and have him contact you if he comes up with any-

thing. Many brokers have cross-listings with other brokers in other

areas, so they might locate something for you this way.
Boat brokers try to match a prospective buyer to the right boat,
or so they claim. In my opinion, this service is overrated. I've known
too many boat brokers who were little more than super salesmen
to place much faith in them as boat consultants. You might want
to find a broker that you can broker and let him find
call **your"

the right boat for you. Good check the reputation of the
luck, but
broker first. As in most businesses, there are honest brokers and
dishonest ones. There is no licensing (other than regular business
licenses) or qualifying standards for becoming a boat broker. A
broker should be bonded and use an escrow account for client funds.
There are some professional associations for brokers; membership
in these should be a plus factor. Check the office of the broker.
It should be properly organized and staffed and make you feel con-

fident about transferring funds into the broker's escrow account.

Especially avoid brokers who are lackadaisical. They, and there
are many of them, are too lazy to even get out of their office chair
to go show you a boat. They expect you to go down and take a
look at the boat and come back if you decide to buy it. Don't bother.
Once you locate a boat you want to buy, make an offer through
the broker. While procedures vary, it is typical to pay a deposit,
usually 10 percent of the price you are offering. Make an offer that
is lower than the asking price. It should not be more than you are

willing to or can pay. A sales agreement will be written out by the

broker. If the offer is lower than the asking price, it will be pend-
ing acceptance by the seller. If the seller does not accept the offer,
your deposit will be returned. The seller might make a counteroffer
that is lower than the original asking price, but higher than the offer.
You can either reject this or accept it and go ahead with the pur-
chase. You might be able to make another offer that is lower than
the seller's, but higher than your first offer. The seller might also
the broker that he has given his lowest offer and will not hear
tell

any lower offers. If the boat does not sell for a long period of time,
however, the asking price might even be lowered beyond this point,
and the seller might wish he had accepted your offer.
Whenever you make an offer, even if it is for the asking price.

165
the sale can be pending certain conditions. Typical conditions in-

clude satisfactory survey and a sea and

you are going to
trial, if

finance the purchase, satisfactory financing. These conditions

should be written into the sales agreement. They should be based
on your own opinion. You should be the one who has the final say
as to what is satisfactory, not a professional surveyor or a loan in-
stitution or anyone else. It should clearly state in the agreement
if you do not accept the boat for
that the deposit will be refunded
any of these reasons.
How far you can go with conditions varies. It might even be
possible to include a condition such as pending sale of present boat.
There will usually be a time limit placed on the conditions, how-
ever. The owner will not want to tie up the boat with pending con-
ditions for too long a time.
If everything turns out to be satisfactory, the balance of the
money is paid to the broker and a signed (by seller) bill of sale or
title transfer (this varies in different states) is turned over to you.
Part of the money you paid might be used to pay off a lien on the
boat, while the remainder stays in the brokers escrow account. This
money is not turned over to the seller until you have clear title to
the boat, at which time the remainder of the money is taken out
of the escrow account. The broker takes his commission and pays
the rest to the seller. The sale is thus completed.

Used Boat Prices

It is quite difficult to know what a particular model and year of
a certain make should cost. One guide is to study the advertised
prices for similar used boats. This is feasible if you are interested
in a boat that was manufactured in large numbers. A standard
source is Used Boat Directory.

Other Considerations
You must be certain the boat meets all safety requirements and
has the required safety equipment aboard. In some states you must
pay sales tax on used boats. You must also register the boat in the
state in which you are a resident or document the boat with the
federal government. If the boat is already documented, the proce-
dure is simple. If not, the procedure can be complicated. Check
with the Coast Guard district headquarters in your area for details
and procedures.

166
 You should get insurance coverage that will be in effect as soon
as you buy the boat.

OTHER WAYS TO BUY A BOAT

Another possibility is to have a fiberglass boat custom-built for you
by one of the companies that specialize in this type of construc-
tion. They will use one of the one-off construction methods detailed

in Chapter 14. First you go to a designer and have the plans drawn

up. Then you take the plans to a builder and have the boat con-
structed. The main advantage to this method is that you can get
a custom boat constructed to your exact needs and requirements.
The main disadvantage is that this is a very expensive way to buy
a boat.
You can also build your own fiberglass boat, from scratch
either
or using a factory-molded hull as a starting point. These methods
are detailed in later chapters.

167
Costs and Responsibilities
of Boat Ownership
In addition to the purchase price of a fiberglass boat, there are on-
going costs of boat ownership. There are also responsibilities in-

volved. These costs and responsibilities should be considered be-

fore you buy a boat.

A PLACE TO KEEP THE BOAT

Once you own a boat, you need a place to keep it. The cost of this
can range from free to quite expensive.

On a Trailer
A boat trailer can reduce or eliminate the cost of a place to keep
a boat. There are still costs associated with the boat trailer itself,

including registration fees, maintenance costs, and insurance. There

is also the cost of fuel and other expenses involved with a vehicle

used to tow the boat and trailer.

A boat trailer allows you to store the boat in your yard at home
or some other place for free. This is one of the reasons why trailer
boats are so popular. Storing your boat at your house makes it con-
venient for maintaining the boat.
To protect your boat while it is being stored, especially if it

is outside in the open, a canvas boat cover is a good idea. These

are fairly expensive, but a quality boat cover, especially one made
from boat acrylic fabric, will last many years. This can be a sound

168
investment because it helps protect the gel coat finish from sun
damage. It also adds to the value of the boat if you ever decide
to sell it.

If possible, the boat should be stored inside a garage or other

building. If this is not possible, storing it under a roof can be a sec-
ond choice.
Many people do not have space to keep a boat where they live,
or they prefer not to. Some people make arrangements to keep their
boats where they work. There are many possibilities here.
There are also storage centers. Monthly rental for outside stor-
age starts at about $10 or so, depending on where you live and other
factors. In some parts of the United States it runs much higher.
Covered spaces and inside storage is also available and more ex-

pensive than outside open storage. Most storage centers are fenced
and have security systems, although these vary. Check this over
carefully. You will also want to have adequate insurance coverage.
A main disadvantage of this type of storage is the cost. The
rent comes due month after month. This is still much less than the
rent for a boat slip to keep your boat in the water. Another disad-
vantage of storage centers is that you can be limited in the amount
of work you can do on the boat at the storage center, the rules vary
on this point. You might also have limited hours of access to your
boat, although some storage centers have 24-hour access.
There are a growing number of special storage yards with
launching facilities for trailer boats. In many cases, they tow the
boat to the ramp or launching hoist for you and launch the boat.
When you return after boating, they haul the boat and return it on

the trailer to the storage area. These facilities have become popu-
lar in areas where marina slips are scarce. In the future, this con-
cept might expand; might even be adapted to nontrailer boats.
it

An important advantage to this method is that you don't have

to worry about hauling or towing the boat. It also allows leaving

trailerable sailboats rigged. This is an important advantage because
it means less time getting ready and more time for boating.

There are many variations to this system. While the fees can
be expensive (usually a monthly storage fee and a set charge for
each launching and retrieving of the boat), they are less than for
renting a boat sHp. Security, hours of operation, and services offered
vary. Check the particular boat storage and launching business over
carefully before signing a rental agreement.
One problem with trailer boats is that going boating can be-
come too much trouble. When you first get a new boat, the trailer-

169
ing to the waterfront, setting up the boat (this
is especially a problem

with sailboats), launching the boat at a boat ramp, then hauling

again after a day of boating, unstepping the mast for sailboats, and
preparing the boat for trailering might not seem like much of a prob-
lem. This routine can get old fast. Many people soon find that they
are using the boat less and less.
It's important that the boat be easy to set up, launch, retrieve,
and take down for trailering again. It's also important that the trailer
be designed and constructed so that it does not damage the boat.
In some areas, there are free launching ramps; in other loca-
tions there are fees. These vary and should be taken into account
in determining the costs of boat ownership. Security of tow vehi-
cle and boat trailer while you are out boating can also be a prob-
lem. Check this out carefully.
Taking everything into consideration, trailering can be an in-
expensive solution to the problem of where to keep your boat. This
applies mainly to fairly small boats. After a certain size and weight,
it becomes impractical.

In the Water
An increasing number of boats are being kept in the water, either
all year or for the boating season. The possibilities for in-the-water
mooring vary considerably depending on the area you live in and
other factors.
One possibility is to tie the boat up to a bank. Unless it is your
own property, you probably won't be able to do this, at least not
for long periods of time. Security would also be a problem.
In some places it is possible to anchor free. There are more
and more restrictions on this, however. While anchoring for limited
periods of time might be tolerated, anchoring more or less perma-
nently isn't. There is often little security when you are not around.
If you use a dinghy to get back and forth from shore to the boat,

you will need a place to leave the dinghy. This might be at a dock,
loaded onto a cartop rack, or taken home with you. Unless the water
where you anchor the boat is well protected, you will have the pos-
sibility of the boat dragging anchor in storms.
If you aboard your boat, however, anchoring might be a
live
real budget if you do not stay in any one place
possibility, especially
too long. If you want to leave the boat for a period, you can proba-
bly find space at a marina for the boat until you return.
Another place to keep your boat in the water is at a mooring
buoy. These are similar to anchors, except they are permanently

170
set. When you leave the mooring, the mooring hne stays. A float
is attached, usually with a pennant, so that you can moor again when
you return with the boat.
Sometimes you can set your own mooring buoy. A permit might
be required before you can do this, or you might not be allowed
to do it at all. If you can, you are responsible for maintaining the
mooring buoy as well as paying any permit fees.
All this might lead you to ask, "Who owns our waterways?"
The answer to this question is complicated. Our boating waters are
public property, then again they are not. They are often sold and
traded like real estate.
Mooring buoys maintained by someone else, such as the city
or county or private business, are sometimes available on a rental
basis. You will need a way to get back and from
forth to your boat
land. A boat taxi service might be provided, or you can use your
own dinghy. A secure dock or other place for leaving your dinghy
when you are ashore should be provided.
Mooring buoys rent for less than boat slips at marinas, although
this varies. Many people have found them to be a satisfactory so-
lution to their boat storage problems.
The most convenient, but also the most expensive, place to keep
your boat is at a dock or slip. If you live at the edge of the water,
you might have your own boat dock. Most people are not so for-
tunate, however.
Docks are frequently arranged into marinas. In tidal areas, the
docks float so they move up and down with the tidal changes. A
slip means that the docks extend along both sides of the boat and

forward of the boat. A side-tie means that you only have a dock
on one side of your boat. Full slips rent for more than side-ties in
marinas that have both of these arrangements, although policies
vary.
In many areas of the United States, space available in marinas
lags far behind the demand. There are a number of reasons for this.
It is often difficult to get the necessary permits to build new ma-
rinas or expand existing ones. Environmental restrictions often pre-
clude construction of marinas. Some people believe that the
"shortage" of marina slips has been created deliberately so that
the rents can be increased.
Regardless of the reasons, this means that it can be difficult
to get a space for your boat in some areas. The problem is most
acute in large cities located in popular boating areas and in loca-
tions where there are few protected harbor areas. A marina in Long
171
Beach, California, for example, is reported to have over a 10-year
waiting list for slips.
Youshould investigate the marina situation in your area be-
fore you buy a boat. You can make the availability of a marina slip
a condition of the sale. If you purchase a boat from a broker who
is also the manager of a marina, your name might well move to

the top of the waiting list and a slip be made available to you im-
mediately. Fm not at all in favor of this practice, but it is common.
Marinas vary considerably. Some are well managed and main-
tained, others aren't. Some have modern docks, others are old.
Many have at least restrooms and showers, and some are even like
country clubs, with swimming pools, saunas, and even golf courses.
In a particular area, slip rentals vary according to the facilities
offered. Prices depend on supply and demand. In popular boating
centers, slips sometimes rent for $10 or more per foot of boat per
month.
Not only do slip rental rates vary, but so do rental agreements.
Most marinas have a number of rules and restrictions listed in the
rental agreements. Many of these will be for the convenience and
enjoyment of the slip renters; others won't. Typical restrictions
apply to living aboard boats. This might not be allowed, or there
might be a quota on the number of live-aboards and perhaps a wait-
ing list. Or you might be able to live aboard if you want to if you
pay a live-aboard fee in addition to the slip rental charges. This
is likely in marinas where electricity is not on individual meters.

Most marinas allow you to stay aboard your boat overnight on

weekends and during vacations, however. The restrictions apply
mainly to those who want to make their boats their homes.
There can be restrictions regarding the amount and types of
work you can do on your boat at the boat slip. You can usually wash
your boat and do routine maintenance work, but when you start
setting up workshops on the docks, there might be problems. Many
people purchase fiberglass kit boats the finish them to the point
where they can be launched. They then finish them at a boat slip.
Some marinas allow this, others don't. This can be an advantage
or disadvantage, depending on whether you are the one building
the boat or the person in a nearby slip who has to put up* with the
noise and mess.
Some marinas allow painting, others don't. This often depends
on the present condition of the docks. If they are modern and well
maintained, boat painting that is likely to get paint on the docks
probably won't be allowed. If the docks are old and beat up, there

172
probably won't be any restrictions regarding painting.
Some marinas are open grounds for parties; others have re-

strictions and some degree of noise control. Choose your marina

accordingly.
Some marinas have restrictions concerning pets. Check these
out to see if any apply to you.
Most slip rentals are paid month to month without a lease agree-
ment. You might be required to pay a deposit or an extra month's
rent in advance. The regular rent is paid in advance also. This, in
effect, means you have to give a month's notice if you intend to
vacate the slip.

Some marinas require leases. The advantage to this is that you

cannot ordinarily be given notice to vacate the slip during the period
the lease is in effect, at least not without just cause. This advan-
tage is offset by the you are obligated to continue paying
fact that
if you move elsewhere
the slip rent for the period of the lease even
or sell the boat. The lease agreement might allow you to sublease
the slip, with approval of the management, but this can be a lot
of trouble. For this reason, most boaters prefer month-to-month
slip rentals rather than long-term leases.
A recent trend is to actually sell the slips, a sort of condominium
concept applied to marinas. As with condominiums, there is a
monthly maintenance fee for the common facilities. The few ma-
rinas in my area that have sold slips on this basis all started out
with fairly reasonable maintenance fees. These went up quickly
after the slips were all sold, presumably with each slip holder hav-
ing a vote in the matter, to the point where the monthly maintenance
fee alone was as high as the rent for many marina slips in the area.
The advantages to purchasing a slip instead of just renting includes
ownership and having a vote in the management of the marina.
Before purchasing a slip, investigate the situation thoroughly.
There have been many complaints concerning this already. While
some purchasers seem satisfied, others aren't. You might want to
check with an attorney to find out exactly what you are purchas-
ing and what the legalities are.
Regardless of whether you rent, lease, or buy, you must con-
sider the security of the marina. Is the marina fenced with locked
gates? Is there a security guard on duty at night? Are there live-
aboarders? Marinas that have live-aboarders have much less prob-
lems than those that don't; these people are a deterrent to would-
be thieves.
With everything considered, a marina slip can be a convenient

173
solution to the boat storage problem. It offers maximum con-
venience for using your boat with the least time and effort involved.
The main disadvantage is that marina slips can be expensive. With
modem fiberglass boats, there is no harmful effect to leaving the
boats in the water year round. Since slip rental costs are on-going
costs of owning a boat, these should be figured into your boating
budget.

Dry Storage
There are times when you might want to put your boat in dry stor-
age. In areas where boating is seasonal, the boats are often hauled,
prepared for winter storage, and stored, usually with boat placed
on a cradle or stand. At the beginning of the next boating season,
the boat is again commissioned and put back in the water. Dry stor-
age is sometimes used when a boater must be away, perhaps out
of the country, from the boat for a long period of time.
Dry storage varies. Sometimes the boats are stored outside in
the open where it is anything but **dry." A winter cover or other
type of shelter over the boat is therefore a good idea. If it snows
in the area where the boat is stored, covers and shelters must be
quite substantial.
Methods of haulingand launching the boats vary. Different
types of hoists, rail systems, and elevator lifts are used. Once out
of the water, boats are moved to the area where they will be stored.
This is sometimes outside in the open or under a roof structure or
even inside a building.
Costs of hauling and storing boats vary. There might be an
added cost for preparing the boat for storage or launching if you
don't do this work yourself. Before launching, the additional prepa-
ration charge might cover the annual painting of the bottom of the
boat with antifouling paint.

OTHER COSTS
There are other costs you must consider in addition to the purchase
price, payments and interest on a loan, sales tax, and other one-
time fees paid at the time of purchase. There is an annual registra-
tion fee. In some states, there is a property or use tax that must
also be paid annually. This is often based on the assessed value
of the boat. Most owners of fiberglass boats carry insurance. Lia-
bility insurance is especially important.
You will also have the costs of operating and using the boat,

174
such as fuel, ice, chemicals for the toilet, etc. In addition, consider
the cost of any fittings, equipment, or other items added to the boat
or inventory. Add to that any costs associated with the maintenance
and repair of the vessel.
It is important, especially if you are on a tight budget, to make

a realistic total cost estimate of boat ownership. Many people who

purchase a boat without first doing this find that boat ownership
costs much more than they expected. This often leads to strained
budgets, marriages, and bailing out of boat ownership, often at a
loss.

RESPONSIBILITIES
In addition to financial responsibilities, there are other responsi-
bilities associated with boat ownership. You are responsible for the
safe operation of the vessel. The boat should be kept in a safe oper-
ating condition. All required safety equipment and gear should be
aboard. This equipment should be inspected frequently to make
certain that everything is in good working order and is ready if

needed.
You should learn as much about boating safety and the opera-
tion of the vessel as possible. Boating courses, such as those offered
by the Coast Guard or Power Squadron, are a good starting point.
If boating is a family venture, all members of the family who are
old enough from these courses should take them. Swim-
to benefit
ming, lifesaving, and water safety courses, such as those offered
by YMCAs and the Red Cross, can be useful. I believe that being
able to swim well is important for boating safety.
Many people purchase sailboats without first learning how to
sail. After a first day, usually of horror, these people often seek
sailing instruction. This should have been done before purchasing
a boat, but it's not too late even if you already own one.
In many areas, low-cost sailing lessons are available from com-
munity colleges, universities, recreation departments, and so on.
These courses are often a good starting point. You might also want
to join a local sailing club that offers sailing instruction and prac-
tice. More expensive, but often well worth the cost, are sailing les-
sons and courses from a private sailing school. These courses often
are at various levels of skill (beginning, intermediate, advanced)
and are offered on a class or private basis.

175
Equipping, Fitting
Out, and Commissioning
Most new boats are sold as basic boats, then most buyers purchase
optional extras. If you are willing to pay the price, you can have
the boat fully equipped when you purchase it. This assumes, how-
ever, that you already know exactly how you want the boat
equipped and fitted out. After using the boat for a time, most owners
want additional equipment or changes in or replacement of exist-
ing equipment.
Some new boats are purchased without being fully* equipped
or fitted out. The buyer then purchases this equipment later, in-
stalls it, and does the fitting out himself. The same thing applies

to used boats. While you can have equipment installed at boatyards,

you can save considerable money by installing this equipment your-
self. In most cases, this is quite easy to do. The term commission-

ing means getting the boat ready or setting it up. This is done when
the boat is delivered or taken out of winter storage. It can be com-
pared to a "dealer's preparation" when purchasing a new car. With
boats, it includes not only clean-up work, but also rigging and set-
ting up tasks and even adding fittings and hardware. There is an
overlap between equipping and fitting out and commissioning.

COMMISSIONING
Commissioning requires the least amount of handyman work,
provided all necessary holes have been drilled and everything was

176
prefitted. What remains is basically straightforward assembly.
Most dealers try to discourage a buyer from doing his own com-
missioning. There are reasons for this. For one thing, the dealer
charges a hefty commissioning fee. Take painting the bottom of
the boat with antifouling paint, for example. While this job is some-

times done at the factory, it is frequently done at the dealer level,

especially on larger boats that will be left in the water. These paints
must be applied within so many hours before launching if they are
to be fully effective. It is not unusual for a dealer to charge several
hundred dollars or more for applying $25 worth of antifouling paint.
By doing this yourself, the savings can be considerable. If you plan
to do your own maintenance work later, including annual painting
of the bottom of the boat with antifouling paint, why not start with
the first time? (See Chapter 9.) But this is easy money for the dealer,
so he is reluctant to give up this work.
Asecond reason why dealers try to discourage buyers from
doing their own commissioning is that the dealers want to make
certain that the job is done properly. This does not mean that the
dealers can necessarily do the work properly themselves, some of
them can't, but they fear that the buyer might completely botch
the job. This might, in turn, reflect back on the dealer who sold
the boat.
A third reason is that the dealers do not want the word to get
out as to how easy this work can be. Do-it-yourselfers take away
from the work of their service departments. The service centers
are often a big part of the profits of a boat dealer.
Still another reason is that there might not be any assembly
instructions provided. The dealer might feel that he will be spend-
ing more time explaining how it should be done than if he did the
work himself.
You must weigh a number of factors before deciding on whether
or not to do your own commissioning. First, how much work is re-
quired for the particular boat, and how difficult is it? This varies,
depending on the particular boat. On a small trailer boat, it might
be little more than routine cleaning. Or an outboard engine and con-
trols might need to be installed on the boat.
Many small boats that take outboards come from the manufac-
turers without engines.The engines and controls are often installed
by the and the boat and engine is sold as a package. You
dealer,
can expect to pay not only for the installation, but also a top price
for the outboard engine and controls. This is the case in the area

177
where The do-it-yourselfer, however, can drive 70 miles and
I live.

get the same brands of outboards and controls at discount marme

outlets for over 40 percent less. The outboard motors are quite easy
to install. The controls are sometimes a little more difficult, but
well within the skills of the typical do-it-yourselfer. The local dealers
will tell you that if you do this, the warranties on the engines will
be void. You get the same factory warranty, however, which clearly
states thatif you live more than a certain distance from the dealer

where you purchased the engine, the warranty must be honored

by the authorized service center in the area where you do live. By
installing the engine and controls yourself your savings can be con-
,

siderable.
As the boats get larger and more expensive, the commission-
ing becomes more expensive and often more difficult— at least you
are dealing with heavier weights and larger surface areas. It has
been said that it's no more difficult to build a large boat than a small
one, there is just more of it. The same idea applies to commission-
ing boats. See what is involved, then decide if you have the neces-
sary skill,experience, and time to do the job properly yourself.
you are a newcomer to boating, a new boat is not the place
If

to start do-it-yourself work if it involves such things as drilling holes

through fiberglass moldings or fiberglassing. Commissioning work,
especially on smaller boats, is another matter.
You should also determine how much money you can save by
doing the commissioning work yourself. Sometimes the dealer still
charges the same price for the boat whether he does the commis-
sioning or not. Then you would probably have him do it. When there
is a difference in the cost, you need to weigh the amount against

the time and effort of doing this work yourself.

Let's take a close look at a typical commissioning job— rigging
a sailboat. Most sailboats are shipped from the factory with the
spars and rigging already made up. No splicing or swaging is re-
quired. If this is not the case, leave the rigging to the dealer unless
you are an experienced rigger yourself. Trailerable sailboats are
often shipped with the spars and rigging mounted to the boat like
it is when the boat is carried on the trailer. If you purchase such

a boat with the trailer, this is the way the mast and rigging would
be mounted for trailering when you tow the boat home after you
buy it. There would be no commissioning of the rigging required
unless the dealer set it up to show you how it is done.
If you take in-the-water delivery of the boat, the rigging is nor-

mally done immediately prior to launching. With trailerable boats,

178
the rigging is essentially the same. For larger sailboats, it's simi-
lar, except a hoist might be required for stepping the mast.
I once purchased an imported sailboat on a trailer in the Mid-

west, which I towed to California. I then painted the bottom of the

boat with antifouling paint and had the boat lifted from the trailer
and lowered into the water with a boat hoist. With the boat in the
water, I stepped the mast and did the rigging. Everything had been

set up and marked at the factory so that I really couldn't go wrong,

even though there were no rigging instructions with the boat. All
the rigging was already attached to the mast. It might not be so
in your case, and you will have to do this yourself. The standing
rigging wires (forestay, backstay, shrouds, etc.) are marked so that
you will know where they go.
To step the mast, first remove the mast hinge bolt, set the mast
in place, and reinstall the bolt. Attach the backstay and the two
aft lower shrouds to the appropriate chain plates. To make the at-
tachments, remove a cotter key from the jaw of each turnbuckle,
remove the pin, place the jaw of the turnbuckle over the chain plate,
line up the holes, and install the pin and cotter key. Adjust the turn-
buckles to their longest length, making certain they are threaded
in far enough so that the threads will not be damaged.

At this point, check all standing and running rigging attached

to the mast. This is easy to do with the mast down, but once you
step the mast it can be more of a problem.
Next, with some helpers walk the mast up to the upright posi-
tion. With taller and heavier masts, however, use a crane or hoist.
With the mast upright, attach the forestay, the two forward lower
shrouds, and the upper shrouds to the appropriate chain plates.
Turn the rigging by adjusting the tension of the stays and
shrouds with the tumbuckles. Line up the mast vertically with the
centerline of the boat. This is accomplished by first adjusting the
forestay, backstay, and upper shrouds with the lower shrouds fairly
loose. From the dock, sight the mast from forward or aft the boat
to check for vertical alignment. Do this in calm water. If the mast
leans to port, loosen the port upper shroud turnbuckle and then
tighten the starboard turnbuckle. Check the alignment again. Ad-
just in reverse if the mast leans to starboard.
Make similar adjustments for fore and aft vertical alignment
of the mast. Make necessary adjustments in forestay and backstay
tumbuckles.
It takes considerable experience to know how tight the rigging
should be. When in doubt, it is better to leave the rigging too loose

179
than too tight.
Next, adjust the lower shrouds. When properly adjusted, the
mast will still be perfectly straight. The tension in the lower shrouds
must be adjusted in relation to the tension in the upper shrouds
and forestay and backstay.
Again, it takes practice and experience to properly tune the
If you have a trailerable sailboat, however,
rigging of a sailboat.
you must do this each time you step the mast. You can leave the
backstay and the two aft lower shrouds properly adjusted. Then,
the next time you step the mast, you only have to readjust the re-
maining tumbuckles.
Set the boom in its track or attach it to the mast (various
methods are used). Set up the running rigging. You are now ready
for the sails.
This might sound like a long and drawn-out process. It is, but
with practice, you will be able to set up for sailing fairly rapidly,
if only relatively. This is one of the reasons why trailer sailboats
are not more popular. It's also a common reason for keeping sail-

boats in the water. Care must be taken to prevent damage to turn-

buckles and rigging when setting up and taking down (stepping and
unstepping) the mast.
If you are going to be your sailboat, you must learn
trailer ing
to rig the boat yourself. If you are taking in-the-water delivery of
the boat, there are both advantages and disadvantages to stepping
the mast yourself. By doing it yourself, you can learn a Ipt in the
process, but you might not do it properly. Perhaps a good com-
promise is to have this done for you, but watch so that you can see
how it is done. This way, you will (hopefully) have it done prop-
erly. If it ever needs to be done again, you will probably know how
to do it yourself.
It is difficult to know when commissioning ends and fitting out

and equipping begins. While opinions vary, I think that once you
drill holes and do other similar tasks, you have crossed the line into

fitting out and equipping.

FITTING OUT AND EQUIPPING

A variety of fittings and equipment are available for boats. The
displays in marine stores often look like jewelry shop displays. This
chapter discusses two types of fittings and equipment. The first

type does not require attachment or installation to the boat. The

second type does.

180
 Items Not Requiring Attachment or Installation
This category includes flotation jackets, flare guns, dinghies, and
hundreds of other items. They are carried aboard the boat, but do
not require attachment or installation, though there may be brackets
attached to the boat to hold the flare gun or dinghy. Some items,
such as an ice box, can be portable nonattached or installed.
There are also items, such as boat or sail covers, that must fit

the particular boat or sail and might even be custom-made and

fitted, but do not require any fittings attached to the boat. Some
boat covers and similar items might require fasteners attached to
the boat.
Anchors are another item that can be nonattached or installed,
such as part of an automatic windlass anchoring system. The an-
chor can also be stowed free or held in place by chocks, which are
fastened to the boat. Before purchasing equipment for your boat,
it's important to see if any installation is required.

The same items of marine equipment are sold at many differ-

ent prices. The most expensive places to buy, but often the most
convenient, are marine stores. These are found in most boating
areas. Even here, the prices can vary. Two marine stores in the
same area might have different prices for the same or similar items,
yet the store that was higher priced on this item might be the lower
priced one on another item. Or one store might offer lower prices
than the other. Marine stores could also have sale prices on some
items.
You shop directly at a marine store. You go into the store, look
at and examine the merchandise, and buy it at the marked price
if you decide that you want to. You might have some return

privileges. Some stores even special order items that they don't
have in stock for you. This could include fast delivery from a cen-
tral supply warehouse. But these advantages must be balanced
against the fact that you will be paying top prices.
An alternative is to shop at discount marine stores, which are
often found in large cities in boating areas. They frequently adver-
tise innewspapers and local and regional boating publications.
These stores have top quality and brands of merchandise. Some,
for example, sell top brands of outboard motors for considerably
less than the typical outlets.
Still another good source is mail-order discount stores. For a

listing of these, see the Appendix. Most of these have catalogs, for
which there could be a charge. These mail-order sources are often
part of marine discount stores; others sell only by mail order.

181
 I have had especially good results with Defender Industries,
Inc., 255 Main St., P.O. Box 820, New Rochelle, NY 10801. Their
catalog sells for $1.
Most mail-order firms ship by parcel post, United Parcel Ser-
vice (UPS), truck, or air. Both parcel post and UPS have size and
weight limitations.
A main disadvantage of mail ordering is that you have to wait
for the merchandise. If you order from a dependable firm and have
your order shipped by UPS (assuming that it qualifies by size and
weight), your order can arrive in a short period of time. Other firms
never seem to have whatever it is you order in stock and have to
back-order, which can add days to the time when you will receive
your merchandise.
There is always the possibility that the merchandise will ar-
rive damaged, defective, or not be what you want, in which case
it can be a lot of trouble to return it, then more waiting to get your

money back. The mail-order firms often have their prices so much
lower than the typical marine retail store, however, that it is still
worth the risk of problems. While the cost of shipping must be
figured in as part of the cost of the merchandise, the saving can
still be considerable.
I also find the catalogs extremely useful. I can compare the
prices with those of the same merchandise at local marine stores.
If the savings are small, I purchase at the local marine store. If

the mail-order firm offers a substantial discount, I mail order un-

less need the item right away. I also find the catalogs useful for
I

planing what equipment and fittings I want and seeing what's avail-
able and what the possibilities are. The catalogs are good dream
books.
You might, at first, think that the marine mail-order firms can
sell atlower prices because they offer lower quality merchandise.
This is seldom the case. They offer the same brands and quality
of merchandise as the typical marine stores. The lower prices are
possible because of volume marketing. With the present high cost
of shipping, the savings are perhaps less than they once were, but
they can still be considerable.

Items Requiring Attachment or Installation

There are hundreds of fittings and items of equipment that require
some form of attachment or installation. Sometimes the attachment
or installation is simple and straightforward; at other times it can
be quite involved and difficult. Sometimes the fitting or item of

182
equipment comes with directions for attaching it to the boat or in-
staUing it; at other times it comes without instructions.
The installation boils down to attaching the item to the boat.
Some form of mechanical fasteners is used. While self-adhesive"
backings are used for some light-duty attachments, this is very-
limited. Some equipment installation will require fiberglassing skills
and techniques (see Chapter 10) and/or other handyman skills, but
most equipment can be installed easily.
Many items do not require drilling holes or making any other
modification to the boat itself. An example of this type of equip-
ment is an anchor holder that attaches to a bow-pulpit. Assembly
and attachment involves placing plastic pieces over the pulpit tub-
ing, placing the anchor holder brackets over the plastic pieces, and
then bolting the anchor holder clamps in position. Complete easy-
to-follow directions come with the anchor holder. The only required
tools for installation are a couple of wrenches. Installation time is
only a few minutes.
This type of attachment is within the range of most anyone who
can follow simple directions and use simple hand tools. Perhaps
there is someone who could botch the job, but it's difficult to see
how this could be done.
Many fittings and equipment installations require drilling holes
in some part of the boat for mechanical fasteners. The most suit-
able fasteners are through bolts or machine screws; wood screws
are suitable for making attachments to wood. Self-tapping screws
are sometimes used in fiberglass laminates, but they are not recom-
mended. The screws do not have much holding power, and once
the fiberglass is slightly damaged around the screw, repair is diffi-
cult. While rivets are sometimes used on low-quality fiberglass

boats, this is also not recommended. Sooner or later, the rivets are
almost sure to work loose. Nails also have only limited use. Spe-
cial ring boat nails, available in monel, stainless steel, and silicon
bronze, can sometimes be used for fastening wood to wood. Their
use is not common on fiberglass boats, however, especially those
of high-quality construction.
Most marine hardware, fittings, and equipment come with the
necessary fasteners for installing them; others don't. And some
otherwise good-quality fittings or equipment come with unsuit-
able fasteners. For example, I once purchased a stainless steel cabin
vent. It was of high quality, yet self -tapping screws instead of
through bolts came with it for installing it deck or cabin top.
to a
The only logical course was to purchase small through bolts and

183
do the installation correctly.
Another problem that I've seen, fortunately rarely, is to include
fasteners of the correct type, but of an unsuitable metal. In general,
marine fasteners should be stainless steel or marine bronze. Those
of monel are also excellent but not so readily available. Brass is

unsuitable, yet many people seem to think that it is the same as

bronze. Unfortunately to confuse the situation, brass fasteners, as
well as brass fittings and hardware, are sometimes sold at marine
stores. A magnet can be used to separate monel, the nonmagnetic
marine stainless steels, and marine bronze from ordinary steel,
which is magnetic. Unfortunately, brass is nonmagnetic, so a mag-
net test cannot be used to separate marine bronze from brass.
Fasteners of regular steel, even if plated, should be avoided,
especially if the boat will be used in salt water environments. This
includes not only exterior fasteners used below the waterline, but
also fasteners used anywhere else on the boat, including the interior.
If the proper fasteners are not included with the fittings or

equipment when you buy them, get these before you start the in-
stallation. Do not try to make do with a fastener of unsuitable metal
with the idea that you will replace it later. They have a habit of
remaining until they bleed rust or, worse, fail. A common cause
of do-it-yourselfers botching installation jobs is not having the
proper fasteners. In the case of bolts, this means not only the proper
bolts, but also nuts, washers, lock washers, etc.
When you need fasteners, the quick and easy way is to go to

the nearest marine store and purchase them in small packages. Most
marine stores have racks of these. This method can be incredibly
expensive, however. The same quality fasteners can usually be pur-
chased at a fraction of the price if you go to a store that specializes
in marine fasteners and has them in bins. The price seems to jump
dramatically when they are put in small plastic packages, often
several hundred percent or even more. Or you can mail order
fasteners (see Appendix for sources).
There are times when you might want to use the higher priced
fasteners in the small packages, such as when you only need a few,
or if the nonpackaged ones aren't available in your area, or you
have to mail order them. If you need a large number of fasteners,
however, it would probably be worth the trouble to travel further
or even mail order them. Some of the mail-order firms promise that
orders will be filled within 24 hours. If you use UPS delivery, you
should receive them in a few days.
In most cases, you must drill holes for the fasteners. In fiber-

184
glass, metal drilling bits and cutting blades can be used. In the
smaller sizes, twist bits are used. For larger size holes, holesaws
that have a variety of blade sizes are useful. While the latter might
not give the exact size hole you require, you can cut the size smaller
and then file the hole out to the proper size.
While hand-turned drills could be used, a portable electric drill
is recommended. Fiberglass typically drills very easily, so even a

fairlylow-power electric drill will suffice.

There are several problems involved in drilling holes in fiber-
glass for installing fittings and equipment. First, you must know
exactly where you want the hole centered. Second, you must know
exactly what size hole you want to make. And third, you must drill
or cut the hole without damaging the surrounding fiberglass.
Some fittings and equipment come with templates for the holes
for mounting fasteners. Some fittings or piece of equipment them-
selves can be used as a template. For example, the holes in the base
of a cleat can serve as a template formarking where the holes are
to be drilled. You still have to decide where you want the cleat
mounted. In other cases, you will have to rely on measurements.
Hole sizes depend on the diameter of the fasteners that pass
through them and other factors. The hole diameter can be the same
as the diameter of the fastener. A 1/4-inch diameter bolt requires
a hole that is drilled with a 1/4-inch diameter drill bit. If a tighter
fit than this is required, a drill bit 1/64 inch smaller than the fas-
tener diameter can be used. This allows threading the fastener
through the hole in a fiberglass laminate. If you drill the hole too
much smaller than the diameter of the fastener, however, you will
not be able to thread the fastener through without damaging the
laminate. If possible, try the hole size on a scrap piece of fiberglass
laminate before making the hole in the boat itself.

You might need to measure the diameters of fasteners and drill

bits. Metal or plastic templates, such as those that come with drill

bit sets, are ideal for this. To use these, insert the bit or fastener
in the holes until you find the smallest size hole that it will fit into.
With fasteners, it's usually the diameter to the outside of the threads
or the diameter of the unthreaded portion if the bolt is not threaded
all the way to the head that is measured.
For larger size holes, such as those to be drilled with a holesaw,
use calipers to measure the diameter of the fastener or other item
that must fit in or pass through the hole. Before drilling a hole in
fiberglass that is part of the boat, drill a test hole in a scrap piece
of fiberglass laminate or plywood to test the fit. You might need

185
to drill the hole slightly under size, then file it out for an exact fit.

After you have marked the hole centers and determined the
drill bit or holesaw size to use, make the holes. Whenever practi-
cal, begin the hole on the gel coat side of the fiberglass laminate.
This reduces the possibility of chipping the gel coating when drill-

ing or cutting the hole. Use a center punch to give a pilot indenta-
tion for the center of each hole to be drilled. It only requires a light
tap with a hammer on the center punch.
In most cases, the holes aremade perpendicular to the surface
of the fiberglass laminate. To do this accurately by simply hand-
holding an electric drill can be difficult, and many beginners botch
jobs by trying to do this. When a cleat with four mounting holes
in a symmetrical pattern is mounted properly, for example, the
fasteners extend through the holes in the fiberglass laminate in the
same symmetrical pattern. If they don't, the holes were not made
perpendicular to the surface of the laminate. Since tightening down
on the fastener tends to move the fastener to a perpendicular posi-
tion, this can stress the laminate and possibly damage it.
Special guide attachments are available for standard electric
drills to help you drill accurate holes perpendicular to the surface

being drilled through. These can be extremely useful for boat work.
Sometimes, however, you must drill holes without using a jig
attachment. To do this, carefully sight the angle of the bit from
two directions 90 degrees apart. If this is done carefully, the holes
can be made reasonably close to perpendicular to the surface or
at other desired angles.
In some cases, you can drill through the fitting holes. If you
are installing a cleat, for example, you can drill the first hole directly
through the fiberglass, then bolt the cleat in position with one bolt.

To drill the remaining holes, pass the drill bit through the hole in

the cleat first. Drill carefully so you do not damage the cleat.

To drill a hole, center the point of the tip of the drill bit in the
center punch indentation. Start the drill. Drill through the gel coat-
ing and on through the laminate. Allow the drill to do the cutting.
Do not force it through. When the bit passes through the opposite
side of the laminate, support the electric drill so that the angle is

maintained and the does not drop downward. This will help
drill

prevent chipping the fiberglass laminate as the bit passes through.

When using a holesaw, the procedure is similar. Holesaws have
a number of blade sizes attached to a single holder. To cut a hole,
remove all cutting blades except the one that is the size for the hole
you want to make. Center the point of the tip of the pilot bit in the

186
center punch indentation. Start the drilling. The cutting blade
should contact the surface all the way around when it first makes
contact, assuming that you are drilling into a flat surface. Other-
wise, the blade will cut the hole at an angle to the surface. When
drilling through curved fiberglass panels, the blade will start cut-
ting the highest areas first. The electric drill must be maintained
at the desired angle for the hole that is being made.
If you can get to both sides of the fiberglass laminate for drill-
ing, cut the hole only halfway through. Then insert the pilot bit
in the same hole from the opposite side and drill the rest of the
way through. This will help prevent chipping the laminate as the
holesaw blade goes through. If you can only drill from one side,
continue drilling through while carefully controlling the drill.
There will be situations where you can only drill from the rough
side of a laminate through to the gel coat side. Special care must
be taken when the drill or holesaw blade goes through to keep from
chipping the gel coat, which is especially brittle because it is a resin
layer without reinforcing material.
For light-duty attachments, the fittings or equipment are then
bolted in place with a standard washer, lock washer, and nut used
on each bolt. This applies to single skin laminates and those with
plywood cores. If the laminate has a soft core, such as rigid foam
plastic, additional work is required to prevent the tightened fas-
tener and/or load on the attachment from crushing the core mate-
rial. While wood, plastic, or metal inserts are sometimes used, a
better method is to hollow out some of the core material around
the hole and fiberglass this area in. This requires fiberglassing skills

and techniques (Chapter 10). Laminates with soft cores were some-
times molded to single skin or with wood inserts in areas where
fittings are commonly attached, however.
When heavy loadings are placed on the fasteners, backing
blocks or plates are used. If you are in doubt as to whether or not
these are required, it is probably better to use them. Because it
is often difficult to get plates shaped from suitable marine metals,

do-it-yourselfers frequently shape these from wood, though large

fender washers alone might suffice.
Backing blocks are usually made from hardwood. If a softwood
is used, the washers tend to dig into the wood, which can result

in the fastener loosening and leaking around the fastener. For heavy
loadings, the backing blocks should be large so that the loading
spreads over a large area of the fiberglass laminate. It is also good
practice to shape the backing blocks with a taper (Fig. 8-1). This

187
 Molding

Fig. 8-1 . Backing blocl< edges taper to help prevent high stress concentrations.

will help to prevent high stress concentrations with heavy loadings.

After the backing block has been shaped, holes matching those
in the fiberglass laminate must be drilled in the backing block.
There are various ways of doing this. One way is to position the
backing block against the fiberglass laminate and then mark loca-
tion for holes on the wood by working a sharp pointed object or
pencil through the holes in the fiberglass laminate. The block is

then removed and the holes are drilled through the wood.
Another method is to hold the backing block in position and
then drill one of the holes through the wood by starting the drill

bit through one of the holes in the fiberglass laminate. The fitting
or other attachment can be held in place with one bolt while the
other holes are drilled.
There are a few cases where additional thickening oi the fiber-
glass laminate is required (see Chapter 10). The previous method
will suffice for most attachments, however.
Before making final assembly, bedding compound is applied
to prevent leakage around the fasteners. To install a cleat, for ex-
ample, a layer of bedding compound is applied to the contact sur-
face of the cleat, to the contact surface of the fiberglass laminate,
to the contact surfaces of the backing block and the back side of
the fiberglass laminate, and to the threads of the fasteners. Then
using appropriate washers, lock washers, and nuts, finger- tighten
each fastener. Using a wrench for tightening the nut and a second
wrench or screwdriver for holding the bolt head in a set position,
tighten up on the nut but do not overtighten. Excess tightening can
damage the fiberglass laminate.
Figure 4-38 in Chapter 4 shows the installation of a typical deck
cleat. Stanchions and bow and stern rail plates can be mounted to
a fiberglass deck in a similar manner (Fig. 8-2). The mounting of

188
 1 1

gimbal brackets to a countertop is shown in Fig. 8-3. Hundreds of

other standard marine items can be mounted in a similar manner.
Through-hull hittings are frequently installed in fiberglass
laminates. These might be below or above the waterline. As a rule,

all through-hull fittings for water drains or intakes that are below
or near the waterline should be fitted with seacocks. These should
be bronze, not brass, like the type of gate valves commonly sold
at hardware stores. They come in a variety of sizes in bronze and
plastic.
To install through-hull fittings, locate and mark the centerpoint.
If practical, start the drilling from the gel coat side of the laminate.
Use a center punch to make a small indentation to start the drill-
ing.Use the correct size drilling bit or holesaw blade. If you do
not have the exact size, drill or cut one size smaller and then file

(use a metal file) the hole out to correct size.

In most cases, a hardwood backing block is used. If the fiber-
glass laminate is curved in the area, one side of the block should
be shaped to fit the curve. Mark and drill the hole for the through-
hull fittings through the block.
Apply bedding compound. Install a through-hull connection
piece through the hole in the fiberglass laminate and on through
the hole in the backing block. Thread the locknut or flange nut in
place and tighten down, but do not overtighten. Bedding compound
should squeeze out. Remove excess bedding compound.
Deck air vent fittings for fuel, water, and holding tanks; water

Stanchion
Mounting Plate

1 1

Wood Backing
Block Backing Washer,
Lock Washer, and Nut

Fig. 8-2. Deck mounting of a stanchion plate.

189
 Gimbal
Bracket

Countertop
Backing Washer,
Lock Washer,
And Nut
Fig. 8-3. A gimbal bracket mounted to a countertop.

and fuel tank filler deck and holding tank deck pumpout
plates;
plates are often installed similarly.Another type of deck plate fit-
ting has a mounting flange plate, which is bolted to the deck with
three or more fasteners. Whenever you have a choice, however,
I recommend the type of fittings that have the flange nuts.

Installation of some fittings and equipment can require holes

larger than the largest holesaw you have or cutout shapes other
than round, such as for an oval port (window). A saber saw with
a fine-tooth, metal-cutting blade can be used to make these cutouts.
First, carefully mark the pattern for the desired cutout. When prac-
tical, this is done on the gel coat side of the fiberglass laminate.
It is sometimes helpful to cover the fiberglass with masking tape.

190
Then mark the pattern for cutting on the masking tape. Next, drill
a pilot hole for the saw blade. Then make the cutout.
The above techniques should allow you to install many items
of equipment to fiberglass. These can include holding and water
tanks, galley sinks with pumps and drains, bilge pump systems,
and hundreds of other pieces of equipment.
Fittings and equipment can be attached to wood in a similar
manner. Screws can be used instead of through bolts for making
attachments to wood, but only if the loadings will be light. To hide
the fasteners, counterbore holes are used to set the fastener below
the surface of the wood. The holes are then filled with wood plugs,
which are glued in place. After the glue sets, the plugs are trimmed
to the level of the surrounding wood and sanded smooth.
A variety of wood items are available, such as magazine and
book racks, dish and chart holders, and hand and grab rails. These
are available in teak and mahogany, finished or unfinished. They
are ideal for the do-it-yourselfer who does not have the time, skill,
or desire to construct these items himself. They give a neat fin-

ished look, yet the installation is quite easy. Just use the appropri-
ate method of attachment.
It's important to plan carefully. It's much easier to drill a hole
in a fiberglass laminate than it is to patch you do make
it back in. If

a mistake, however, you can repair it (see Chapters 10 and 12). At-
taching some fittings and installing some equipment will require
that modifications be made to the boat (see Chapter 11).

191
Care and Maintenance
of Fiberglass Boats
*
'Compared to boats made from other common boatbuilding
materials, fiberglass boats require less maintenance," is a state-
ment that is often heard. The truth or falsity of this statement de-
pends on what you mean. If a boat is given no maintenance at all
and is left in the water, the fiberglass boat would probably still be
floating when all the other boats had sunk or broken up, but even
this is no certainty.
If a fiberglass boat is to be kept in a sound, functional, and sea-

worthy condition and the appearance (and resale value) maintained,

maintenance is required— and lots of it. The maintenance can be
reduced, however, if proper care is taken of the boat. You won't
have to remove creosote from the topsides of the fiberglass hull
if you don't let the boat rub against the pilings that are coated with

it. If you use a boat cover, you can protect the gel coating from

the effects of the sun, which in turn can mean less waxing to keep
the finish in top condition.
Having spent considerable time around marinas, I've had a good
opportunity to make an informal study of the care and maintenance
of fiberglass boats and also to compare them with boats of other
materials. Some people take good care of their boats, others don't.
I'll detail what to do to protect and care for a fiberglass boat later

in this chapter. For now, suffice it to say that banging docks with-
out fenders between the dock and boat is an example of not taking
care of a boat very well. Careful docking and proper use of fenders

192
is an example of protecting the boat. The latter reduces the need
for maintenance; the former means removing marks and scratches
or, even worse, making repairs.
Those who take good care of their boats usually do a good job
of maintaining their boats. There are exceptions, such as the per-
son who takes poor protective measures and yet does good main-
tenance work, or vice versa, but these are rare. If the boats are
ever put up for sale, the cared for and maintained boats generally
fetch much higher prices.
You can hire all or some of the maintenance work, or you can
do all or part of it yourself. The more you do yourself, the more
money you can save.

PROTECTION AND CARE

Once you own a fiberglass boat, you will want to protect it from
abuse and damage and take care of it. This can be thought of as
preventing the need for excessive maintenance and repair work.
When you use your boat, there is a fine line between proper
use and abuse of the boat. Your first and primary concern should
be in the safe operation of the boat. The safety of people comes
first.Next you are responsible for the property of others. Finally,
you take pride in or are responsible for your own property— your
boat. The first two are legal responsibilities that you undertake
when you own and operate a boat. The last, beyond keeping the
boat in safe operating condition, is more or less up to you.
Fiberglass laminates, including gel coat surfaces, are not very
resistant to wear and abrasion. Rub rails are often positioned on
fiberglass boats to protect a vulnerable area. A stepping tread is

another example. You can't protect all of your boat, but there are
many things that you can do to reduce wear and damage.
A first consideration is what is meant by "normal" use. This,
of course, will vary. Who be the crew and passengers? How
will
strict will you be? Normal use with active children aboard will prob-
ably be much more if just you and
intense, to say the least, than
your spouse use the boat. And
you become too strict, you might
if

spoil the fun for everyone else, even to the point where you won't
have a crew or passengers to enjoy boating with you anymore.
A compromise must be made between protecting the boat and
using it for fun and recreation. How far you go and in which direc-
tion depends on your particular situation.
First, proper deck shoes go a long way toward preventing wear
on fiberglass walking surfaces, which often have a nonskid pattern

193
woven into the fiberglass laminate. Besides, deck shoes can be
thought of as fun shoes. So insist that crew and passengers wear
thesewhen aboard the boat, and be sure to set a good example by
wearing them as well.
Second, there are places on the boat where you (or crew or pas-
sengers) should not sit or stand. The tops of hatches on many boats
are one of these areas. While the hatches might support your
them can often be damaging. While
weight, standing or sitting on
itmight be argued that the hatches should have been constructed
strong enough to stand and sit on them, it will get you nowhere
when trying to get the dealer to repair fractured hatch laminate
or hatch tracks or other hardware under the new boat warranty.
Most manufactured boats are far from being people proof. A
visit to a boat show will quickly convince most anyone of this. After

a parade of a few hundred or thousand people pour through the

interior of a boat on display, it can be in shambles. Hinges pull loose.
The table leg gives way. The curtain rod attachments come loose.
And so on. The extent of the damage depends on the quality of
the boat, the number of people that go through it, and how freely
they are allowed to poke, pull, twist, and whatever else comes to
mind. Certain standards of behavior should be required aboard
boats— for safety and to prevent damage and wear on the boat.
Proper operation of the boat is extremely important. Improper
docking techniques can cause wounds in a fiberglass hull that no
amount of polishing or waxing can remove. While some docks are
padded with protective fender materials, many aren't, and even
those that are often can't be depended on. Hardened rubber
bumpers with cracks and sharp areas are common. Nails and other
sharp protrusions are other typical hazards.
The solution is and proper use of your own boat
docking skill

fenders. A little game helps.

you allow the boat to touch a dock
If

directly without a fender between the boat and the dock, you lose
the game. This will not only help preserve the boat, but will also
help improve your boat handling.
You shouldn't let protecting the boat keep you from enjoying
your boat and using it, however. I once knew a snow skier who
bragged about never having fallen once on skis. He wasn't a very
good skier, and he never seemed to learn anything new. The same
thing can apply to boating. You will want to take reasonable care
of your boat, but not to the point of not using it or not learning any-
thing new.
Fiberglass gel coating deteriorates from exposure to sunlight.

194
In time, the gel coating color fades and chalks. There are certain
maintenance steps, detailed later in this chapter, that will main-
tain and restore the color and remove the chalking. There is some-
thing you can do to prevent the problem in the first place— that is
to use a boat cover.
Over the past three years, I've observed what a difference
covering a boat can make. Three years ago two fiberglass runabouts
of the same manufacturer, size, and colors arrived on the scene at
our marina. One owner purchased a full boat cover with his boat,
the other didn't. One of the boats was always covered when it was
not in use. The other one was always left exposed. During the rainy
season, the owner would merely pump the water out after each rain.
The boat with the cover didn't get water inside.
Now, three years after the boats were purchased, the uncovered
boat is a mess. Not only have the elements ruined the upholstery,
but the sun has also faded and chalked the gel coating to the point
where routine maintenance does little to bring the gel coating back
to life again.
The boat that was kept covered still looks factory fresh. Not
only is the upholstery in good condition, but so is the gel coating.
A boat cover obviously seems like a good idea. This is true for
a small open boat that is left out in the open, whether in the water
or out on a boat trailer, as well as for larger boats, both power and
sail, including those with cabins and self-draining cockpit areas.
In some boating areas, covered slips are available. These are
essentially slips with roofs or sheds over, and sometimes around,
them. They are only suitable for powerboats. The covers serve not
only to protect the boats from rain, but also from the sun. Boats
kept in covered slips are better preserved than those kept in open
slips and is a possibility to consider. You can expect to pay higher
rent for a covered berth than an open one, and this must also be
taken into consideration.
You can also preserve by keeping water from
fiberglass boats
getting inside. But, you say,
bought a fiberglass boat because fiber-
I
*
glass is 'waterproof." Water should not have very damaging ef-
fects on fiberglass laminates that are protected by gel coatings or
paint. There are other materials on most fiberglass boats, however,
that are not so resistant to water damage— namely wood, metal,
and upholstery fabrics.
With self -bailing boats, the water drains out automatically.
Cabin boats have the deck and cabin structures and hatch and win-
dow and port arrangements set up so that water cannot get below,

195
that is, unless the hatches or windows or ports are left open so it

can. This type of boat has a self -bailing cockpit to automatically

drain the water out or off. These boats are intended for being out
in ail types of weather. They are designed and constructed so water
will not get below, at least not in any large quantities.
Most any water that does
fiberglass boats have a bilge area for
get inside to collect. There is often a bilge pump
to pump out any
water that collects in the bilge. The pump itself can be hand or bat-
tery powered. Some electric pumps are automatic. Any water in
the bilge trips the switch, which pumps the water out. When there
is no more water, the switch turns off (opening the circuit) and the

pump stops. If more water gets in the bilge, the cycle is repeated.
Many pumps also sound an alarm when they operate.
It's best not to let water stay in the bilge. The sooner you can

get it out, the better. Some bilges on fiberglass boats are essen-
tially fiberglass swimming pools. There are no metal, wood, or other

materials that water can damage. Other bilges have keel bolts that
can rust and/or wood backing blocks that can dry-rot. There might
also be electrical wiring that can be damaged by water. In any case,
it is best to keep the water out by not letting it get there in the

first place. Pump or bail it out as soon as possible once it does get

there.
Without an inboard engine, I've found it possible to have dry
bilge fiberglass boats. Water just doesn't get there. To accomplish
this, I'vehad to stop all the deck and cabin leaks and other sources
of water. With an inboard engine with a prop shaft passing through
a stuffing box, some water in the bilge is almost inevitable. You
just have to put up with it, although proper stuffing of the gland
can keep the amount of water to a minimum. An automatic bilge
pump is a handy way to remove this water from the bilge.
There is still another crucial factor in protecting the interior
of fiberglass boats— that is ventilation. Lack of ventilation usually
means condensation. While this might not be too damaging to fiber-
glass per se, it can be very hard on wood, some metals, upholstery,
and other materials. Good ventilation also makes life below much
more comfortable.
You need good ventilation even when the hatches are closed
and when no one aboard or around the boat. You need good ven-
is

tilation when the sun is shining and when it is raining. Besides open-
ing hatches and ports and windows, this can be supplemented by
ventilators, such as the dorade type (Fig. 9-1). The vents are de-
signed to either let air in or draw it out, or both, while at the same

196
Fig. 9-1 . Dorade-type ventilator.

time not letting rain or other water get below. These vents have
the advantage over the typical hatches, doors, windows, and ports
in that they continue to function when the boat is closed up.
A combination of moisture inside the boat and lack of ventila-
tion can quickly lead to mold and mildew inside. This can also lead
to dry rot in plywood bulkheads and other wood parts.

MAINTENANCE
Maintenance is the routine, on-going care a boat receives.

Fiberglass
Fiberglass is a low-maintenance material. It does require regular
cleaning and waxing if it is to be kept in top condition.
Washing. Fiberglass boats should be washed frequently to
remove dirt and grime. At dockside, there is often a pressure water
hose hookup. This, along with a spray nozzle attachment, makes
boat washing much easier. You can use the water the boat is float-
ing whether fresh or salt water, for cleaning the boat, provided
in,

that this water is clean enough.

Regardless, a bucket of water with a biodegradable liquid de-
tergent added can be used for washing. This will remove some types
of greasy spots and stains. It can be applied with a sponge, towel
or other cloth, soft brush, or mop. If a brush or mop is used, it must

197
be soft with no sharp wood or metal parts that can scratch the
fiberglass.
The first step is to wet the entire exterior of the boat down
with the spray nozzle on the hose. If you are using the water the
boat is floating in, you can dip it out with a bucket or mop or pump
it out with a hand or electric pump to a hose with a nozzle on it.

Many boat owners rig their bilge pumps so that they can also be
used for this purpose. This first washing down removes some of
the loose dirt and grime.
Next, wash the boat with the detergent. A sponge is often used
for smooth surfaces. A soft brush is handy for nonskid areas of
fiberglass.
If you use abrasive cleaners at all, use them with discretion

because they can, in effect, sand away gel coating and remove the
glossy surface. A sponge with liquid detergent placed on it full

strength can remove spots from gel coat surfaces and with less risk
than if abrasive cleaners are used.
After applying and scrubbing with the liquid detergent, wash
the boatdown again with water from the hose or, lacking dockside
water supply, with buckets of water or a mop soaked with water.
A final step, sometimes omitted, is to wipe the fiberglass dry
with a chamois or cloth.
If you have a trailer boat, the same type of washing can be done
with the boat out of the water on the trailer. An added advantage
here is that the bottom of the boat can also be washed.
The intervals between washings can vary. Some fiberglass boat
owners wash their boats after each time they use them or even more
often. Others rarely, if ever, wash their boats. Frequent washings
show pride in ownership and also make the boat more enjoyable
to use.
Waxing. Another important maintenance job for fiberglass
gel coated surfaces is waxing. The gel coating is actually filled with
tiny pores. To protect the surface, waxes especially formulated for
fiberglass boats should be used, rather than automotive waxes. The
wax can be paste or liquid, as desired. The wax should only be ap-
plied to a clean boat. If the gel coating is faded or chalked, a spe-
cial polish or buffing compound might be required before applying
the wax.
To apply the wax, follow the manufacturer's directions. Some
waxes are applied with a damp cloth or sponge, others are applied
dry. Next buff the wax out. By hand, this can be a long job. A power
buffer or even a buffer attachment on a portable electric drill can

198
greatly speed the work. To avoid electric shock, 'do not use these
when the boat is in the water, especially anywhere near the water-
line. When the boat is and do the job by
in the water, use a cloth
hand, even if you have to take it small sections at a time. This can
be avoided if you give the boat a good wax job once a year at haulout
time for bottom cleaning and painting.
If you have a brand new fiberglass boat, it's best to apply the

first wax before the boat is launched for the first time. The
coat of
length of time that a wax application gives good protection and ap-
pearance varies, but a quality wax properly applied can last from
six months to a year. I suggest at least one thorough waxing with
a power buffer or buffer attachment on a portable electric drill each
year. This can be supplemented by one or more hand waxings dur-
ing the year if the boat is kept in the water. Trailer boats can, if

desired, be waxed using a power buffer twice a year at six-month

intervals. Waxing is especially important for fiberglass boats that
won't be stored under cover.
Dulled, faded, and chalked gel coatings can sometimes be
brought back to life by using specially formulated fiberglass
cleaners, polishing compounds, or buffing compounds. There are
two basic types: one works chemically without abrasives, the other
is an abrasive polishing or buffing compound. Those called polish-

ing compounds are milder than those called rubbing or buffing com-
pounds. These compounds are applied and buffed out in a manner
similar to wax. There are some variations for certain types and
brands, however, so follow the manufacturer's directions for the
particular product used. If this procedure does not restore the fin-
ish, you might want to consider painting, as detailed in Chapter 12.
Painting. A major maintenance task for fiberglass boats is
painting the bottoms with antifouling paint. How often this is re-
quired varies depending on where the boat is used, how long it is
kept in the water, and other factors. As a rule, fiberglass boats kept
in salt water require a haulout and bottom painting once a year.
In fresh water, this can differ. While once a year is recommended,
it might be possible to go longer than this by scrubbing the bottom

while the boat is in the water. In the area where I now keep my
sailboat, only about 6 inches of the hull by the waterline gets a
growth on it. By using a brush to scrub this off at intervals, an-
tifouling paint remains satisfactory for a couple of years. This ap-
plies to fresh water, however, and wouldn't work for salt water.
To apply antifouling paint, you must first haul the boat. Some-
times careening is possible, such as with a full-keel sailboat tied

199
against a wall in shallow water at high tide. When the tide goes
out, the boat is grounded on the bottom of the keel and held up-
right by the wall. This might give time for a quick antifouling paint
job between tides.
Trailer boats can be hauled out on their trailers for bottom
painting. Larger boats are hauled at a boatyard or other area with
special hauling equipment. A number of methods are used, includ-
ing cranes, sling hoists, railways, and elevator lifts. The basic idea
is to get the boat safely out of the water to a location where the

bottom painting and other work can be done. Often the boats are
placed on special cradles or stands.
After the boat has been hauled, it is set up on a cradle or other
supports. Trailer boats can sometimes be painted while on the
trailers. This can require jacking up sections for painting contact

areas where the boat sets on rollers or other supports. The next
step is to scrub the bottom with a hose with a nozzle on the end
of it and various cleaning compounds. You can also use a stiff scrub
brush and/or abrasive cleaning pads. If the boat is in salt water,
you also need to use a scraper. The basic idea is to clean the bot-
tom down to the old bottom paint or, if the old bottom paint is
chipped or peeled off, to the fiberglass surface. This can be quite
easy, though at times it takes considerable work.
Some boatyards have steam cleaning equipment that can make
easy work of this. They often come around offering this service
for a price. It can be mighty tempting. You can also pay to have
the entire job done, for an even larger price.
Thoroughly clean the bottom of the boat up to the level where
bottom paint is to be applied. Allow the bottom to dry off.
You must decide what type of antifouling paint to use. If you
know what was used previously, and it was satisfactory, you might
want to use the same kind again. If you don't know what was used
before, or it didn't give satisfactory service, find out what other
people in the area use. For each boating area, there are certain kinds
that work best.
When you purchase the paint, buy any required special cleaners
and/or primers for that particular type and brand of paint. Follow
the manufacturer's directions.
The next step is to prepare the bottom of the boat for paint-
ing. The procedure here varies depending on factors such as the
type of paint that was previously used, its condition, and the type
of new paint that is to be applied. Sometimes a chemical treatment
is all that is required for preparing the surface for the new paint;

200
other times light sanding is required. Whenever you sand bottom

paint, wear a protective mask and goggles because the dust can
be toxic.
The bottom painting can extend to a level just above the water-
line to the gel coating or to a painted boot-top stripe. Before paint-
ing the bottom with antifouling paint, you might want to repaint
the boot-top stripe. This can require sanding. Then, mask the edges
and repaint. A boot-top stripe can be added on a boat that did not
have one previously in a similar manner.
Next apply masking tape at the top edge of where the bottom
paint is to be applied. This is usually the same level used previ-
ously, unless you want to change it. You might want to raise or
lower the level, depending on whether it was too high or low before.
Apply the antifouling paint by brush or roller, as desired. Again
check your directions. Some boats must be launched within a cer-
tain number of hours after the paint is applied for the paint to re-
tain its full effectiveness. In other cases, the paint must be allowed
to dry for a certain length of time before the boat is launched. Spe-
cial hard finishes are available for trailer boats that will be taken
in and out of the water.
With most types of antifouling paint, only one coat is applied.
A second coat will not improve the effects of the paint for keeping
marine growth off the bottom of the boat, and it can cause the paint
to flake and peel off. Follow the manufacturer's direction carefully
regarding thickness of coating and number of coats.
If the boat has a fiberglass rudder, antifouling paint is applied

to this up to the waterline. In swing-keel or centerboard sailboats,

the inside of the well is also painted with antifouling paint. A sponge
paint applicator with a long handle can be used for applying paint
inside centerboard trunks and swing-keel wells.
Before returning the boat to the water, a thorough check of
all underwater fittings and attachments should be made. While the

boat is hauled out, give the topsides a good waxing and perform
any other maintenance tasks. It is especially important to take care
of all jobs that require a haulout.
Gel Coat. Fiberglass gel coated surfaces on the interior of the
boat are maintained like the exterior surfaces: by washing and wax-
ing. Some waxes leave an undesirable odor, however, and might
have ingredients that could be harmful to breathe. These should
be avoided, especially on fiberglass near berths. Also, avoid wax-
ing fiberglass that is under cushions because the wax can come off
onto the upholstery fabric.

201
 The above maintenance is all that is normally required for the
You might want to paint the nongel coat
fiberglass parts of boats.
side of fiberglass laminates. If fiberglass gel coating is scratched
or chipped, minor repairs might be called for. (See Chapter 12.)

Other Exterior Maintenance

While maintaining the fiberglass parts of the boat is fairly easy,
that of other materials can be more difficult. Exterior wood trim,
tiller, hand grab rails, swim platforms, or other similar parts re-

quire special maintenance. If the wood is teak, you have a number

of choices. First, you can simply let the wood go. Many boat owners
follow this path. They are told that this will have little effect on
the strength of the teak. The wood turns grayish, which some peo-
ple think looks okay. It has been my experience, however, that teak
cracks more if let go than if finishes are applied.
Teak that has been **let go" can be restored to a light color
by using teak cleaner and bleach, which are available from marine
stores. These restore the wood to a neat appearance. If this is all
that you do, however, the teak will soon start to weather again.
To slow this process, teak oil can be applied to the wood with
a brush or cloth. It is allowed to soak into the wood for a period
of time, then the excess oil is wiped off with a cloth. This method
is somewhat messy, and the oil does not last very long. To keep

the teak in top appearance, the oiling has to be repeated regularly.

Eventually, the teak becomes darker from repeated oilings, at which
time you can repeat the cleaning and bleaching process.*
Instead of oiling the teak, a varnish or clear plastic finish can
be applied. The problems with traditional marine varnish are that
it does not adhere well to teak and the finish is not long lasting.

Several coats of varnish are applied, with light sanding between

coats. If old varnish has built up on the wood, you must strip to
bare wood first. Having gone this route many times, I know how
discouraging it can be when you find that the varnish is peeling
and yellowing after a month or so, if not sooner.
There are several brands of new plastic finishes especially for-
mulated for teak and other boat woods that are advertised to last
a year or more on exterior surfaces. These look promising, though
they are very expensive. Unlike urethane plastics, the new finishes
are supposed to be a softer plastic that will not crack.
Mahogany and other exterior woods are finished by varnish-
ing or painting with one of the clear plastic coatings or even a color
coating. This can be a lot of work, which is one of the reasons why

202
less exterior wood is being used on the exteriors of modem fiber-
glass boats. Another reason is that boat woods, and especially teak,
are being priced out of sight. Thailand teak is presently retailing
for over $15 a board foot (1" x 12" x 12").
Rub rails are sometimes made of aluminum with vinyl fender
material set in a track. This arrangement requires little maintenance
beyond routine washing.
Check fittings periodically to make sure they are in good con-
dition. Check especially for cracking and other signs of fatigue. Re-
place fittings as required. Also check the fasteners to make certain
that they are properly tightened, but do not overtighten because
this can damage the fiberglass laminates to which they are attached.
A thorough check should be made periodically of sailboat spars
and rigging. Rigging should be tuned as required. Defective rig-
ging should be repaired or replaced.
A frequent problem is leaking around through fasteners that
go through the deck or cabin top. This problem can be corrected
by removing bolts, applying bedding compound or sealer, and then
reinstalling them. When done properly, bedding compound or sealer
should ooze out when the fastener is secured. Then wipe away ex-
cess bedding compound or sealer before it has a chance to set up.

Other Interior Maintenance

In addition to maintaining interior fiberglass, there are other main-
tenance tasks that should be done to keep the interior in top condi-
tion. Interior woodwork requires a new finish from time to time.
Teak can be finished by oiling, varnishing, or applying one of the
new plastic finishes formulated for teak. Mahogany and other woods
are finished by varnishing or applying a clear plastic finish, such
as urethane or one of the new softer plastic finishes that are less
prone to cracking.
Interior wood can also be painted, which is more durable than
the clear finishes, but gives a less **y^chty" appearance. Before
switching from a clear finish to a color coating, however, be sure
you really want to. It is a devil of a job to switch back again, and
a painted finish can lower the value of the boat in some cases. Paint
is a good way to hide dry rot, and even if you aren't doing this,
other people might think you are. Paint does have an advantage,
however, if you want to spend more time using your boat and less
time maintaining it. The painted surfaces also make sense for world
cruising boats. Why not have something that is practical rather than
a floating museum? Then, when you reach those long-dreamed-

203
about ports, you can spend your time sightseeing instead of var-
nishing.
Keep the interior of the boat clean on a routine basis. A vacuum
cleaneris handy when you have shore power. This allows cleaning

compartments that are difficult to sweep out.

Carpets present special problems, especially if they are installed
in such a way that they cannot be easily removed.
It's best to have

removable carpets so that they can be taken out and thoroughly

dried from time to time. If indoor-outdoor carpeting is used, you
can even turn the hose on it and use a mild liquid detergent. This
helps remove salt.

Vinyl cushion covers can be cleaned with a damp cloth or vinyl

cleaner without removing the foam padding. Fabric covers can be
cleaned by removing the padding (there is usually a zipper open-
ing for this) and having them dry-cleaned. If water has gotten to
the foam padding, dry this out thoroughly before replacing the
padding.
Curtains can also be removed for laundering or dry cleaning,
as required. Plastic laminates and other surfaces are easy to clean.
A clean interior no only preserves the appearance and value
of the boat, but also makes it more enjoyable to use.

Engines and Other Mechanical Equipment

Outboard or inboard engines require periodic maintenance if they
are to be kept functional and in top working order. Oil must be
changed, lubrication applied, and the engines tuned. This is a very
broad subject, and the procedures depend on the particular type
*

of engine. I suggest that you get the 'factory" service and repair
manual for the particular engine that are usually available from the
engine manufacturers. Carefully follow the recommended main-
tenance and servicing procedure; that is, unless you intend to have
thiswork done for you.
Other mechanical equipment also requires periodic main-
tenance. Follow the manufacturer's instructions for the particular
piece of equipment.

204
 Basic Fiberglassing
Skills and Techniques
To do alterations or repairs, finish out a bare hull, or construct a
one-off fiberglass boat, you must first learn basic fiberglassing skills
and techniques. This is who wants to do
for the do-it-yourselfer
hisown fiberglass work to save money, to get the work done his
own way, or for the challenge and satisfaction of doing it himself.
A first requirement for success is that you are a do-it-yourself
type person. Even for these people, who perhaps routinely make
repairs and constructions with wood and other materials, there is
often a reluctance to attempt fiberglassing.
One reason for this is that fiberglassing has a chemical aspect.
It is unlike, say, taking a piece of wood and cutting and shaping
it. Fiberglassing involves mixing liquid chemicals together, apply-
ing them to flexible fiberglass reinforcing materials, and by means
of chemical reactions, producing a hard fiberglass laminate.
A second reason for a reluctance to attempt fiberglassing is

the lack of how-to information for doing this work. This chapter
provides that information.
A third reason is the health and safety precautions you must
take to guard your health and reduce or eliminate the risks involved.
The chemicals used for fiberglassing are sticky and messy, and
fiberglass reinforcing material makes your skin itch. By using pro-
tective clothingand learning to properly handle these chemicals
and materials, however, it's possible to reduce the magnitude of
these problems. Once you learn the basic safety procedures and

205
handling techniques, fiberglassing can become a challenging and
enjoyable activity.
The skills and techniques presented in this chapter are intended
for the do-it-yourselfer. The basic idea is to achieve professional
results with a minimum outlay for tools, equipment, materials, and
supplies. To accomplish this, you must invest your time. Whereas
the professional fiberglasser almost always considers time as
money, the amateur seldom has to. The professional worker prob-
ably has better tools and equipment than the typical do-it-yourselfer,
and although the latter can still achieve quality results, it will prob-
ably take longer.

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

You need various tools and equipment for doing the fiberglassing
work and for protecting yourself.

Mixing Supplies
You need containers for mixing fiberglassing chemicals and for
holding solvents for cleaning brushes and tools, and for other uses.
Clean, empty coffee cans serve nicely. Un waxed paper cups also
work, as do most plastic cups other than those made of polysty-
rene foam plastic. The paper, plastic, and metal buckets sold by
paint stores are also satisfactory. Small metal or plastic tubs are
convenient for rapid handling of resin, especially for roller appli-
cations. To keep spilling to a minimum, short mixing containers
with large bases are recommended.
Do not use waxed containers because the wax can contaminate
make finishing resin out of laminating resin.
the resin, or at least
In some cases, the resin will soften the wax and cause the bottoms
to fall out of the containers.
Disposable cans, cups, buckets, and tubs are most convenient.
After a few uses, these can be discarded. This works out better
than using more expensive containers and trying to clean them af-

ter each use. It amount of acetone that is required

also reduces the
for cleaning polyester resin from containers. Sometimes it takes
an amount of acetone that costs more than a disposable container
to clean a similar, more expensive container. Clean mixing con-
tainers are essential in order not to contaminate resins and other
chemicals.
It will take some experimenting to discover what types of con-
tainers work best for you. Some fiberglass workers prefer buckets

206
without handles; others Hke them with handles; etc. Try small con-
tainers, a pint or less capacity, when you first start out. Later, when
you can handle larger volumes of resin at each mixing, you can
change to larger mixing containers. Always have an adequate sup-
ply of empty mixing containers conveniently at hand before you
start fiberglassing. You also need clean mixing sticks. These can
be of wood, plastic, or metal, and come in all types and sizes at
paint stores.
In order not to contaminate fiberglassing chemicals, two or
more clean mixing sticks are required for most jobs. Various lengths
of mixing sticks are useful. Use small ones about the size of ice
cream sticks for mixing resin in small cups. A longer and bigger
stick can stir resin in gallon containers before pouring out the
amount be used into a small mixing container. Once a mixing
to
stick has been in a container of catalyzed resin, do not use it to
stir uncatalyzed resin. There is probably enough catalyst present

to start a curing reaction, which can take place even if you put the
lid back on the container.

Applicators
Brushes. Paintbrushes are used for applying resin to reinforc-
The inexpensive, thro waway type brushes are the
ing materials.
most economical. While the brushes can be cleaned, the solvents
used for this are expensive and only work for uncured resins. With
polyester resin, the type most commonly used for boat work, it is
very difficult to keep the resin from curing all the time. Once resin
hardens in the brush hairs, about all you can do it discard the brush
and start again with another one.
Avoid brushes that have painted handles. Resin, acetone, and
other chemicals used for fiberglassing often act as a solvent on the
paint, which will come off and contaminate your chemicals.
To start, you need mainly small brushes, such as 1/2-, 1-, and
1 1/2-inch widths. Later you might need wider brushes. Larger
brushes give less control, but resin can be applied faster with them.
Paint Rollers. Resin can also be applied to reinforcing ma-
with paint rollers. The resin is poured into a plastic or metal
terial
tray. After the catalyst is added, the roller is dipped in the tray,
then rolled out. The resin is then rolled on the reinforcing material.
These rollers can also be used for smoothing the surface of wet
resin. A layer of cellophane or other material that will not stick
to the resin is placed over the wet resin. The roller is worked over
this, smoothing the surface of the resin. This can sometimes re-

207
duce the amount of sanding that is required.
Squeegees. Various types of squeegees with rubber and plas-
tic blades are available for fiberglassing work. They are useful for

smoothing out the resin surface and scraping off excess resin from
cloth and woven roving reinforcing material when doing lay-up
work. Squeegees are also used to rapidly spread the resin and to
remove air bubbles by scraping them to the edge of the material
so the trapped air can escape.
Squeegee blades have degrees of flexibility. Some are quite
stiff; others are quite flexible. It takes some experimenting to find

out what works best for you.

Squeegees come in various widths, with or without extension
handles. To start, those with blades about 3 inches wide without
extension handles are about right. These can be purchased at fiber-
glassing supply stores. Squeegee strips are also available in long
lengths, which you can cut into desired lengths.
Laminating Rollers. Laminating rollers are different than
paint rollers. Laminating rollers have a series of metal (usually alu-
minum) disks or blades (Fig. 10-1). They are useful for laminating
layers of reinforcing material and working out air bubbles. Solvent
cleans uncured resin from the rollers. Hardened resin can be burned
off with a torch. Standard laminating rollers are from about 1 to

2 inches in diameter and from about 3 to 8 inches long. Special

rollers are available for use in comers (Fig. 10-2). While laminat-
ing rollers can be helpful for lay-up work in a mold, you, probably
won't need these at first.

Scissors
You need one pair of scissors or snips for cutting reinforc-
at least
ing materials. While these don't have to be new or very expensive,
it*s important that they be sharp and in good working order. If scis-

sors are used, 4- to 6-inch cutting blades are about right to start
out with.
Wet resin can be cleaned off scissors with solvent (such as ace-
tone for polyester resin), and hardened resin by burning it off. Cut-
ting fiberglass can quickly dull scissors, so those used for fiberglass
should not be the same ones used for general household tasks or
sewing. The fiberglass cutting scissors should be sharpened when
they become dull. It also helps to do the cutting of reinforcing ma-
terial away from any wet you do not get resin on the
resin so that
scissors. If you do get polyester resin on them, clean it off with

208
 Fig. 10-1. A laminating roller.

acetone before it has a chance to cure. There's also a special ep-

oxy solvent that removes uncured epoxy resin.

Putty Knives
Putty knives have a variety of uses in fiberglassing work includ-
ing applying fiberglass putty. Putty knives are available in a vari-
ety of blade widths. At first, one or two with 1-inch wide blades
will probably suffice. You can add other blade widths later if a need
develops.

Utility Knife
A sharp utility or razor blade cutting knife also has many uses in
fiberglassing work. A razor blade with a single edge is also handy
for some jobs.

Fig. 10-2. A laminating roller for use

In corners.

209
 Sanding
You need abrasive paper in a variety of grits for sanding cured fiber-
glass and other materials. Aluminum oxide and silicon carbide are
the most satisfactory for sanding fiberglass.
Start sanding with coarse grits and work down to finer ones.
Dry sanding used for coarse and medium sanding. Depending
is

on the job, fine sanding is done wet or dry. Thus, it is convenient

to purchase wet/dry abrasive paper in fine grits that can be used
either wet or dry.
A sanding block can be either a small block of wood that the
sandpaper is wrapped around or a special sanding block with a

clamp or other means to hold the sandpaper in place. It is useful

for many fiberglass sanding jobs.

Surfacing Tools
A variety of shapes and sizes of surfacing tools are available for
fiberglassing work. These are very useful, especially if power sand-
ing tools are not available or being used. Surfacing tools do not raise
nearly as much dust as power sanders, making the surfacing tools
safer to use.
Surfacing tools can't be resharpened when the blades become
dull. Replacement blades are readily available, however.

Files

Metal files come in many shapes and sizes for working with cured
fiberglass. To start, you will probably want flat, half-round, and
round files. Other shapes can be added as needed.

Portable Electric Drill and Attachments

This is probably the most essential power tool. With metal-cutting
can be used for drilling cured fiberglass panels. Spade-type
bits, it

bits and holesaw attachments can be used for making larger size
holes. The electric drill can be 1/4-, 3/8-, or 1/2-inch and should
be lightweight for easy handling.
Abrasive grinding burr attachments (Fig. 10-3) extend the use-
fulness of an electric drill. If you don't have a separate disk sander,
a disk sanding attachment is useful, along with a selection of sand-
paper grits shaped to fit the disk attachment. There are also buffer
pads that fit over the disk sanding attachments for fiberglassing

210
 A
Fig. 10-3. Abrasive grinding burr at-
tachment fora portable electric drill.

work. If you use a variable speed electric drill, use a fairly slow
turning speed when using the buffer.
Remember that portable electric drills are designed and in-

tended mainly for drilling holes. They have limited sanding and
buffing usefulness. If you are going to do extensive fiberglass sand-
ing and/or buffing, more recommended.
specialized tools are
Fiberglass dust is very abrasive and can be hard on power tools.
If you purchase power tools for extensive fiberglassing work, se-
lect those designed for use in the presence of abrasive dust. An
air gun attachment on an air compressor can blow dust out of tools.
If done frequently, this should help prolong the life of the tools.

Portable Power Sanders

You can get by without portable power sanders when you first start
out and for small jobs, but for large jobs they are almost essential.
Basic types include the pad sander or vibrating, disk, and belt
sanders.
Pad or vibrating sanders come with orbital, straight line, and
combination orbital and straight line actions. The combination
works best for sanding fiberglass. These sanders are only used for
light-duty and finishing sanding.
Disk sanders are available with disks 5 to 9 inches in diameter.
A is about right for most fiberglassing work. Disk
7-inch disk
sanders have the disks mounted at right angles to the drive spin-
dles. This makes sanding much easier than with a disk attachment

211
used in an electric drill. A heavy-duty disk sander is recommended
for fiberglass sanding.
Some disk sanders feature a low-speed adjustment so that they
can also be used as buffers with a buffer attachment. In this way,
a single tool can serve two purposes.
Belt sanders use a belt of sandpaper that travels over two
drums. They can be adjusted for light, medium, and heavy sand-
ing. This type of sander is sometimes used for sanding fiberglass.
Disk sanders are the most versatile for sanding fiberglass. They
are more difficult to use, however, and can leave undesirable swirls
ifhandled improperly. A soft pad between the disk and abrasive
paper is helpful. Grinding attachments are also available for many
disk sanders.
Anyone planning to do extensive fiberglass work will proba-
bly want to invest in a heavy-duty commercial model disk sander
and then take the time necessary to learn how to use it properly.

Portable Power Buffers

This can be a combination tool with the portable power sander or
a separate tool. The buffer must turn at a slower speed than a
sander so the buffing pad does not heat up to the point where it
can burn the fiberglass surface.
Small polishing and buffing tasks can be done by hand or with
an electric drill buffer attachment.For extensive work, a portable
power buffer is a good investment.

Saws
Hacksaws with metal-cutting blades are useful for cutting cured
fiberglass. A regular pistol-grip hacksaw will suffice for many jobs.
A file-type handle hacksaw is convenient for working in tight places.
Saber saws work well for cutting cured fiberglass laminates.
Metal-cutting blades should be used for this. While the same cut-

ting jobs can be done with a hacksaw, the saber saw is much faster
and more convenient to use.

External Heat Devices

These are not normally needed for working with polyester resins.
If you plan to do lay-up work with epoxy resins, however, methods

for applying external heat to speed up the curing process can be

helpful. Only flameless devices such as infrared heat lamps, porta-

212
ble electric heaters, hair dryers, and heat guns, should be used.
Even then great care should be taken to prevent possible fires and
explosions.

Clamps, Wire, and Backing Devices

A variety of clamps, wire, and backing devices are useful for fiber-
glass repair work and other tasks. These will be detailed in later
chapters along with the specific jobs that they are used for.

Compressors
You won't need a compressor to learn the basic skills and tech-
niques of fiberglassing. If available, however, it can blow dust from

power tools. An gun

air attachment is connected to the compres-
sor for this. Later, you might want to spray resins and other fiber-
glassing chemicals. The compressor can be used as an air supply
for the spray gun. This type of spray work requires very expen-
sive protective equipment if it is to be done safely.

Chopper Gun
This is another device that you won't need unless you plan exten-
sive fiberglassing work. A chopper gun supplies catalyzed resin un-
der pressure to the nozzle for spraying. At the same time, a chopper
cuts up fiberglass strands or rovings into short lengths and com-
bines them with the catalyzed resin, which is sprayed into the mold.
The use of this device for spraying up, instead of laying up, fiber-
glass boat moldings is controversial. Laminates sprayed up with
the chopper gun are weaker than those hand laid up with reinforc-
ing materials.
The chopper gun is too expensive a piece of equipment for most
do-it-yourselfers, so it will not be considered further here.

Other Wood and IMetal-Working Tools

Most fiberglassing work also involves the use of wood and/or metal.
A variety of wood and metal-working tools are useful for this. These
tools can be added as a need develops.

PROTECTIVE CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT

Protective clothing should always beworn when working with fiber-
glass. Wearing only swim trunks while you are fiberglassing is an

213
example of what not to do.
While many types of protective clothing can be used, cover-
alls made from poly olefin fabric, which are available from fiber-

glassing supply stores and paint stores, work well. They are
lightweight, easy to work in, and comfortable. They offer consider-
able protection from fiberglassing chemicals and fiberglass sand-
ing dust. Reasonable protection is provided for the entire body with
the exception of the head, hands, and feet. Although protective
clothing is worn, you must still handle the chemicals as carefully
as possible. If you get chemicals on the protective clothing, you've
goofed. The purpose of protective clothing is not so you can be care-
less, but rather as a backup in case you accidentally make a mis-

take when handling the chemicals.

Gloves
You need gloves that are resistant to fiberglassing chemicals. Poly-
ethylene disposable gloves work well and give better fingertip sen-
sitivity than those of most other materials. Polyethylene disposable
gloves can be purchased at fiberglassing supply stores and at some
paint stores. Protective gloves should be worn whenever fiberglass-
ing chemicals are handled and used to prevent getting the fiber-
glassing chemicals on your hands.

Boots
Most types of standard work boots can be worn. These can quickly
be ruined by resins and other fiberglassing chemicals, however,
so it's a good idea to set aside an old pair just for fiberglassing work.
Another possibility is rubber rain boots. These can be worn
alone or over shoes or boots.
Disposable polyethylene boots, available from fiberglassing sup-
ply stores, are another choice. These are designed to fit over shoes
or boots. They provide good protection from resins and other fiber-
glassing chemicals.
Whatever you use, keep in mind that the primary purpose is
to keep fiberglassing chemicals from contacting your skin. Ruin-
ing your shoes is a secondary consideration.

Filter Masks and Respirators

Filter or dustmasks are available with replaceable filters and in
disposable form. These should be used only for nontoxic dusts.

214
They do not provide protection from fumes from fiberglassing
chemicals but can provide protection from fiberglass sanding dust.
The filter or dusk mask must fit properly, however, so that the dust
cannot getin around the edges. It should be repeated that these

do not provide protection from vapors and fumes and can

filters

even be worse than wearing no mask at all when used for this
purpose.
For protection from vapors, fumes, and toxic dusts, you need
a respirator thatis designed to give protection from the particular

chemicals being used. It's extremely important that the respirator

is approved for use with the resins and other chemicals you will

be using. Be sure you know how to properly wear the respirator

and replace cartridges. Purchase extra cartridges and other neces-
sary supplies that go with the respirator so you have them on hand.
Even though many fiberglass workers insist on not using a
respirator, it is essential, not optional, equipment. Even though wear-
ing a respirator might be inconvenient and uncomfortable, the pro-
tection that it provides makes it worthwhile.
Do not use a respirator for protection from particular chemi-
cals unless the respiratorand cartridges are approved for use with
that particular chemical or material. To do otherwise can, in some
cases, be worse than not wearing any respirator at all.
The primary factor is that the respirator provide protection.
You should also consider the cost of the respirator and replacement
cartridges. The respirator should be comfortable to wear and be
as lightweight as possible. Follow the manufacturer's instructions
for using the particular respirator.
Some respirators also provide eye protection; others don't. If
the type you purchase doesn't provide eye protection, you need ad-
ditional equipment for this.

Protecting Devices for Eyes, Face, and Head

Safe fiberglassing requires that your eyes, face, and head be pro-
tected. Eye protection is provided by some of the better respira-
tors. A variety of goggles are available to provide protection from
nontoxic dusts. These can be worn with filter masks and respira-
tors thatdo not have provisions for eye protection.
You also need a hood or other device to give protection to your
head and neck and other parts not protected by the respirator and/or
goggles. To find out exactly what you need, go to a large respira-
tor supply company.

215
 other Protective Equipment
More advanced protective systems, such as those giving complete
body protection and a special air supply for breathing, are some-
times used for industrial purposes. These afford the most complete
protection. Unfortunately, the cost of this equipment precludes its
use by most do-it-yourselfers.

A PLACE TO WORK
Fiberglassing is best done under laboratory conditions with the tem-
perature, humidity, ventilation, and other factors carefully con-
trolled. In most cases this is impractical, however, and you must
do the fiberglassing under less than ideal conditions.
From a health and safety standpoint, good ventilation is ex-
tremely important. Some fiberglassing work can be done inside
garages and other buildings provided there is adequate ventilation.
In a garage, keep large doors open while the fiberglassing is done.
Large fans drawing air out of the building are also helpful.
For most do-it-yourselfers, it is safer and more practical to work
outdoors. This can be in the open, but under a roof or other cover
that provides protection from direct sun is better. It's more pleas-
ant to work in the shade, and direct sunlight can have adverse ef-
fects on fiberglassing chemical reactions.
Some boat fiberglassing must be done "on location." If the boat
is in the water at a marina dock, you might want to do the fiber-

glassing there. Or perhaps a haulout is required anyway, and you

could do the fiberglassing work at this point. If you have a trailer-
able boat, you can trailer it to your yard and do the fiberglassing
there.
Sometimes you can bring the boat to the required tools, equip-
ment, materials, and supplies. Other times you can bring these
things to the boat.

IVIATERIALS AND SUPPLIES

Fiberglassing materials and supplies have been detailed as they ap-
ply to manufactured fiberglass boats in Chapter 4. The do-it-
yourselfer uses many of the same materials and supplies. You might
not need all of these materials at the start. Just make certain that
you have everything on hand for the particular work you are at-
tempting. Many jobs are spoiled by not having the necessary items
on hand.

216
 Fiberglass Cloth
Fiberglass cloth is commonly used reinforcing material for fiber-
a
glassing. A plain weave is a good one to start with, although you
might want to use long shaft satin weaves and unidirectional weaves
for special applications.
Fiberglass cloth is available in weights from less than 6 ounces
to 20 ounces per square yard. Start with 10-ounce-per-square-yard
material. You can purchase other weights later.
Fiberglass cloth comes in widths from 36 to 60 inches with sel-

vaged edges that do not unravel. The 36-inch width is about right
for starting out. Cloth is also available in narrow widths that are
called tape. Tape has selvaged edges and is available in widths from
1 to 12 inches. The 3- to 6-inch widths are about right to start. Cloth
comes in plastic packages and by the yard from rolls, which is less
expensive.
It is important to select the correct width of cloth for the par-
The selvaged edges make the cloth much easier to work
ticular job.
with. This advantageis lost where cuts are made and at the unsel-

vaged ends because the cloth tends to unravel when you handle
the dry cloth or apply resin to it.

Fiberglass cloth should be specially treated for use with resins.

*

The treatment often used is called chroming. Be careful about 'bar-

gains," which might be unchromed and thus not suitable for fiber-
glassing work. The treated material has a shiny appearance and
the untreated cloth has a dull appearance.

Fiberglass Woven Roving

Fiberglass woven roving, while more difficult to work with than
either cloth or mat, gives a good combination of thickness and
strength, and thus
an important fiberglass reinforcing material.
is

While many modification and repair jobs can be done without it,
it is very useful for some types of work.

Fiberglass woven roving is available in various weights; 24

ounces per square yard is common. On a weight basis, woven rov-
ing is more expensive than mat and less expensive than cloth.
Woven roving comes in widths from 36 to 60 inches, in plastic
packages or by the yard from rolls, which is less expensive. It
doesn't have selvaged edges.
To start out, use 36-inch-wide woven roving in the 24-ounce-
per-square-yard weight. Be careful when handling the material so

217
the unselvaged edges do not unravel. Make certain that the fiber-
glass woven roving is specially treated, usually by chroming, for
use with resins.

Fiberglass Mat
Mat is a feltlike material made from chopped strands of glass fibers
arranged in a random pattern and held together by a bonding agent.
In many ways, mat is the easiest of the reinforcing materials to
work with.
Unlike woven roving or cloth, mat is sold in per square foot
weights rather than per square yard. It's available in weights from
less than 3/4 ounce to 3 ounces or more per square foot. On a weight
basis, mat is the least expensive of the reinforcing materials. It is
available in plastic packages and by the yard from rolls in widths
from 36 to 60 inches.
For starting out, 1 1/2-ounce-per-square-foot weight is about
right. Other weights can be purchased later as needed. Make cer-
tain that the fiberglass mat is specially treated, usually by chrom-
ing, for use with resins.

Milled Fibers
Milled fibers are made from glass
strands that are hammer-milled
into pieces shorter than chopped strands. Milled fibers look like
a fluffy powder. They are available in plastic packages and also
in bulk by weight. This material is added to resin to form a fiber-
glass putty and filler material.
Take care when using milled fibers. They give off a fine dust
when handled.

Polyester Resin
The primary resin used for fiberglassing boat work is polyester.
Polyester resin is formulated for room temperature curing and al-
ready has the necessary accelerator added to the liquid resin. To
start the curing process at room temperature, a catalyst— methyl-
ethyl-ketone (MEK) peroxide— is added.
Polyester resin is manufactured for specific purposes. Two ba-
sic types for boat construction are laminating or lay-up resin and
finishing resin. The difference is that the finishing resin has a wax
additive. Once the catalyzed added to a laminate, the
resin is wax
rises to the surface, sealing off the air, which allows the resin to
fully cure so that the surface can be sanded. This type of resin is

218
called nonair-inhihited. The laminating or lay-up resin is called air-
inhibited. In the presence of air, the surface remains tacky. This
is desirable if additional layers are to be added to a laminate, but
undesirable if the surface is to be sanded.
To avoid purchasing two types of polyester resin, I suggest that
you purchase laminating or lay-up resin. A special wax additive is
available that can be added to this resin to convert it to a finishing
resin. I have found method to simplify fiberglassing, especially
this
if you only plan to do limited work. For large lay-up jobs, using

the two types of resin might be more convenient.

Polyester resins are also available in various viscosities. For
most work, the regular viscosity will suffice. High viscosity is use-
ful when working on inclined and overhead surfaces. Regular vis-

cosity resin can be converted to a higher viscosity by adding a

thixotropic powder that is available from fiberglass suppliers.
Polyester resins cure with various degrees of flexibility. For
some applications, the more expensive flexible resins might be
worth the extra cost.
Special fire-retardant polyester resins are also available. These
are more expensive than regular polyester resins, but are worth
the extra cost for some special applications.
Regular polyester resins are formulated for use in a tempera-
ture range of 70 to 75 degrees Fahrenheit. By varying the amount
of catalyst used, however, satisfactory results can be achieved in
a temperature range from 60 to 90 degrees Fahrenheit. Special low-
temperature resins can be used in a temperature range of 45 to 60
degrees Fahrenheit.
Another type of polyester resin is gel coat resin. This is often
used in repair work for touching up and matching areas with the
original gel coating. There are special gel coat kits for color match-
ing. Polyester gel coat resin is catalyzed in the same manner as
regular polyester resin.
Polyester resins come in various size containers (pint, quart,
gallon, etc.). Because polyester resins only have a shelf life of six
months to a year, it's important to purchase fresh resin only in quan-
tities that you will use within a reasonable length of time. Always

store polyester resin in a cool place. Special purpose polyester

resins often have an even shorter shelf life than regular polyester
resins.
In some comes with
cases, the necessary catalyst for the resin
the resin. In others, purchased separately. The catalyst comes
it is

in a graded plastic container so you can add the polyester resin in

219
the desired amount. This is often done by drops.

Polyester Putty
A variety of polyester putty is available, or you can mix up your
own by adding milled glass fibers to regular polyester resin. Poly-
ester putty requires a catalyst, which comes with the manufactured
putty. Some types use a liquid catalyst; other types use a paste form.

Epoxy Resin
Epoxy resin has a number of superior qualities as compared to poly-
ester resin. Epoxy resin is much more expensive, however, over
twice as much as polyester resin. Epoxy resins are more difficult
to work with than polyester resins, and they present a greater poten-
tial health hazard. As a rule, epoxy resins are only used in situa-

tions where, for one reason or another, polyester resin will not be
satisfactory for the particular job. For most of the modification,
repair, and construction work detailed in later chapters of this book,
epoxy resin will not be required for lay-up work.

Epoxy Putty
Because of its superior strength and bonding properties, epoxy putty
is often used instead of polyester putty. Get an epoxy putty that

cures rapidly and is easy to work with.

Solvents and Cleaners

Acetone is a useful solvent for cleaning uncured polyester resin from

tools. Acetone should not be used as a thinning agent, however,

for polyester resin that is to be used in lay-up work. Acetone is
widely used for cleaning hands, a practice that is not recommended
from a health or safety point of view. Special hand cleaners are
available. These should be used to clean hands instead of acetone
or other strong solvents.

Phenolic Microballoons
Phenolic microballoons are combined with resin to form a light-

weight material that can be trowelled in place. Phenolic microbal-

loons have a density of about 10 pounds per cubic foot. When mixed
with resin, the resulting material floats.

220
 Core Materials
Core materials used for fiberglassing work include plywood, balsa,
and polyurethane and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) rigid foamed plas-
tic. All of these are available in preformed sheets. Polyurethane

also comes in pour- and spray-in-place forms, which can be used

to compartments and cavities of most any shape or size. Poly-
fill

styrene, another type of rigid foam plastic, should not be used with
polyester resin because it will dissolve the foam.

Mold Release Agent

Specialmold release agents are available. These are applied to
molds and other surfaces to prevent the resins from sticking to
them.

Finishing Supplies
Paint. Many kinds
of paint can be used on fiberglass instead
Two-part epoxy and two-part polyurethane finishes
of gel coating.
seem to be the most popular, however.
Rubbing and Polishing Compound. Fiberglass rubbing
and polishing compound can restore the appearance of faded and
chalked gel coat surfaces and make gel coat repairs. Use the kind
that is especially formulated for fiberglass.
Fiberglass Wax. Fiberglass wax is useful for both routine
maintenance and fiberglassing repair work. Use the kind that is
especially formulated for fiberglass surfaces.

Other Materials and Supplies

Other materials and supplies required are masking tape, construc-
tion paper, rags (you need plenty of these), cellophane, sealing com-
pound, and bolts, screws, rivets, and other mechanical fasteners.

WHERE TO PURCHASE SUPPLIES

Fiberglassing supplies are available at many marine stores. The
selection is often Hmited, however, and you can pay top prices here.
In some areas there are stores that specialize in fiberglassing
materials and supplies, such as TAP Plastics, Inc., which has stores
in a number of California cities and also
in Portland, Oregon, and
Salt Lake For information, write to TAP Plastics, Inc.,
City, Utah.
3011 Alvarado Street, San Leandro, California 94577. They have

221
a complete line of fiberglassing materials and supplies at very
reasonable prices. There are also other fiberglassing material sup-
ply stores in various parts of the United States.
Other sources include paint stores, department stores, hard-
ware stores, and auto supply stores. Be careful here, however; I
have found many of the supplies and materials from these sources
to be of poor quality.
Defender Industries, Inc., 255 Main St., New Rochelle, N.Y.
10801, is an excellent mail-order source for fiberglassing materials
and supplies. They stock a complete line of fiberglassing materials,
one of the largest inventories anywhere. They offer high-quality
name brands at discount prices. Fve found that even with the cost
of the shipping figured in, they beat the prices of most local sources
in the area where I live. Defender Industries, Inc., has a 168-page
catalog that sells for $1 and includes not only fiberglassing materials
and supplies, but also a complete line of marine products.
Another possible source of discount materials and supplies is
through boatbuilding clubs and groups. By volume buying, they can
offer discount prices to members. If there is no such club or group
presently in the area where you live, you might want to consider
forming one.
It is best to stick to quality fiberglassing materials. This is es-

pecially important for beginners. Using poor-quality materials,

which are often difficult to work with, can be too big a handicap
for many beginners who might think that poor results are due to
their methods rather than the low-quality materials.
Even with quality materials, there is considerable differences
in the way they work. Once you find brands of materials that work
well for you, stick with these.

HEALTH AND SAFETY

Protecting your health and safety is an important part of working
with fiberglass. There are two main aspects to fiberglassing: chem-
ical and cured fiberglass. The chemical part involves mixing the
fiberglassing chemicals and applying them to reinforcing materials
and other similar jobs. Working with cured fiberglass involves sand-
ing, grinding, fihng, drilling, and so on.
Most people can undertake fiberglassing work with reason-
able safety provided that certain health and safety precautions are
followed. Anyone who has any reason to believe that he might re-
act badly to the chemicals and materials used in fiberglassing should

222
check with a physician before doing any fiberglassing work.
*

Follow the instructions under 'Protective Clothing and Equip-

ment" in this chapter. Fiberglass reinforcing materials can be ir-
ritating to skin, respiratory system, and eyes. Exposure can result
in allergic reactions, dermatitis, skin rash, and other problems.
Avoid handling fiberglass reinforcing materials with bare hands.
Sensitivity to glass fiber reinforcing materials varies greatly
from individual to individual. If you find that you are sensitive to
it even when you wear protective clothing and equipment, consult

your doctor.
To reduce exposure to glass fibers, store reinforcing materials

in plastic bags. This keeps glass fiber strands and particles from
getting into the air.

Take special care when cutting reinforcing materials. After cut-

ting, use a vacuum cleaner to pick up loose glass material. With
practice, you'll learn to use scissors or shears while wearing thin
polyethylene gloves.
If glass fibers do get on your skin, a cold shower followed by
hand lotion application may help to relieve itching. If skin rash or
other reactions develop, consult a medical doctor.
Protective clothing and equipment should be worn when sand-
ing cured fiberglass because sanding raises a fine dust that can
cause skin, respiratory, and eye problems. Use a well-fitted filter

mask or respirator and eye goggles or other eye protective equip-

ment. Wear protective clothing to protect your skin, including your
hands.
Even hand sanding raises considerable dust. Wear thin poly-
ethylene disposable gloves in addition to other protective clothing
and equipment when sanding.
Power sanding raises even more dust. Full body protection is
extremely important. It takes practice to learn how to use power
Sanders while wearing gloves, especially the fairly substantial gloves
required here. The thin kind would quickly wear through. Because
you will be working with cured fiberglass, chemical resistance of
the glove material is not a crucial factor here.
Accumulated sanding dust in the work area can also be a prob-
lem because some of it will become air-borne. Clean the work area
frequently with a shop- type vacuum cleaner.
If any skin, respiratory, or eye problems develop, consult a phy-
sician. If you do get sanding dust on your skin, a cold shower fol-
lowed by application of hand lotion often helps relieve the itching.

223
 Wearing protective clothing and equipment is often incon-
venient and uncomfortable, especially in hot weather. But I believe
that protection of health is worth the sacrifice.

Adequate Ventilation
There should be adequate where you are
ventilation in the area
working. This helps to reduce the concentrations of vapors and
fumes from resin and other fiberglassing chemicals. While protec-
tive clothing and equipment reduce your exposure to vapors and
fumes, they should be in addition to adequate ventilation, not a sub-
stitute for it.

When working outdoors, always try to be between the direc-

tion the wind is coming and the chemicals being used. This will
blow vapors and fumes away from you.
Inside work areas present special problems. There should be
at least two large openings on opposite sides of the building or a
ventilation system capable of completely changing the room air at
least once every five minutes. The expense of the latter is gener-
ally too much for most do-it-yourselfers.
Ventilation is poor inside boats. When fiberglassing here, an
exhaust fan rigged up to a hatch is helpful. In addition, open as
many doors, hatches, windows, and ports to the outside as possible.

l\/lanufacturer's Directions

Always follow manufacturer's directions and recommendations for

proper and safe use of the product. Follow all health and safety
precautions. Typical warnings include: "Avoid prolonged exposure
to vapors and fumes. Avoid skin contact. Use only in well-ventilated
areas. May
be harmful or fatal if taken internally."
Steps to take might be given in case of accident, such as splat-
tering a certain chemical in the eyes. Read these carefully so that
you will know what to do— just in case.

Flammable Chemicals and Materials

Keep resins, catalysts, curing agents, solvents, and other fiberglass-
ing chemicals away from fire and flame. Polyester resins are flam-
mable in both liquid and cured state. Fire-re tardant polyester resin
highly flammable in the liquid state. Some epoxy resins and
is still

epoxy hardeners or curing agents are explosive, so even greater

care is required in handling them. The catalyst for polyester res-

224
ins is also explosive. It should be carefully stored and kept away
from fire and flame or other high temperatures.
Acetone and epoxy solvents, both highly flammable, give off
heavy vapors that travel along close to the ground or floor. Fire,
flame, or even a spark can cause an explosion. Use the same care
in handling these solvents as you would in handling gasoline.
Remember:

Do not use open flame heaters in fiberglassing work areas.

Do not smoke in fiberglassing work areas, especially when
fiberglassing chemicals are being used.
Store fiberglassing chemicals in cool, dry places to reduce
the possibility of spontaneous combustion or explosion. It also in-
creases the shelf life of resins and other chemicals.

Avoid Contact with Fiberglassing Chemicals

It is extremely important to avoid contact with resins, catalysts,
hardening agents, solvents, and other fiberglassing chemicals.
Avoid skin contact.
Skin. Always wear protective clothing when working with
these chemicals. Handle, pour, mix, and apply the chemicals care-
fully. Be especially careful of methyl-ethyl-ketone (MEK) perox-
ide catalyst for polyester resins and epoxy hardeners. These can
cause chemical bums if they come into direct contact with the skin.
you do get chemicals on your skin, remove them as soon as
If

possible. Use a cloth to wipe them off. Use soap or hand cleaner
and water to wash them off as soon as possible.
Eyes. The consequences of getting fiberglass chemicals in your
eyes by splattering or other means is extremely serious. Always
wear eye protection when using these chemicals. In addition, han-
dle, pour, mix, and apply the chemicals carefully. And just in case,
always know the emergency steps to take if you do get any of the
chemicals in your eyes.
Avoid Breathing Fumes and Vapors. Do your fiberglass-
ing work in well- ventilated areas. Wear a respirator that is approved
for the particular chemicals you are using. Cartridges or elements
in respirators should be serviced or replaced as necessary so that
they remain effective. When working with chemicals, keep them
as far away from your face as possible.

Safe Mixing and Storage of Chemicals

Follow the manufacturer's directions carefully for using resins and

225
other fiberglassing chemicals. Do not mix a polyester accelerator
like cobalt napthanate directly with a methyl-ethyl-ketone (MEK)
peroxide catalyst. An explosion can result. Most polyester resins
have the necessary accelerator already added at the factory. If you
do add an accelerator, it should be added and mixed with uncata-
lyzed polyester resin first before adding a catalyst to the mixture.
Do not store methyl-ethyl-ketone (MEK) peroxide catalyst in
metal containers. Spontaneous explosions can result from prolonged
contact with metal.

Other Safety Rules

Keep working areas clean and organized. Disposable containers,
bench covers, and similar items should be disposed of when they
are no longer serviceable. Spilled chemicals should be cleaned up
as soon as possible.
Keep visitors away from work areas. Keep children especially
away from work areas. Likewise pets. Always have one or more
fire extinguishers handy. Keep a first aid kit nearby. If you work

alone, always have assistance nearby. Avoid working alone when

you are remote from assistance in case of an accident.
Always follow safe operating procedures when using portable
electric drills, saber saws, sanders, and other tools used in fiber-
glassing work. Safety is important in the nonchemical part of fiber-
glassing, too.
You should not only know what the safe working rules and prac-
tices are, but you should also follow them in your fiberglassing
work. Follow the rules right from the start until they become habit
and you no longer have to think about them. You will automati-
cally put on the respirator when it is required, and so on.
The rules and procedures for safe fiberglassing might seem ex-
cessive, but in reality many other activities, such as woodworking,
have just as many safety rules and procedures. They're just differ-
ent. If the health and safety rules are carefully followed, fiberglass-
ing can be a safe and rewarding experience.

WORKING WITH CURED FIBERGLASS

Working with cured fiberglass was mentioned in Chapter 8 in con-

nection with equipping and fitting out fiberglass boats. This sec-
tion goes into greater detail.
I suggest you obtain scrap pieces of cured fiberglass laminates
for practice purposes. These can often be obtained from fiberglass

226
molding shops. Try to get pieces that have a color gel coating on
one side.
A typical fiberglass laminate is illustrated in Fig. 10-4. The
smooth color side is the gel coating, which was applied against the
mold first in the molding process. The remainder of the laminate
is made up of a combination of cured resin and fiberglass reinforc-

ing material. The back side of the laminate is rough in comparison

to the gel coat side. How rough depends on the molding method
used, whether or not the back side of the laminate was sanded, and
so on.
Common operations used on cured fiberglass laminates include
drilling, sawing, filing, and sanding. Practice these tasks on scrap
pieces of fiberglass.

Drilling

Fiberglass drills easily. You can use hand drills, but portable elec-
tric drills make the work much faster and easier. Use metal twist
bits for drilling small holes and spade-type bits to drill slightly larger
hole sizes up to about 2 inches in diameter. A separate bit is re-

quired for each hole size. A

holesaw can make a variety of hole
sizes from 3/4 inch up to about 3 inches in diameter. A different
blade is required for each desired hole size. Twist bits, spade-type
bits, and holesaws can all be used in portable electric drills.

Before drilling, determine and mark the center point for the
desired hole. Use a center punch or other sharp-pointed metal ob-
ject to make a small indentation for centering the point of the bit.

This should be done carefully.

Select the proper bit for the desired hole size and install this
in the electric drill. You will drill on the gel coat side of the lami-
nate and through to the back side (Fig. 10-5). This method lessens
the risk of chipping the gel coat when drilling through.

Gel Coating

Back Side Reinforcing Material

And Resin
Fig. 10-4. A typical fiberglass laminate.

227
 I

Fig. 10-5. Drilling from gel coat side of laminate.

Center the point of the bit in the center punch indentation. Hold
the drill at the desired angle, usually perpendicular to the laminate
surface. Start thedrill. Drill hole through the laminate. Allow the

do the cutting. Do not force the bit through.

drill to

Larger hole sizes can be drilled halfway through. Then, using

the same center hole, finish the drilling from the opposite side. This
reduces the risk of chipping the laminate beyond the edge of the
laminate around the hole.
If you do not have a bit or holesaw the exact size of a desired
hole, drill one size smaller and then file the hole out to the desired
size. Filing is covered later in this chapter.
Practice drilling a variety of hole sizes in scrap pieces of fiber-
glass laminates. Strive for clean holes without chipping away any
of the surrounding laminate.

Sawing
Sawing is a frequently required operation on cured fiberglass
laminates. While handsaws can be used, a saber saw makes the
work and easier. Use a fine-tooth, metal-cutting blade.
faster
The sawing should be done with the saw on the gel coat side
of the laminate (Fig. 10-6), whenever possible. This results in the
least possibility of chipping the gel coating along the saw cut.
The cutting pattern can be markedon the fiberglass,
directly
or you can place masking tape on the fiberglass and then mark the

228
pattern on this. For crucial cuts, leave a little extra and then file

the laminate down to exact size. It's much easier to take off a little
more than it is to add, which requires fiberglassing.
For cutouts, drill a pilot hole for starting the saw cutting. The
hole should be large enough for inserting the saber saw blade.
When sawing, allow the saw blade to do the cutting. Do not
force the saw blade. Carefully follow the pattern line.
Using scrap pieces of fiberglass, practice making both straight
and curved cuts.

Filing

Metal and surfacing tools are both useful for filing cured fiber-
files

glass laminates.Whenever practical, do the filing from the gel coat

side of the laminate (Fig. 10-7), when working on the edge of a
laminate.
Surfacing tools can also be used on surfaces of fiberglass
laminates for fairing and other purposes.A large amount of mate-
rialcan be removed quickly in this manner, though the blades do
tend to clog rather quickly and become dull. Because these blades
are not ordinarily resharpened, replace the blade with a new one
when the old one becomes unuseable.

Hand Sanding
Hand sanding, with or without a sanding block, is an important
fiberglassing skill. Suitable abrasive paper includes aluminum ox-
ide and silicon carbide.
Start sanding with the coarsest grit of paper required. Then,
work down to finer grits.

Saber

Side
Fig. 10-6. Sawing from gel coat side of laminate.

229
 Coarse sanding is usually done dry. Fine sanding can be done
wet or dry. For wet sanding, paper with a waterproof adhesive must
be used. The water helps keep the grit in the sandpaper from clog-
ging, which in turn reduces scratching of the surface. '

The coarser grits that are used first leave the deepest scratches
but remove the most material. The medium grits remove these
scratches and leave smaller ones, while removing less material than
the coarser grits. The smaller scratches can be removed by using
finer grits of sandpaper, which in turn leave very tiny scratches.
These can be by painting or gel coating or polished out
filled in

in the case of gel-coated surfaces. It's important to avoid making

any scratches below the desired finished surface. Otherwise, these
will have to be filled in with fiberglass putty or other surfacing com-
pound if a smooth finish is to be achieved. Deep scratches can be
avoided by not using any coarser grit of paper than is absolutely
necessary.
The abrasive paper can be folded and held between the thumb
and fingers. Care must be taken using this method however, or an
uneven and wavy surface can result, especially when coarser grits
of paper are used.

230
 A better method is to use a sanding block. This can be a small
block of wood with sandpaper folded around it (Fig. 10-8) or a spe-
cial sanding block with clamps for holding the paper in place. A

pad between the block and the sandpaper is also helpful. Block sand-
ing lets you remove high spots without affecting adjacent low areas.
This makes fairing possible.

Power Sanding
Although it's practical to do small sanding jobs by hand sanding,
power sanding is almost indispensable for large jobs. A disk sander
is perhaps the most useful general-purpose sanding tool for fiber-

glass. It turns at about 5,000 revolutions per minute and removes

a large amoimt of material rapidly. This is both an advantage and
disadvantage. It takes considerable skill and practice to operate
a disk sander to remove the desired material without damaging the
surface or taking away excess material.
To fair uneven surfaces, hold the sanding disk nearly flat. Ap-
ply only light pressure andkeep the disk moving. To feather edges,
hold the sanding disk at a slight angle to the surface. Spend con-
siderable time practicing both operations on scrap materials before
using a disk sander on an actual job.
Belt Sanders are sometimes used for sanding fiberglass. Belt
Sanders can be adjusted for coarse, medium, or fine sanding, us-
ing the appropriate grit of sandpaper. Again, it takes a lot of prac-
tice to learn to use a belt sander properly. Practice on scrap
materials before you attempt to use a belt sander on an actual job.
Pad or finishing sanders, also known as vibrator sanders, are

Sandpaper

Wood
Fig. 10-8. Sandpaper folded around a small block of wood.

231
suitable only for light or finishing sanding of fiberglass. The main
advantage of this type of sander is that it is easy for the beginner
to use. Gouging of surfaces is seldom a problem. Apply only light
pressure when using pad sanders. Keep the pad moving.

FUNDAMENTALS OF FIBERGLASSING
To learn the fundamentals of fiberglassing, you must actually try
fiberglassing. Purchase fiberglassing materials and supplies just
for this purpose. This will allow you to make mistakes. It's better
to make these on practice exercises than on an actual fiberglass-
ing job on a boat.
Now that you are familiar with the health and safety rules and
practices, follow them carefully. Be sure to wear protective cloth-
ing and equipment. Follow manufacturer's directions and instruc-
tions exactly for each product used.

Catalyzing Polyester Resins

The curing process for polyester resin, called polymerization, is fully
initiated when a catalyst— methyl ethyl ketone (MEK) peroxide-
is added. The amount of catalyst added depends on a number of

factors, especially the formulation of the particular resin, the work-

ing temperature, the amount of resin to be catalyzed, and the
desired working time or pot life.

Polyester resin can be applied from the time when the catalyst
is added until it achieves a gelatinous consistency. This tii^e period
is the working time or pot life. Any resin that has not been applied

by this time should be discarded, because it will result in a lumpy

mess if applied to fiberglass reinforcing material. The resin becomes
hard soon after this.
Once the catalyst is added, the resin actually cures faster in
the container than if spread out into a thin layer when applied to
reinforcing material. This is due to a higher heat buildup in the con-
tainer.
Each brand and type of polyester resin has a different curing
rate when the same amount of catalyst is added to the same vol-
ume of resin. Follow the manufacturer's directions regarding the
amount of catalyst to be used for the particular resin. For these
projects, I will use a polyester resin. Keep in mind that this might
vary somewhat from the brand or type of resin you use.
In most cases, only a very small amount of catalyst, from about
1/2 percent to 4 percent by volume, is added to a relatively large

232
amount of resin. A primary problem is measuring out such small
quantities of catalyst accurately. This is commonly done by drops.
The dispenser that the catalyst comes in will probably allow this.

Catalyzing Exercise 1. To start, catalyze 1 ounce of poly-

ester resin at a time. You need a graded measuring device for the
polyester resin. Measure out 1 ounce (1 ounce of resin is about 1/16
of a pint) of resinand place this in a clean cup or mixing container.
Then, seal the primary container of resin and set it aside. It is ex-
tremely important not to allow even a small quantity of catalyst
to contaminate the resin in the primary container. This would start
the curing, which would take place even if the lid on the container
is sealed. Develop clean and efficient working habits.

Let's first consider the amount of catalyst to be added when

the working temperature is 75 degrees Fahrenheit, which is con-
sidered ideal. If 1/2 percent by volume of catalyst is added to the
resin, the working or pot life of the resin is about 60 minutes, at
which time the resin starts to gel. Soon after that, it becomes hard.
For 1 otmce of resin, 1/2 percent by volume of catalyst would be
approximately two drops.
Now add the catalyst to the resin. Lay a piece of wax paper
on the work space. Using the plastic dispenser that the catalyst
comes in, add two drops of catalyst to the 1 ounce of resin. Then
use a small mixing stick to stir the catalyst into the resin. Wait about
30 seconds. Next, pour the catalyzed resin onto the wax paper. Use
the mixing stick to get as much out of the mixing container as pos-
sible. Bunch the resin up into one area on the wax paper. Set the
mixing cup aside. Have a watch or clock handy to time the reac-
tion. In about 60 minutes from the time the catalyst was added,
the resin should start to gel. Poke it with the mixing stick to deter-
mine when this happens. Soon after that, the resin should become
hard. Save the sample of cured resin for experimenting and mak-
ing comparisons.
Catalyzing Exercise 2. Next, measure out another ounce
of resin into a mixing container. Remember not to place the mix-
ing stick used previously for the catalyzed resin into the primary
container of resin.
This time add 1 percent by volume of catalyst to the resin. For
1 ounce of resin, add about 4 drops of catalyst. Stir the resin and
catalyst together using a small mixing stick. Wait about 30 seconds,
then pour the mixture onto the wax paper. This time the pot life
of the resin is reduced to about 30 minutes. The resin should be-
come hard soon after it starts to gel. Save the sample of cured resin

233
for experimenting and making comparisons.
Catalyzing Exercise 3. Measure out another ounce of resin
into a mixing container. Add 2 percent by volume of catalyst to
the resin. For the 1 ounce of resin, add about 8 drops of catalyst.
Stir the catalyst into the resin with a small mixing stick. Wait about

30 seconds, then pour the mixture onto the wax paper. The pot
lifeof the resin is now reduced to about 15 minutes with the resin
hardening soon after it starts to gel. Again save the sample of cured
resin for later.
Catalyzing Exercise 4. Measure out another ounce of resin
into a mixing container. Add 3 percent by volume of catalyst to
the resin. For the 1 ounce of resin, add about 12 drops of catalyst
and stir the catalyst into the resin with a small mixing stick. Wait
about 30 seconds, then pour the mixture onto the wax paper. The
pot life of the resin is now reduced to about 7 1/2 minutes, with
the resin hardening soon after that. Save the sample of cured resin.
Summary. The above practice exercises demonstrate that at
a constant temperature of 75 degrees Fahrenheit, the more cata-
lyst added, the shorter the pot life and curing time. The following
summarizes this:

Amount of % by Volume Drops of Pot Life

Resin (oz.) of Catalyst Catalyst (minutes)

1 1/2 2 60
1 1 4 *30

1 2 8 15
1 3 12 7 1/2

Take the four sample pieces of cured resin and place them on
a hard surface. Tap each piece with a hammer. Two things should
be noted. First, cured resin without fiberglass reinforcing mate-
rial is very brittle. Second, all the samples, regardless of curing

time, should have about equal strength. This works only for a cer-
tain range of percentages by volume of catalyst, usually from about
1/2 to 3 percent. This gives you a choice of working times, depend-
ing on the particular job you are doing.
Later as you gain experience, you will want to catalyze more
than an ounce of resin at a time. To achieve the same percentages
by volume of catalyst for 2 ounces of resin, double the number of
drops of catalyst from the amounts used previously. In a similar
manner, you can determine the amount of catalyst to add to any

234
amount of resin to give the desired pot life at 75 degrees Fahrenheit.
The working temperature be something other than
will often

75 degrees Fahrenheit. With regular polyester resin, you can do

satisfactory work in a temperature range of 60 degrees Fahrenheit
to 90 degrees Fahrenheit. You must use different amounts of cata-
lyst, however, than when the working temperature is 75 degrees
Fahrenheit to maintain the same pot life.

For example, if the working temperature is 60 degrees Fahren-

heit, and the same percentage by volume of catalyst is added as
in the exercises, the pot life would approximately double. This
means that if 1/2 percent by volume of catalyst is added, the pot
life would be about 2 hours rather than 60 minutes; if 1 percent

by volume of catalyst is added, the pot life would be about 60

minutes rather than 30 minutes.
If the working temperature is 90 degrees Fahrenheit, and the

same percentage by volume of catalyst is added as used previously

at 75 degrees Fahrenheit, the pot life would be approximately cut
in half. This means that if 1/2 percent by volume of catalyst is

added, the pot life would be 30 minutes rather than 60 minutes;

if 1 percent by volume of catalyst is added, the pot life would be
15 minutes rather than 30 minutes.
For temperatures between, the pot life increases or decreases
proportionally. Or you can maintain a desired pot life by changing
the amoimt of catalyst added. For most fiberglassing work, a pot
life from 15 to 30 minutes is about right. It might take some ex-

perimenting to determine what works best for you, however.

To summarize, more catalyst means a faster curing time; less
catalyst means a slower curing time. Lower temperatures mean
a slower curing time; higher temperatures mean a faster curing
time. A desired pot life or curing time can be maintained with regu-
lar polyester resin in a temperature range from about 60 to 90
degrees Fahrenheit by varying the amount of catalyst used.
As a rule, best results are obtained at a working temperature
of 75 degrees Fahrenheit. Problems increase as the extremes of
the temperature range are approached. With practice, you should
be able to do satisfactory work in a variety of working temperatures.

Applying Polyester Resin to Reinforcing Material

Although polyester resin alone is weak and brittle, when combined
with fiberglass reinforcing material, a material of considerable
strength is formed.
Resin to Mat. As a practice exercise, cut a 6-inch square of

235
1 1/2-ounce-per-square-foot fiberglass mat and place it on wax
paper.
The 6-inch square should weigh about 1/4 as much as a 1-foot
square, or about 0.38 ounces (1/4 x 1 1/2 ounce). A typical mat
laminate is about 25 percent glass fiber material by weight and 75
percent resin by weight. For the 6-inch square of 1 1/2-ounce mat,
approximately 1.14 ounces (3 x 0.38 ounce) of resin is required.
Because some resin does not end up as part of the laminate
(some remains on the brush and in the mixing cup), measure out
about 1.25 ounces of resin and place this in a mixing container. For
this practice exercise, you need about 15 minutes of working time.
Actually, you won't need this much time, but it's better to plan a
littleextra working time so you don't waste resin by having it
harden in the mixing container. Determine the amount of catalyst
to add for your working temperature. If the working temperature
is about 75 degrees Fahrenheit, about 10 drops of catalyst are re-

quired.
Before adding the catalyst, get a 1/2-inch-wide paintbrush and
a piece of cardboard about 1-foot square ready. Place the 6-inch
square of 1 1/2-ounce mat on the cardboard. Add the catalyst to
the resin. Stir with a small mixing stick. Wait about 30 seconds.
Then, with the mat on the cardboard, use the brush to apply a layer
of resin to the top side of the mat. Use a dabbing rather than brush-
ing action when applying resin to the mat so that the glass fibers
do not bunch up. After applying the resin to the one side of the
mat, use the cardboard to flip the mat over wet side down on the
wax paper. Apply the remainder of the resin to the other side of
the mat, again using a dabbing rather than brushing action.
After applying as much of the resin as possible to the reinforc-
ing material, clean the resin from the brush using acetone. Allow
the laminate to harden.
After the laminate has cured, pick it up and examine it (Fig.
10-9). If everything was done correctly, you should have a 6-inch
square mat laminate that is approximately 1/20 inch thick.The side
of the panel that was directly over the wax paper should be smooth
because the wax paper was a molding surface for the flat panel.

The same thing could be done with a curved surface.

Set the mat laminate aside. be used later.
It will

Resin to Cloth. Cut a 6-inch square of 10-ounce-per-square-

yard fiberglass cloth. Cut the cloth so that you have one selvaged
edge.
Because a square yard of 10-ounce fiberglass cloth weighs ap-

236
 Fiberglass Laminate
With One Layer
'I'^^'-^SiSf^j^^.U ^gJJgy. ^— — Of Mat
Fig. 10-9. A fiberglass laminate made up of one layer of mat.

proximately 10 ounces, the 6-inch square should weigh about 1/36

as much, or about 0.3 ounce. Cloth laminates are typically about
50 percent reinforcing material and 50 percent resin by weight.
Therefore, about 0.3 ounce of resin is required. Because some will
be lost on the brush, in the container, and on the cardboard during
the application, however, use about 0.5 ounce of resin.
Plan about 15 minutes of working time. Determine the amount
of catalyst to add for your working temperature. At 75 degrees
Fahrenheit, about 4 drops of catalyst are required for the 1/2 ounce
of resin.
Have a 1/2-inch paintbrush and a piece of cardboard about 1
foot square ready. Place the 6-inch square of 10-ounce-per-square-
yard fiberglass cloth on the cardboard. Add the catalyst to the resin.
Stir with a mixing stick. Wait about 30 seconds. Then, with the
cloth on the cardboard, use the brush to apply a layer of resin to
the top side of the cloth. Use a brushing action, but take care not
to imravel the cloth along the unselvaged edges. After applying the
resin to one side of the cloth, use the cardboard to flip the cloth
over wet side down on the wax paper. Then apply the remainder
of the resin to the other side of the cloth. Spread the resin out into
a smooth, even layer.
After applying as much resin as possible to the cloth reinforc-
ing material, clean any remaining resin from the brush using ace-
tone as a solvent. Allow the cloth laminate to harden.
After the laminate has cured, pick it up and examine it (Fig.
10-10). If everything was done correctly, you should have a 6-inch
square cloth laminate that is approximately 1/64 inch thick. The
side of the panel that was directly over the wax paper should be
relatively smooth because the wax paper acted as a flat molding
surface.

237
 Fiberglass Laminate
With One Layer
Of Cloth

Fig. 10-10. A fiberglass laminate made up of one layer of cloth.

Set the cloth laminate aside. It will be used later.

Resin to Woven
Roving. Next, cut a 6-inch square piece
of 24-ounce-per-square-yard fiberglass woven roving. The woven
roving does not have selvaged edges; be careful when cutting and
handling the material so that the roving does not come unraveled
at the edges.
Because a square yard of 24-ounce fiberglass woven roving
weighs approximately 24 ounces, the 6-inch square should weigh
about 1/36 as much, or about 0.68 ounces. Woven roving laminates
are typically about 45 percent reinforcing material by weight and
55 percent resin by weight. Therefore, about 0.7 ounce of resin
is required. Use 0.8 ounce, however, to account for the resin that

will be lost on the brush, in the container, and on the cardboard

during the application.
Plan 15 minutes of working time. Determine the amount of cat-
alyst to add your working temperature. At 75 degrees Fahren-
for
heit, about 7 drops of catalyst are required for the 0.8 ounce of resin.

Have a 1/2-inch paintbrush and a piece of cardboard about 1

foot square ready. Place the 6-inch square piece of 24-ounce-per-
square-yard fiberglass woven roving on the cardboard. Add the cat-
alyst to the resin. Stir with a mixing stick. Wait about 30 seconds.
Then, with the woven roving on the cardboard, use the brush to
apply a layer of resin to the top side of the woven roving. Use a
brushing action, taking care not to unravel the edges of the woven
roving. After applying the resin to one side of the woven roving,
use the cardboard to flip the woven roving over wet side down on
the wax paper. Then apply the remainder of the resin to the other
side of the woven roving. Spread the resin out into a smooth, even
layer.

238
 After applying as much resin as possible to the woven roving
reinforcing material, clean any remaining resin from the brush us-
ing acetone as a solvent. Allow the woven roving laminate to
harden.
After the laminate has cured, pick it up and examine it (Fig.
10-11). You should have a 6-inch square woven roving laminate that
is approximately 1/25 inch thick. The side of the panel that was

directly over the wax paper should be relatively smooth because

the wax paper acted as a flat molding surface. The coarse weave
pattern of the woven roving still shows, however.
Set the woven roving laminate aside. It will be used later.
Summary. To this point in the practice exercises, it doesn't
really matter whether you used laminating resin or finishing resin.
If you used laminating resin, the surfaces of the laminates should

have remained tacky. If finishing resin was used, the surfaces

should have no tackiness.
As a general rule, use laminating resin whenever you intend
to add additional layers to the laminate. The final application of
resin is normally finishing resin, which gives a surface without tack-
iness that can be sanded and painted as desired.
I suggest that you use laminating resin throughout. When you

need a finishing resin, use a wax additive to convert the laminat-

ing resin into a finishing resin.
If for any reason you apply finishing resin and then decide to

add another layer to the laminate, you must first remove the wax
from the surface. This can be done by sanding and/or chemically
using a solvent, such as acetone, to remove the wax from the
surface.

Fig. 10-11. A fiberglass laminate made up of one layer of woven roving.

239
 Laminating Layers of Reinforcing {^Material Together
Fiberglass laminates are made up woven
of layers of mat, cloth,
roving, or some combination of these materials, that are laminated
together. The question might be raised, **Why not just use a sin-
gle layer of reinforcing material that has the necessary thickness
so that the job could be done in one operation?"
The main reason is the difficulty of handling and properly
saturating thick layers of reinforcing material with resin. There
have been attempts to make thicker fiberglass reinforcing materials,
such as by combining a layer of woven roving and a layer of mat
into a single reinforcing material. This, in effect, does in a single
operation what would otherwise be done in two, that is, first a layer
of woven roving and then a layer of mat. Even this is somewhat
difficult to handle and lay up, however, and it isn't recommended
for beginners.
The mat, and woven roving laminates you made will now
cloth,
be used for additional practice exercises.If you used finishing resin,

clean the wax from both sides of the panels with acetone.
Adding a Layer of Mat to the Original Mat Laminate.
Place the original mat laminate on a piece of wax paper. Cut a 6-inch
square piece of 1 1/2-ounce-per-square-foot fiberglass mat. Mea-
sure out about 1.25 ounce of resin and place it in a mixing container.
For this practice exercise, plan about 15 minutes of working time.
Determine the amount of catalyst to add for your working temper-
ature. If the working temperature is about 75 degrees Fahrenheit,
about 10 drops of catalyst are required.
Have a 1/2-inch paintbrush and a piece of cardboard about 1
foot square ready. Place the dry piece of fiberglass mat on the card-
board. Add the catalyst to the resin. Stir with a mixing stick. Wait
about 30 seconds.
Apply a layer of resin to either the bonding surface of the cured
mat panel, the bonding side of the new mat layer, or both. All of
these methods give satisfactory results. Experiment to determine
which method works best for you.
Position the new mat layer on the cured panel. Use the brush
to press the new mat layer down. Dab resin to the other side of
the new mat layer. Spread the resin smoothly and evenly, making
sure that the mat is thoroughly saturated or wetted out with resin.
After applying as much resin as possible to the reinforcing ma-
terial, use acetone to clean the brush. Allow the laminate to harden.
After the laminate has cured, pick it up and examine it (Fig.
10-12). If everything was done correctly, you should have a 6-inch

240
Fig. 10-12. A fiberglass laminate made up of two layers of mat.

square laminate of two layers of mat reinforcing material that is

about 1/10 inch thick or twice the thickness of the original one-layer
mat laminate. The two-layer laminate should weigh approximately
twice as much as the one-layer laminate did. Set this laminate aside.
Adding a Layer of Mat to the Original Cloth Laminate.
Place the original cloth laminate on a piece of wax paper. Cut a
6-inch square piece of 1 1/2-ounce-per-square-foot fiberglass mat.
Measure out about 1.25 ounce of resin and place it in a mixing con-
tainer. Plan about 15 minutes of working time. Determine the
amount of catalyst to add for your working temperature. At 75
degrees Fahrenheit, about 10 drops of catalyst are required.
Have a and a piece of cardboard about 1
1/2-inch paintbrush
foot square ready. Place the dry piece of fiberglass mat on the card-
board. Add the catalyst to the resin. Stir with a mixing stick. Wait
about 30 seconds.
Apply a layer of resin to either the bonding surface of the cured
cloth panel, the bonding side of the mat to be added, or both. Posi-
tion the mat layer on the cured cloth panel. Use the brush to press
the mat layer in place. Dab resin to the other side of the mat. Spread
it smoothly and evenly over the mat, making sure that the mat is

thoroughly saturated or wetted out with resin.

After applying as much resin as possible to the reinforcing ma-
terial, use acetone to clean the brush. Allow the laminate to harden.

After the laminate has cured, pick it up and examine it (Fig.

10-13). You should have a 6-inch square laminate consisting of one
cloth layer and one mat layer of reinforcing material bonded to-
gether as a unit. Set this laminate aside.
Adding a Layer of Mat to the Original Woven Roving

241
 Fiberglass Laminate With
A Layer Of Cloth And
A Layer Of Mat

Fig. 10-13. A fiberglass laminate made up of a layer of cloth and a layer of mat.

Laminate. Place the original woven roving laminate on a piece

ofwax paper. Cut a 6-inch square piece of 1 1/2-ounce-per-square-
foot fiberglass mat. Measure out about 1.25 ounces of resin and
place this in a mixing container. Plan about 15 minutes of working
time. Determine the amount of catalyst to add for your working
temperature. At 75 degrees Fahrenheit, add about 10 drops of
catalyst.
Have a 1/2-inch paintbrush and a piece of cardboard about 1
foot square ready. Place the dry piece of fiberglass mat on the card-
board. Add the catalyst to the resin. Stir with a mixing stick. Wait
about 30 seconds.
Apply a layer of resin to either the bonding surface of<the cured
woven roving panel, the bonding side of the mat to be added, or
both.
Position the mat layer on the cured woven roving panel. Use
the brush to press the mat layer in place. Dab resin to the other
side of the mat. Spread smoothly and evenly, making sure that
it

the mat is thoroughly saturated or wetted out with resin.

After applying as much resin as possible to the reinforcing ma-
terial, use acetone to clean the brush. Allow the laminate to harden.
After the laminate has cured, pick it up and examine it (Fig.
10-14). You should have a 6-inch square laminate consisting of one
layer of mat and one layer of woven roving reinforcing material
bonded together as a unit. Set this laminate aside.
Adding a Third Layer of Mat to the Two-Layer Mat
Laminate. Place this laminate on a piece of wax paper with the
desired bonding area upward. Cut a 6-inch square piece of 1

1/2-ounce-per-square-foot fiberglass mat. Measure out about 1.25

ounces of resin and place it in a mixing container. Plan about 15

242
minutes of working time. Determine the amount of catalyst to add
foryour working temperature. At 75 degrees Fahrenheit, add about
10 drops of catalyst.
Have a and a piece of cardboard about 1
1/2-inch paintbrush
foot square ready. Place the dry piece of fiberglass mat on the card-
board. Add the catalyst to the resin. Stir with a mixing stick. Wait
about 30 seconds.
Apply a layer of resin to either the bonding surface of the cured
mat panel, the bonding side of the new mat layer to be added, or
both. Position the new mat layer on the cured panel. Use the brush
to press the new mat layer in place. Dab resin to the other side
of the new mat layer. Spread it evenly over the mat, making sure
that the mat is thoroughly saturated or wetted out with resin.
After applying as much resin as possible to the reinforcing ma-
terial, use acetone to clean the brush. Allow the laminate to harden.
After the laminate has cured, pick it up and examine it (Fig.
10-15). You should have a 6 inch square of laminate with three
layers of mat reinforcing material that is about 1/5 inch thick or
mat laminate.
three times the thickness of the original one-layer
The three-layer laminate should weigh approximately three times
as much as the one-layer laminate. Set this laminate aside.
Adding a Layer of Cloth to the Mat Side of the Mat
and Cloth Laminate. Place the mat and cloth laminate on a piece
of wax paper with the mat side upward. Cut a 6-inch square of
10-ounce-per-square-yard fiberglass cloth. Measure out about 1/2
ounce of resin and place it in a mixing container. Plan about 15
minutes of working time. Determine the amount of catalyst to add

Fig. 10-14. A fiberglass laminate made up of a layer of woven roving and a

layer of mat.

243
 Fiberglass Laminate
With Three Layers
Of Mat

Fig. 10-15. A fiberglass laminate made up of three layers of mat.

for your working temperature. At 75 degrees Fahrenheit, add about

4 drops of catalyst.
Have a 1/2-inch paintbrush and a piece of cardboard about 1
foot square ready. Place the dry piece of fiberglass cloth on the
cardboard. Add the catalyst to the resin. Stir with a mixing stick.
Wait about 30 seconds.
Apply a layer of resin to either the bonding surface of the cured
panel (mat side), the bonding side of the cloth to be added, or both
surfaces. Position the cloth layer on the cured panel (mat side). Use
the brush to press the cloth in place and smooth it out. Work all
air bubbles off to one edge so that the trapped air can escape. Then
apply resin to the other side of the cloth. Spread the resin evenly
over the cloth, making sure that the cloth is thoroughly saturated
or wetted out with resin.
After applying as much resin as possible to the reinforcing ma-
terial, use acetone to clean the brush. Allow the laminate to harden.
After the laminate has cured, pick it up and examine it (Fig.
10-16). Your 6-inch square laminate should consist of a layer of mat
reinforcing material sandwiched between two layers of cloth rein-
forcing material, with everything bonded together as a unit. Set
this laminate aside.
Adding a Layer of Woven Roving to the Mat Side of
the Mat and Woven Roving Laminate. Place the mat and
woven roving laminate on a piece of wax paper in your work area
with the mat side upward. Cut a 6-inch square piece of 24-ounce-
per-square-yard fiberglass woven roving. Measure out about 0.8
ounce of resin and place it in a mixing container. Plan about 15
minutes of working time. Determine the amount of catalyst to add

244
for your working temperature. At 75 degrees Fahrenheit, add about
7 drops of catalyst.
Have a and a piece of cardboard about 1
1/2-inch paintbrush
foot square ready. Place a dry piece of fiberglass woven roving on
the cardboard. Add the catalyst to the resin. Stir with a mixing stick.
Wait about 30 seconds.
Apply a layer of resin to either the bonding surface (mat side)
of the cured panel, the bonding side of the woven roving to be
added, or both surfaces. Position the woven roving layer on the
cured panel (mat side). Use the brush to press the woven roving
in place and smooth it out. Then apply resin to the other side of

the woven roving. Spread it evenly over the woven roving, mak-
ing sure that the woven roving is thoroughly saturated or wetted
out with resin.
After applying as much resin as possible to the reinforcing ma-
terial, use acetone to clean the brush. Allow the laminate to harden.
After the laminate has cured, pick it up and examine it (Fig.
10-17). You should have a 6-inch square laminate consisting of a
layer of mat reinforcing material sandwiched between two layers
of woven roving reinforcing material, with everything bonded to-
gether as a unit. Set this laminate aside.

Laminating Fiberglass to Plywood

For the next two practice exercises you will need two 6-inch square
pieces of 1/4-inch plywood. You will use these to learn the basic
fiberglassing skill of bonding fiberglass to wood.
Bonding Mat to Plywood. To bond a layer of mat to ply-

<^C^^^^6^^^v^^<^^ Mat
"
Cloth
Fig. 10-16. A fiberglass laminate made up of two layers of cloth and one layer
of mat.

245
 Woven Roving
Mat
Woven Roving
Fig. 10-17. A fiberglass laminate made up of two layers of woven roving and
one layer of mat.

wood, place the 6-inch square of plywood on a piece of construc-

tion or newspaper. Rough sand one side of the plywood to give a
good bonding surface for the fiberglass mat. Clean up all sawdust
to keep your area clean for fiberglassing. Place the pljrwood on a
piece of wax paper with the roughened bonding side upward.
Cut a 6-inch square piece of 1 1/2-ounce-per-square-foot fiber-
glass mat. Measure out about 1 1/2 ounces of resin. You need more
this time because some of the resin will be soaked up by the wood.
Place the resin in a mixing container.
Plan about 15 minutes of working time. Determine the amount
of catalyst to add for your working temperature. At VS degrees
Fahrenheit, add about 12 drops.
Have a 1/2-inch paintbrush and a piece of cardboard about
1-foot square ready. Place the dry piece of fiberglass mat on the
cardboard. Add the catalyst to the resin. Stir with a mixing stick.
Wait about 30 seconds. Then, apply a thin layer of resin to the bond-
ing surface of the plywood and a layer to the bonding side of the
mat. Position the wet side of the mat to the wet side of the ply-
wood. Use the brush to press the mat in place. Use a dabbing rather
than brushing motion when working with mat to keep it from bunch-
ing up. Apply an even layer of resin over the mat, making sure that
the mat is thoroughly saturated or wetted out with resin.
After applying as much resin as possible to the mat reinforc-
ing material, use acetone to clean the brush. Allow the laminate
to harden.
After the laminate has cured, pick it up and examine it (Fig.
10-18). You should have a 6-inch square laminate consisting of the

246
plywood with a layer of mat bonded to it. Try to peel the fiber-
glass layer from the wood. If everything was done properly, there
should be a good bond, although bonding fiberglass to wood using
polyester resin can be difficult. For crucial jobs, you might want
to use the more expensive epoxy resin, which is more difficult to
use but gives a much better bond. Set this laminate aside.
Bonding a Layer of Fiberglass Cloth to Plywood. Place
a 6-inch square of pljrwood on a piece of construction or newspa-
per. Rough sand one side of the plywood to give agood bonding
surface for the fiberglass cloth. Clean up all sawdust so that you
have a clean working area for the fiberglassing. Place the ply-
wood on a piece of wax paper with the roughened bonding side of
the plywood upward.
Cut a 6-inch square piece of 10-ounce-per-square-yard fiberglass
cloth. Measure out about 3/4 ounce of resin (you use more this time
because some resin soaks into the wood) and place it in a mixing
container. Plan about 15 minutes of working time. Determine the
amount of catalyst to add for your working temperature. At 75
degrees Fahrenheit, abut 6 drops of catalyst are required for the
3/4 ounce of resin.
Have a 1/2-inch paintbrush and a piece of cardboard about 1
foot square ready. Place the dry piece of fiberglass cloth on the
cardboard. Add the catalyst to the resin. Stir with a mixing stick.
Wait about 30 seconds. Then, apply a thin layer of resin to the bond-
ing surface of the plywood and a layer to the bonding side of the
fiberglass cloth. Position the wet side of the fiberglass cloth to the
wet side of the plywood. Use the brush to work the cloth in place

Fig. 10-18. One layer of mat bonded to plywood.

247
and to work out any air bubbles. Then brush an even layer of resin
over the fiberglass cloth, making sure that the cloth is thoroughly
wetted out with resin. When properly done, the fiberglass cloth
should form a smooth layer over the surface of the pljnvood.
If everything looks okay, clean the brush with acetone. Allow
the laminate to harden.
After the laminate has cured, pick it up and examine it (Fig.
10-19). You should have a 6-inch square laminate consisting of the
plywood with a layer of fiberglass cloth bonded to it. Try to peel
the fiberglass layer from the wood. If everything was done prop-
erly, there should be a good bond. Set this laminate aside.
Bonding a Layer of Cloth to the Previous Plywood
and Mat Laminate. Place the plywood and mat laminate on a
piece of wax paper with the mat side upward. If you previously
used finishing resin, wash the surface with acetone to remove the
wax. An alternative method is to sand the surface to remove the
wax.
Cut a 6-inch square piece of 10-ounce-per-square-yard fiberglass
cloth. Measure out about 1/2 oimce of resin and place this in a mix-
ing container. Plan about 15 minutes of working time. Determine
the amount of catalyst to add for your working temperature. At
75 degrees Fahrenheit, add about 4 drops of catalyst for the 1/2
ounce of resin.
Have a 1/2-inch paintbrush and a piece of cardboard about
1-foot square ready. Place the dry piece of fiberglass cloth on the
cardboard. Add the catalyst to the resin. Stir with a miking stick.
Wait about 30 seconds. Then, apply a thin layer of resin to the bond-

Fig. 10-19. One layer of cloth bonded to plywood.

248
 ^^^^^^^^^
^^^^^^ Plywood

Fig. 10-20. One layer of mat and one layer of cloth bonded to plywood.

ing surface of the plywood and mat panel on the mat side. Next,
apply a thin layer of resin to the bonding side of the fiberglass cloth.
Position the wet side of the fiberglass cloth to the wet side of the
panel. Use a brush to work the cloth in place and to work out any
air bubbles. Then brush an even layer of resin over the fiberglass
cloth, making sure that the cloth is thoroughly wetted out with resin.
When properly done, the fiberglass cloth should form a smooth layer
over the surface of the mat layer on the panel.
If everything looks okay, clean the brush with acetone. Allow
the laminate to harden.
After the laminate has cured, pick up and examine it (Fig.
it

10-20). If evenrthing was done you should have a 6-inch-

correctly,
square panel consisting of the plywood, a layer of mat, and a layer
of cloth, with everything bonded together as a unit. Set this lami-
nate aside.
Bonding a Layer of Mat to the Previous Plywood and
Cloth Laminate. Place the plywood and cloth laminate on a piece
of wax paper with the cloth side upward. If you previously used
finishing resin, wash the surface with acetone to remove the wax
from the surface. An alternative method is to sand the surface to
remove the wax.
Cut a 6-inch-square piece of 1 1/2-ounce-per-square-foot fiber-
glass mat. Measure out about 1.25 ounces of resin and place this
in a mixing container. Plan 15 minutes of working time. Determine
the amount of catalyst to add for your working temperature. At
75 degrees Fahrenheit, add about 10 drops of catalyst.

249
 Have a 1/2-inch paintbrush and a piece of cardboard about
1-foot square ready. Place the dry piece of fiberglass mat on the
cardboard. Add the catalyst to the resin. Stir with a mixing stick.
Wait about 30 seconds. Then apply a thin layer of resin to the cloth
bonding surface of the plywood and cloth laminate and a thin layer
of resin to the bonding side of the fiberglass mat. Position the wet
side of the fiberglass mat to the wet side of the panel. Use the brush
to work the mat in place, using a dabbing rather than brushing ac-
tion to keep it from bunching up. Then brush an even layer of resin
over the fiberglass mat, making sure that is it thoroughly wetted
out. When properly done, the fiberglass mat should form a smooth
layer over the surface of the plywood.
If everything looks okay, clean the brush with acetone. Allow
the laminate to harden.
After the laminate has cured, pick up and examine it (Fig.
it

10-21). If everything was done you should have a 6-inch-

correctly,
square panel consisting of the plywood, a layer of cloth, and a layer
of mat, with even^thing bonded together as a imit.
Summary. If you completed all of the practice exercises, you
should now have five fiberglass panels, as follows:

1. A three-layer mat laminate.

2. A three-layer cloth, mat, and cloth laminate.
3. A three-layer woven roving, mat, woven roving laminate.
4. A three-layer plywood, mat, cloth laminate. ,

5. A three-layer plywood, cloth, mat laminate.

^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ y'^ '^ —— Plywood

Fig. 10-21. One layer of cloth and one layer of mat bonded to plywood.

250
 If you used laminating resin throughout, catalyze and apply a
thin layer of finishing resin or laminating resin with wax added,
as detailed previously, to the fiberglass surfaces of each laminate.

Using Polyester and Epoxy Putty and Filler Material

A variety of polyester and epoxy putty and filler compounds are

on the market. These are often formulated for special purposes.
Use the kind especially formulated for marine use. Some of the com-
pounds intended for auto body repair are unsuitable because they
contain metals that will rust in a typical marine atmosphere. A va-
riety of powdered and fibrous additives are used with polyester and
epoxy resins to give a putty consistency. Some of these reinforce
the resin. Others weaken the resulting cured mixture, sometimes
to a brittle plastic like the pure resin formed in the first practice
I exercises.
You can also mix up your own putty and filler materials by
adding milled glass fibers to polyester or epoxy resin. Before use,
a catalyst or hardener must also be added.
As a rule, putty and filler materials should only be used to fill

in small areasup to about the size of a quarter. Larger areas should

be repaired using fiberglass mat or other reinforcing materials, un-
less the putty area is to be covered over with a fiberglass laminate.
Whenever I fill in surface defects on fiberglass boats,I use ep-

oxy rather than polyester putty. The epoxy putty gives a much bet-
ter bond than does polyester putty. Modern epoxy putties are
available that cure rapidly and are about as easy to use and apply
as polyester putties.
As a practice exercise, I suggest that you mix up a small amount
of manufactured polyester or epoxy putty. Measure out a small
quantity of the resin part of the putty onto a board or a shallow
mixing container. Then add the recommended amount of catalyst
or hardener for the brand and type of putty used. For polyester
putty, the catalyst can be in liquid or paste form. For epoxy putty,
the hardener or curing agent is usually in the form of a thick, gel-
like liquid. Place the mixture on wax paper and bunch it up, then
spread it out into a layer about 1/8 inch thick. Use a putty knife
for working the putty.
After the putty cures, place it on concrete or other solid sur-
face and tap it with a hammer. Though the putty will probably break
up, it should stand up to a harder blow with a hammer than did
the cured pieces of resin without reinforcing material.
As a second practice exercise with putty, mix milled glass fibers

251

\
 «

with polyester resin. Mix only a small amount. First, place the
desired amount of resin in a small cup or other mixing container.
Then add milled glass fibers until the desired thickness is achieved.
Next, add the catalyst. Use the same amount of catalyst as you
would for the resin alone, without milled fibers. Stir with a small
mixing stick. Spread the mixture out into a layer about 1/8 inch
thick on wax paper. Use a putty knife for working the putty.
After the putty hardens, place it on concrete or other hard sur-
face and tap it with a hammer. Though the putty will break up,
it should have much greater strength than cured resin without rein-

forcing material.

Sanding and Fairing Fiberglass Laminates

The next practice is to sand and fair the fiberglass surfaces of the
five practice laminates. Use a sanding block and aluminum oxide
or silicon carbide abrasive paper. If there are high spots to be re-
moved, start with a coarse grit sandpaper, but no coarser than is

necessary to remove the high spots in a reasonable amount of time

(Fig. 10-22). Use the sanding block. Gradually work down to finer
grits of abrasive paper.
There may be low areas that require filling with putty (Fig.
10-23). Apply the putty as detailed previously, using a putty knife
to scrape off excess putty. If polyester putty is used, leave the area
slightly higher than surrounding area, because most polyester put-
ties have some shrinkage. Allow the putty to harden.
After the putty hardens, sand away high spots. Work down to
finer grits of abrasive paper. Some manufactured putties sand quite
easily, others don't. The polyester putty that you mix yourself us-
ing milled glass fibers is quite difficult to sand, about the same as
sanding a polyester resin and mat laminate.

High
Spots

Fiberglass
Laminate
Fig. 10-22. High spots are removed by sanding.

252
 Filler

Material

'

Fiberglass
Laminate
Fig. 10-23. Low areas are filled in with putty.

Finish the sanding using fine grits of abrasive paper. Continue

to use a sanding block. The fine sanding can be done wet or dry,
as desired.
Sand the fiberglass surfaces on all five practice laminates un-
til they are smooth andfair. This may take considerable time, but

isan important practice exercise. Careful sanding achieves profes-

sional results in fiberglassing work.

Gel Coating and Painting Fiberglass Laminates

Apply color gel coat resin or two-part epoxy or polyurethane paint
to the fiberglass surfaces of the five panels prepared in the prac-
tice exercises. Carefully follow the manufacturer's directions for
the gel coating or paint used.
After application, allow the gel coating to harden or the paint
to dry or cure. If everything was done properly, you should now
have five panels, three of which are finished on both sides and two
of which are finished on one side only. The finished surfaces should
be smooth and fair with a smooth even color coating.

253
Alterations
By using fiberglassing techniques, you can make alterations on
fiberglass boats that would not otherwise be possible. There are
many reasons for making alterations. You might want to improve
the appearance or performance of the boat or alter it in some way
to more closely fit your particular needs and requirements.
Before attempting any alterations on your boat, make sure that
you have the necessary skill to do them properly. Any alterations
done should be at least the same quality and appearance as the rest
of the boat. If not, they will stand out like a sore thumb.
To gain the necessary skill and experience, do the fiberglass-
ing practice exercises in Chapter 10. Then, before doing any alter-
ations on your boat, try them out on scrap materials whenever this
is practical. On your first attempts at alterations on your boat, stick

to easy jobs that are well within your present skill level. If you plan
to go into more extensive fiberglassing work, buy an old, damaged,
and/or badly neglected fiberglass boat and recondition and make
alterations on it. This is not only a good way to learn a lot about
fiberglassing, but also a possible way to earn some extra money.
I've purchased damaged fiberglass boats, reconditioned them, and
then sold them at a substantial profit.
Only a small part of making alterations on fiberglass boats in-

volves fiberglassing. Much of the work uses standard techniques

to work with wood and other materials. This chapter covers the
fiberglassing part of making alterations, which is the part that stops

254
most fiberglass boat owners from making certain kinds of alter-

ations.

DESIGN OF ALTERATIONS
A primary problem is the design of alterations that are to be made.
Before making any alterations, you should first make certain that

they will actually improve the boat. You don't want to do anything
that will make the boat unsafe or unseaworthy. And you won't want
to decrease the performance of the vessel unless you can accept
the compromise involved, such as larger interior accommodations
inexchange for slower cruising speed. And you won't want to make
the boat look ugly or reduce the value of the vessel should you de-
cide to sell it.

Minor changes, especially on the interiors of the boats, can be

made without serious problems. For example, you can add a maga-
zine rack or a shelf or widen a berth. It's important, however, that
you don't seriously change the weight distributions of heavy items.
If there are other boats of the same size and design in your area,

talk to the owners and see what alterations they have made to their
boats. This is a good way to find out what worked and what didn't.
If you intend to do more complicated or extensive modifica-

tions, first check them out with a qualified boat designer. There
will be a fee for this advice, but it's well worth the cost to keep
from doing something that might harm your boat. This applies es-
pecially to such modifications as changing the shape of the hull,
enlarging cabins and superstructures (I've seen a number of boats
ruined by amateur designing and constructing here), and enlarg-
ing windows. These types of alterations require not only major boat-
building techniques, but also an understanding of advanced boat
design.

MAKING ATTACHMENTS TO FIBERGLASS MOLDINGS

A major problem in making alterations is in attaching things to fiber-
glass moldings. In some cases, mechanical fasteners can be used,
as detailed in Chapter 8. In other cases, mechanical fasteners can-
not be used or are undesirable.

Joining a Block of Wood to a Fiberglass Molding

There are many instances where it is desirable to attach a block
of wood to a fiberglass molding without using mechanical fasteners.
For example, you might have a curtain rod fitting that is designed

255
for screw attachment to a wall. Obviously, you don't want to drill
holes for the screws directly into fiberglass moldings, which often
aren't thick enough to hold the screws anyway. A solution would
be to first attach a block of wood to the fiberglass molding, then
fasten the fitting with screws that extend only into the block, with-
out going through to the molding underneath. You could merely
epoxy glue the block of wood to the fiberglass molding, though this
would only suffice for a very light load fitting. Curtain rod attach-
ments often support heavy loads, especially when you start to lose
your balance and grab the curtain as a handhold.
It is common practice to use fiberglass bonding strips to at-

tach the block of wood, often in addition to the epoxy gluing. When
properly applied, fiberglass bonding strips have considerable hold-
ing power. The bonding strips form angle bonds that overlap the
surrounding fiberglass molding and extend only on the edges of
the block of wood (Fig. 11-1). The main problem with this is that
the bonding area on the wood is relatively small. In addition, bond-
ing to wood can be a problem anyway, especially if polyester resin
is used.
Bonding can be improved considerably by shaping the block
*

as shown in Fig. 11-2. This gives more bonding surface and 'traps"
the block in position even if part of the bond should fail. There will
still be a tendency for the fiberglass to peel back away from the

wood at the exposed edges, however. To avoid this, the wood block
can be completely embedded in fiberglass (Fig. 11-3). T)iis is done
for maximum strength, along with shaping the block.
Using scrap materials, practice bonding a small block of wood
to fiberglass laminate. If scrap fiberglass laminate is not available,
use a scrap piece of plywood, though remember that a better bond
is possible when bonding to fiberglass.
Sharp comers and angles are more difficult to laminate in place
then gradual comers and rounded angles. For this reason, shape

Wood
Bonding
Block
Strips

V
Fiberglass
Molding

Fig. 11-1. Bonding strips that attach only to edges of block of wood.

256
 Fiberglass
Molding
Fig. 11-2. Block shaped for better bonding.

the block of wood (Fig. 11-4). Rough sand all bonding surfaces on
the block using a course grit of abrasive paper.
Next, either sand the bonding surface on the fiberglass mold-
ing or clean the area chemically with acetone, or both. On an ac-
tual job,you might want to mask off areas to keep resin and other
chemicals off areas where you don't want them.
With both the block of wood and the bonding area of the fiber-
glass clean and dry, epoxy glue the block of wood to the fiberglass
in the desired position. Use props or other means for holding it in
position until the epoxy glue cures. This will vary, depending on
the particular situation. After the glue has set, remove the prop
or other holding devices.
Various types of fiberglass reinforcing material can be used for
bonding the block in place. For a small block of wood, use a 1
1/2-ounce-per-square-foot fiberglass mat. For small blocks of wood,
a minimum overlap of 1 1/2 inches onto the fiberglass all the way
aroimd the block of wood is recommended. Cut a layer of mat to
the required size.
Mat can be shaped over a thin block of wood without making
comer cuts. For thicker blocks of wood, comer cuts are used (Fig.
11-5). Comer cuts are also required for cloth. Woven roving, which
is used only when very substantial bonding and reinforcing are re-
quired, also requires corner cuts.
Next, estimate the amount of resin needed and place this in
a mixing cup or other container. Add the required amount of cata-
lyst for the desired working time (about 15 minutes for the pres-
ent job) and for the particular working temperature (refer to Chapter
10).
Use a wide paintbrush to apply the resin. Apply a thin
1/2-inch
layer to the surface of the wood and the bonding area of the fiber-
glass. Place the fiberglass mat on a piece of cardboard and wet out
ohe side of it with resin. Use a dabbing rather than brushing ac-
tion with the brush so the mat does not bunch up. Then use the
cardboard to transfer the mat to the bonding position. Press the
mat into position with the brush, stretching the mat over the comers
of the block if corner cuts were not used. After the mat is in the
proper position and pressed into place, apply resin to the mat until
it is properly saturated with resin. Both too little and too hiuch resin

Reinforcing
Material

Fig. 11-5. Corner cuts are made in fiberglass reinforcing material for shaping
to sharp corners.

258
is measure out enough resin,
undesirable. If you find that you did not
add some more mixing container, add catalyst, and continue
to the
with the resin application. If you have extra resin, do not continue
to add it to the mat. Too much resin results in a resin-rich lami-
nate that is quite brittle. When everything looks okay, clean the
brush with acetone. Allow the laminate to harden.
Depending on the particular job, you might want to add one
or more additional layers to the laminate. Use progressively larger
pieces of reinforcing material so that the final layer has the only
open edges.
For small blocks of wood, an all-mat laminate is adequate. For
larger blocks, cloth and/or woven roving can also be used in the
laminate.
Similar attachments are used for wood stringers to attach panel-
ing inside fiberglass cabins. A typical example is shown in Fig. 11-6.
The paneling can then be attached to the wood members with
screws.
Even large wooden beams like those used for mounting engines
are bonded in place with fiberglass in a similar manner. These re-
quire thickening the fiberglass laminate in the bonding areas as well
as thick fiberglass laminates to bond the wood in place. Through
bolts, rather than screws or lag bolts, are used to attach the en-
gines to the wood beams, with the fasteners also passing through
the bonding laminates.

Bonding Plywood Edges to Fiberglass Moldings

You can attach plywood edges to fiberglass moldings to install bulk-

heads, berths, and countertops in a fiberglass shell. In this exer-

cise a major plywood bulkhead is installed in a bare fiberglass hull
(see Chapter 13).

Fig. 11-6. Attachment of wood stringers to fiberglass molding.

259
Fig. 11-7. Plywood bonded to fiberglass molding with the edge of the plywood
in direct contact.

The joint is made by simply laminating fiberglass angle bond-

ing strips in place on one or both sides of the plywood (Fig. 11-7).
With major plywood bulkheads, however, a high-stress area or hard
spot can form where the plywood joins the fiberglass molding un-
less steps are taken to prevent this.

One method is to place a thin strip of rigid plastic foam between

the fiberglass molding and the bulkhead. You can also shape it to
give a gradual comer between the plywood and the fiberglass mold-
ing (Fig. 11-8), which makes bonding strips easier to add and
reduces the high-stress concentration on the fiberglass molding at
the joint of the plywood. Fit the foam by first using a rectangular
strip of foam to fit in the gap between the plywood and the fiber-
glass molding. If desired, epoxy glue edge of the ply-
it to both the

wood and the fiberglass molding. After the glue has cured, shape
the foam with a surfacing tool.

260
 —

'
Open Space
Fig. 11-9. Plywood bonded to fiberglass molding with a narrow space left be-
tween the edge of the plywood and the molding.

Another method is to simply leave a narrow space between the

plywood and the fiberglass molding (Fig. 11-9). If you use this
method, coat the edge of the plywood with epoxy first. The main
disadvantage of this method is the possibility of water getting in-
side the gap and causing dry rot in the plywood.
Still another method is to pad the contact area of the fiberglass

molding with three or more layers of fiberglass mat that extend

outward 6 or more inches on each side of the plywood bulkhead
(Fig. 11-10). Then shape the plywood bulkhead so it fits flush
against this padding.
Regardless of the method used, bond the plywood bulkhead
in place with progressively wider strips of fiberglassing reinforc-
ing material. For light loadings, use three or more layers of 1
1/2-ounce fiberglass mat. Apply the first layer 6 inches wide (3
inches bonds to the plywood and 3 inches to the fiberglass mold-
ing), the second layer 9 inches wide, the third layer 12 inches wide,

and so on. For heavier loadings, which are typical on major bulk-
heads, you might include layers of cloth and/or woven roving in

Fig. 11-10. Mat laminate used as pad for plywood bulkhead.

261
the bonding laminate. Using progressively wider pieces of reinforc-
ing material tapers the bonding laminate gradually to the thickness
of the molding and covers the edges of the bonding strips used un-
derneath.
Before applying the bonding strips, rough sand the bonding area
on the plywood bulkhead with a course grit of abrasive paper. Pre-
pare the bonding area on the fiberglass molding by sanding and/or
cleaning with an acetone-soaked cloth.
Fit and firmly hold the bulkhead in position before applying
the bonding strips. Position the narrowest piece of reinforcing ma-
terial in place first on the angle bond.
Measure out the required amount of resin in a mixing container
for the first piece of reinforcing material. If more than a half pint
is required, it is better to catalyze and mix it in separate batches,
especially until you gain considerable fiberglassing experience.
Catalyze the resin for the desired working time at the working tem-
perature. Between 15 and 30 minutes of working time is about right
for a 3- or 4-foot-long bonding strip.
Place the bonding strip on a piece of cardboard. Apply resin
to the bonding areas on the plywood and the fiberglass molding.
Although some fiberglass workers simply place the dry reinforc-
ing material in this wet resin, I also apply a thin layer of resin to
the bonding side of the reinforcing material. If mat is used, dab
rather than brush the resin so the mat does not bunch up. Then
use the cardboard to transfer the reinforcing material to Jthe bond-
ing area. Use the brush and/or glove-covered hands to work the
fiberglass reinforcing material into the angle position. Finish wet-
ting out the reinforcing material with an additional layer of resin,
making sure that the reinforcing material is thoroughly saturated.
Wait for the resin to harden. Then, in a similar manner, apply
the next layer of reinforcing material, which should overlap the first

layer on both sides. Allow this layer to cure, then apply the third
layer, and so on. As a rule, use laminating resin for all laminating
except the final layer of resin, which should be finishing resin or
laminating resin with a wax additive. This will allow sanding.
A similar angle bond is usually added to the opposite side of
the bulkhead, especially if it is a major reinforcing member. For
large bulkheads, the bonding strips can be added in 3- or 4-foot
lengths, overlapping the joints a few inches. Do this either at ran-

dom or in areas where they will not show because they will be
covered up. If they are in the open, keep the bonding angles as neat
as possible.

262
 Berths, countertops, and other plywood edges can be bonded
to fiberglass moldings in a similar manner. Sometimes bonding
strips are only necessary on one side of the plywood. Plywood mem-
bers that also serve as reinforcement might require bonding an-
gles on both sides of the plywood.
These methods for attaching plywood to fiberglass moldings
are used extensively for installing interior components and struc-
tures to fiberglass hull and other moldings. It is also used exten-
sively for alteration work by do-it-yourselfers. Essentially, it is a
strong attachment for connecting plywood edges to fiberglass mold-
ings. From this point onward, it allows the do-it-yourselfer to work
with wood.

REINFORCING AND STIFFENING FIBERGLASS MOLDINGS

Many alterations require reinforcing and stiffening fiberglass mold-
ings. For example, a molding might require thickening or other rein-
forcing in the area where a chain plate or other fitting is to be
attached. Three methods used for reinforcing and/or stiffening ex-
isting fiberglass moldings on boats are:

Adding the additional layers of reinforcing material to the

laminate.
Adding backing or core material to the molding.
Adding reinforcing and/or stiffening members to the fiber-
glass molding.

Adding Layers to Laminate

One method of strengthening and/or stiffening a fiberglass mold-
ing is add additional layers to the laminate, usually on the nongel-
to
coated side. This is not always easy to do on the fiberglass mold-
ings on an existing boat, however. Stiffening and reinforcing mem-
bers might be in the way, or there might be molded fiberglass liners
that prevent easy access to the back side of hull and other mold-
ings. Bonding to an old fiberglass molding can also be difficult. The
longer a fiberglass molding has cured, the more difficult it is to bond
fiberglass to it. Also, fiberglass that has been in the water soaks
up some water, which can be difficult to dry out and might cause
bonding problems.
Because of the possible difficulties, be sure that thickening is
really the best approach for the particular alteration you have in
mind. For adding chain plates or similar fittings, it might be; or

263
other stiffening methods might work better or be easier to apply.
To keep added weight to a minimum, other methods are often bet-
ter than adding layers to the laminate.
If adding layers to the laminate is the best method for the par-
ticular alteration you have in mind, the first step is to remove as
many obstacles as possible to get at the area where the layers are
to be added. A berth might have to be temporarily removed, or a
section of molded fiberglass liner might have to be cut out, for in-
stance.
While extra thickness is usually added to the back side (non-
gel coat) of the laminate, sometimes it's desirable to add the thick-
ness to the gel coat side of the laminate. This can be done, provided
the gel coating is first sanded away.
If adding to the back side, remove all paint from the laminate.

Sand and/or use special paintremovers that don't act as a solvent

to fiberglass resin. This type of paint remover is available from ma-
and fiberglass supply stores. Do not use regular paint
rine suppliers
remover because this will act as a solvent on the fiberglass lami-
nate underneath.
Rough sand the bonding area on the fiberglass molding to give
a good bonding surface. Then, use a cloth saturated with acetone
to thoroughly clean the area. Remove all grease, oil, and wax from
the surface.Thorough preparation of the surface is essential to
achieve a good bond.
Next, decide on the thickness of the laminate to be added. De-
termine the reinforcing materials to be used and the number of
layers required. The first layer added is often mat. Additional layers
can be mat, cloth, or woven roving, or combinations of these
materials.
The original fiberglass molding will serve as the form for lay-
ing up the laminate to be added. The laminating is much easier if

the work can be done on a level or near level plane. In actual boat
alterations, however, the laminating is often done on angled, ver-
tical, or even overhead surfaces. In these positions, use special high-
viscosity resins or add a thixotropic agent to regular polyester resin.

To give a better bond, use epoxy resin for bonding the first

layer of reinforcing material in place. After the epoxy resin has

cured, lay up the remainder of the laminate with polyester resin.
In most cases, however, using polyester resin alone gives an ade-
quate bond and can be used throughout.
To laminate, add one layer at a time to the laminate. Allow
each layer to cure before adding the next layer.

264
 Apply catalyzed resin to the bonding area of the fiberglass mold-
ing. Because it is impractical to presaturate large pieces of rein-
forcing material with resin, set the dry reinforcing material into
the wet resin on the bonding surface. Then completely saturate the
reinforcing material with resin from the other side. Apply the resin
with a brush and use a squeegee to smooth out the resin and work
out air bubbles. Apply an even layer of resin. Both too little and
too much resin is undesirable.
Allow then add the second layer in a
this first layer to cure,
similar manner. Let each added layer overlap the layer below by
a couple of inches all the way around. This tapers the added lami-
nate to the original fiberglass molding and leaves only the edges
of the last layer of laminate exposed.
Use a single piece of reinforcing material for each layer if

reasonably small areas are being covered. Larger areas might re-
quire more than one section of reinforcing material. Join separate
pieces with lap joints by overlapping the edges of the reinforcing
material a few inches. A beginner should not attempt to lay up more
than about a square yard of reinforcing material at a time. With
more experience, larger pieces can be handled.
Roll larger pieces of reinforcing material onto cardboard rolls
after the material has been cut to the desired size. After the resin
has been applied to the bonding surface, the reinforcing material
can then be rolled into place. All types of fiberglass laminates can
be reinforced by adding extra thickness. This includes stiffeners
and secondary bonding strips and angles.

Adding Backing or Core IViaterial to a l\/iolding

Another method of strengthening and/or stiffening a fiberglass lam-
inate is to add a backing or core material. One possibility is to add
a backing material other than fiberglass, such as plywood (Fig.
11-11). The problem with this is bonding the material properly to
the fiberglass. Epoxy glue might be adequate for some applications.
Another method is to place a layer of mat saturated with wet cata-
lyzed resin on the bonding surface of the fiberglass laminate and
press the plywood in place against the wet mat (Fig. 11-12). The
pljrwood is then propped or clamped tightly in position until the
resin cures.
Still another way is to use mechanical fasteners to hold the ply-
wood with one of the bonding methods de-
in place, either alone or
scribed.Sometimes the backing plywood can also be used as a
backing for fittings and other hardware, which makes drilling ex-

265
 Fiberglass
Laminate

Plywood — I \— Epoxy Glue

Fig. 11-11. Plywood attached to fiberglass laminate with epoxy glue.

tra holes just for attachment of the backing unnecessary.

Adding a sandwich core material to a single skin laminate is
another method for strengthening and stiffening a fiberglass mold-
ing. This method can also add insulation to the laminate. First re-
pair the bonding surface by removing any paint, sanding, and
cleaning with acetone.
Possible core materials include end grain balsa and closed-cell
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) foam. With either, the core should be quite
thin, usually from about 1/4 to 1/2 inch.
Epoxy glue the core material to the bonding surface of the fiber-
glass molding. Allow the epoxy to cure.
The edges of the core material are usually shaped so that they
taper back to the fiberglass molding (Fig. 11-13). Laminate a sec-
ond fiberglass skin in place over the core material. Taper the edges
to overlap the main fiberglass molding several inches or more all
the way around.
A typical laminate consists of three or more layers of reinforc-
ing material laminated in place, often with progressively larger
pieces of reinforcing material being used so that the laminate tapers
back further into the main laminate (Fig. 11-14). For some uses,
an all-mat laminate suffices. For others, cloth and/or woven rov-
ing is also included in the laminate.
To be effective, there must be a good bond between the core

Fiberglass
Laminate

Plywood
.
/ \ ^ Bonding Layer
oi Mat
Fig. 11-12. Plywood attached to fiberglass laminate by bonding a layer of mat.

266
 Core
Material

Fiberglass
Molding

Fig. 11-13. Edges of core material taper back to fiberglass molding.

material and the fiberglass skins on each side. This is the reason
for using a fairly thin core material and epoxy gluing it in place.

It keep separate core areas reasonably small so that

also helps to
there is more bonds at the edges
direct fiberglass-to-fiberglass
around the core material. Plywood can also be used as a sandwich
core material in a similar manner, but bonding can be difficult.

Adding Reinforcing and

Stiffening IMembers to Fiberglass l\/ioldings

A variety of stiffening members can be used to strengthen and/or

stiffen fiberglass laminates. These are often more effective than
thickening a laminate or adding a core material, while adding less
weight. This type of reinforcing or stiffening member is attached
by fiberglass bonding alone, although mechanical fasteners are also
used some cases.
in
These members are often laminated in place over a core or
forming material. A popular stiffening member is a hat-section (Fig.
11-15). The core can be wood, rigid plastic foam, a half section of
PVC pipe or tubing, or other material. The core material itself some-
times adds structural strength to the member. At other times it

merely serves as a form for laminating a fiberglass stiffener in place.

To install a typical hat-section stiffener with a rigid plastic foam

Laminated Core
Layers Material

Fiberglass
Molding
Fig. 11-14. Laminated layers taper back to main fiberglass molding.

267
 Bonding
Laminate

/
Fiberglass
Core
Molding

Fig. 11-15. Hat-section stiffening member.

core, prepare the bonding surface of the fiberglass molding by sand-

ing and/or washing with a cloth saturated with acetone.
Next, shape the rigid plastic foam and epoxy glue it in place
to the fiberglass molding. Another way is to merely lay the rigid
plastic foam in place. It will then be secured by the fiberglass lam-
inate that is laminated over it.

Cut strips of mat and/or other reinforcing material to shape.

Use progressively wider pieces for the laminate.
Next, catalyze polyester resin and apply a coat to the bonding
area of the fiberglass molding and the rigid plastic foam. Either
set the first layer of fiberglass reinforcing material in place dry,
or presaturate it with resin on the bonding side by placing it on
a piece of cardboard and applying resin with a brush. Then wet
out the other side of the reinforcing material. Work any air bub-
bles off the reinforcing material so that the trapped air can escape.
Smooth out the reinforcing material. Both too little and too much
resin is undesirable.
Allow the first layer of the laminate to cure, then apply the sec-
ond layer in the same manner. Extend the edges of this layer out-
ward on both sides an inch or so beyond the edges of the first layer.
Allow this layer to cure, then add the third layer, and so on. After
applying the final layer of the laminate, use finishing resin or add
wax to laminating resin so that the surface will cure completely
for sanding. When done properly, the laminate will taper to the
thickness of the main molding over a distance of several inches or
more.
Wood cores can also be used similarly. With this method, both
the wood and the fiberglass laminate over it form part of the struc-
tural strength of the stiffener. This is unlike the stiffener with the
rigid plastic foam core,which mainly served as a form for laminat-
ing the fiberglass to the desired shape and added little structural

268
 Bonding
Laminate

Fiberglass
Beam Molding
Fig. 11-16. Wood beam bonded to fiberglass molding.

strength over what a similar laminate with a hollow center would

have. The rigid plastic foam does keep water from getting inside,
however.
A rectangular wood beam can be used as a stiffener member
by bonding it in place (Fig. 11-16). You can improve the arrange-
ment by rounding the comer between the wood and the area where
the wood joins the fiberglass molding. Before this is done, epoxy
glue the wood in place or set it in place in a layer of mat that has
been wetted out with catalyzed resin. Allow the epoxy glue or resin
to cure. Round the corner by using fiberglass putty and the end
of a wood dowel as a drag to shape the putty into a smooth curve
(Fig. 11-17). Allow the putty to cure.
The bonding laminate can be angle straps that extend only over
the sides of the wood (Fig. 11-18), or the bonding laminate itself
can extend over the wood. In this case, round the corners of the
wood with a surfacing tool (Fig. 11-19). Next, lay up the bonding
laminate using progressively wider strips of fiberglass reinforcing
material.

Wood
Dowel

Fiberglass
Wood Beam
Molding

Fig. 11-17. Rounding a corner by shaping putty using a wood dowel as a drag.

269
 Wood beams require hefty fiberglass laminates. When install-
ing heavy wood beams, the fiberglass molding first requires thick-
ening by adding additional layers to the laminate.

USING RIGID PLASTIC FOAM

AS A FORM FOR MAKING COMPONENTS
Many alterations require fiberglass laminates of specific shapes.
One good method for making these is to first shape rigid plastic
foam (polyurethane and closed cell PVC foam are both compatible
with polyester resin) to the desired form, minus the thickness of
the desired fiberglass laminate, and then to laminate the fiberglass
over this. In most cases, the rigid plastic foam will become part
of the finished item.
An example is the construction of a fiberglass box. Thin sheets
of rigid plastic foam give the desired form (Fig. 11-20). The pieces
can be epoxy glued together or even stapled. A fiberglass laminate

270
Fig. 11-20. Box constructed from thin sheets of rigid plastic foam.

is then added to the outside and inside of the form. The number
of layers used in the laminate, as well as the types and weights of
fiberglass reinforcing materials used, depends on the intended use
of the finished item. Three or more layers of reinforcing material
are typically required. The plastic foam is completely encased in
the fiberglass laminate shell.
This has many possibilities
making boat alterations. By us-
for
ing foam that is manner similar to the box
several inches thick in a
example, an icebox complete with insulation could be formed. Or
you might want to shape a storage compartment to fit a particular
space. Or make a hatch. There are hundreds of possibilities here.
Similar molding methods are often used for one-off boat construc-
tion (see Chapter 14).

WORKING WITH WOOD

Working with wood forms an important part of many alteration
projects on fiberglass boats. Many people already have consider-
woodworking tools and working with wood, even
able skill at using
though might not include any boat work. Woodworking skills
this
and techniques used around a house or in a garage workshop can
be transferred to boat work provided that some basic changes are

271
made. Boats are subject to more severe conditions, or at least differ-
ent ones, than are typical houses. A boat must be able to withstand
severe weather conditions and chemical and physical stresses.
Once you have bonded wood to fiberglass, you often have ba-
sically awoodworking project remaining. You have certain skills
and tools and materials available. How can you use these to best
accomplish a specific job?
The more skills and techniques you learn, the easier it will be
to do the job. A woodworking allows you to learn under
class in
expert supervision. In a few areas, there are even classes offered
in boatbuilding. While these are mainly concerned with building
wood boats from scratch, the skills and techniques can also apply
to making alterations on fiberglass boats.
If your woodworking experience is limited, I suggest you do

some practice work on scrap materials before you attempt anything

on your boat. You can improve your skills this way and gain confi-
dence before you attempt similar work on your boat. Your first at-
tempts at new woodworking jobs are not likely to be your best,
but your skills and techniques will improve as you go along.
Amateurs who consistently achieve professional results divide
each job into steps. They then think about how these steps can best
be accomplished. They do each job as well as they can, avoiding
sloppy work that can accumulate. If each step is done right, the
completed job will be done right. The final result will be workman-
ship that you can be proud of.

Types of Wood
Selecting the proper wood for boat alterations is important. You
will want to use wood that is equal to or superior to that used on
the same boat by the manufacturer. Not just any wood will do. For
a particular job it must have the necessary strength and workabil-
ity. It might need a finish that matches the surrounding wood. For

most boat uses, the wood should be highly resistant to dry rot, which
is a fungus disease that affects some species of wood much more

than it does others. Teak, for example, is highly immune to dry

rot, though it is also very expensive. Most times less expensive

wood has to be used.
The wood sold at a lumberyard is usually kiln-dried. This is
a fast and inexpensive method. Considerable moisture remains in
the wood, however, making it highly susceptible to dry rot. Air-
dried wood is superior, but the drying process can take a year or
more. Some lumberyards and suppliers handle air-dried wood in-

272
tended for boatbuilding purposes. For some alteration work, espe-
cially on the interiors of boats, kiln-dried wood might be
satisfactory, however.
Although many types of wood can be used, here are only a few
of the most popular ones.
Douglas fir is a wood of medium hardness that is often used
for boat alteration work. Though not exactly ideal for many jobs,
it's at least available in most areas. I have used this wood to frame

for plywood berths and coimters and have had satisfactory results.
If the wood is used in areas where it shows, I apply a paint rather

than a varnish finish.

Mahogany is a popular wood for rails and trim pieces. Though
not as durable as teak, it's much less expensive. It's a viable alter-
native to teak for interior work, and with a proper finish applied,
it can be a long-lasting boat wood for exterior use. African ma-

hogany and Honduras mahogany are both good choices, with the
Honduras mahogany considered superior for most boat uses. An
even harder variety is Aguano or Peruvian mahogany, but it's also
more expensive. Philippine mahogany, which isn't a true mahogany,
is lighter in weight than true mahogany and not as strong, but it

has good working qualities and is highly resistant to dry rot.

Teak is an imported wood that is considered one of the best
for boatbuilding. It's price, however, is fast becoming akin to gold.
For this reason, its use for alteration work is kept to a minimum.
Whereas production fiberglass boats once made extensive use of
teak for both interiors and exteriors, the recent trend is to use teak
more sparingly, especially on the interiors. Sometimes less expen-
sive mahogany is substituted for some or all of the teak. For alter-
ation work, preshaped handrails and other items are available in
teak and mahogany. The prices are quite reasonable when you con-
sider the difficulty of shaping these yourself.
A variety of other wood, including white and yellow pine, ce-
dar, spruce, ash, and oak, can also be used for making boat modifi-
cations. The selection must be based on availability rather than on
superiority for the particular job that you are doing.
Plywood is used extensively for making boat alterations. It's
ideal for bulkheads, interior components, and reinforcing purposes.
Plywood is veneers laminated together. Douglas fir is frequently
used. Plywood is also made of various hardwoods and mahogany.
Sometimes only the outside veneers on one or both sides are hard-
wood or mahogany, with the inner ones of Douglas fir or other kinds
of wood.

273
 Plywood marked marine grade, regardless of wood used in
veneers, is usually best for boat alterations. It's also the most ex-
pensive. Plywood marked exterior grade is made with the same
waterproof glue. However, the veneers, especially the inner ones,
are a poorer quality than those typically used for marine-grade ply-
wood, which has all voids filled in. For many alteration jobs, the
less expensive exterior grade plywood is satisfactory.
Avoid the interior grades of plywood that do not have water-
proof glue. These tend to delaminate even when painted or sheathed
with fiberglass.
Plywood is available in standard 4-by-8-foot sheets and also
other sizes, such as 2 by 4 feet and 4 by 16 feet. Available thick-
nesses include 1/4-, 3/8-, 1/2-, and 3/4-inch thicknesses. These are
commonly used for most alteration work.

Shaping Wood
A basic skill required is shaping wood. Many alteration jobs re-
quire cutting and shaping a piece of wood to a desired pattern or
Patterns can be
fit. made from old parts, templates, and from mea-
surements.
Before cutting wood, mark the pattern on the wood with a pen-
cil or other marking device. A straightedge and square are often
used for making straight lines. Mark the pattern so that there will
be as little waste of wood as possible. For example, if you have
a long plank of wood and a particular job requires only a §hort sec-
tion of this, cut from one end of the plank rather than taking a sec-
tion from the middle. An exception to this might be if you had to
have a piece of wood without knots, and only the middle section
of the plank was free of knots. Keeping waste to a minimum means
that more of the wood ends up as part of the boat and less as scraps.
You have to look ahead to future work when deciding where to cut
a particular pattern from a piece of wood.
Purchase the woodin sizes that will also result in minimum
waste. This saves money because lumber is sold by the board foot,
which is 144 cubic inches of wood and is equal to a
12-by-12-by-l-inch piece of wood. You pay for the wood based on
its rough form before milling, however, so you get less wood than

this. This explains why a standard 2 x 4 is actually less than 2

inches by 4 inches. The milling process removes from about 1/8

to 1/4 inch from a board, which ends up as sawdust, though you
pay for it. Take this into account when purchasing wood sizes
still

for making boat alterations.

274
 Plywood is a somewhat different situation. Usually you get the
exact thickness, such as 1/2 inch, the plywood is sold as. The same

applies to the 4-by-8-foot or other sheet size. You get the full-sheet
size.

A lumberyard can often cut a large piece of wood into smaller

pieces and do the milling or surfacing work on the rough sawn
edges. They charge for this, but it can be worth the extra money,
especially if you don't have the shop tools to do this work yourself.
One or two simple cuts on a long board or piece of plywood will
sometimes be made for free. Some lumberyards will also sell you
part of a sheet of plywood.
Special care should be taken when laying out and marking pat-
terns on wood. A sharp pencil or fine scribe should be used for
marking. A fine line can reduce error in crucial areas. If you have
an old part that can be used as a template for the new one, place
it on the new wood and trace around it. Then, when you do the

cutting, remember to cut the line away rather than cutting outside
the line.
You will often have a board of the desired width and thickness
and all that is necessary is to cut it the correct length with square
ends. First, select a suitable board. Some pieces might have more
checks and cracks than other pieces. Make your selection on the
where the board is to be used.
basis of
There are frequently checks or cracks near the ends of boards.
You might want to remove this section from the end of the board.
Use a square to mark the cutting line. Position the blade of the
square firmly against the edge of the board with the outside edge
of the tongue of the square lined up with the desired cut. Use a
sharp pencil to make a line on the board, following the tongue of
the square. Make a fine line as close to the edge of the square as
possible. This is especially important when making crucial cuts.
Lay off the desired length from the line along the board using
a suitable measuring rule. Mark the board at this point. Then use
the square to make With the blade against
the second cutting line.
the edge of the board, line the tongue up with the mark. Then mark
the line.
Make the saw cuts either on the inside or outside of the line
or along the center of the line. If the length of the board needs to
be an exact fit, the system used will be very important. Select one
system and stick to it. Then, learn to lay out and mark your work
for the system you are using. Once this becomes habit, you will
no longer have to think about it.

275
 You might also need to mark the board for lengthwise cutting,
which is called ripping. Measure and mark two width lines from
one edge of the board some distance apart. Then, place the straight-
edge on the board and line it up with the two marks. Use a sharp
pencil for marking the cutting line.
Use a shop protractor to lay out angles or use the protractor
to adjust a carpenter's adjusting bevel to the desired angle. Posi-
tion the handle of the bevel firmly against the edge of the board
and mark the cutting line along the blade.
For boat alterations, more complicated patterns are frequently
required. If you don't have an old item to use as a pattern, it might
be possible to make a template out of cardboard or scrap wood.
Even if you have to resort to a trial-and-error method for making
the pattern, it's better to do this with cardboard or scrap wood than
to take the chance of ruining good wood.
Once you have the pattern marked on the wood, saw it to shape
with a handsaw or power saw. Cuts made across the grain of the
wood are called crosscuts. If done with a handsaw, use a saw with
a crosscutting or general-purpose blade. If possible, fasten the board

in a vise so that the cutting line an inch or so beyond the vise.

is

If the board cannot be conveniently clamped in a vise, place it across

two or more sawhorses or similar supports.

When a saw cut is made, a narrow section of the wood is actu-
ally removed. It ends up as sawdust. Consider this when position-
ing the saw for cutting.
Use several short strokes to begin the cutting. Use a small
square to check that the saw blade is at a right angle to the wood.
Then start cutting again, this time using long strokes with the saw.
Check the saw angle from time to time with the square. The main
idea is to saw through the board without twisting the saw.
Hold the end of the board when you are close to sawing through
so that it does not break off from its own weight. Finish the cut
with short easy saw strokes.
A miter box and hacksaw allows similar cuts with even greater
accuracy. A variety of power saws can also be used. In most cases,
a crosscutting or general-purpose blade is used. When using power
saws, make certain that all safety rules are followed.
Crosscutting can be done at angles other than perpendicular
to theedge of the board. While this can be done with a regular cross-
cutting or general-purpose handsaw, an adjustable miter box gives
greater accuracy. Most power saws can also be used for making
these cuts accurately.

276
 Cutting with the grain of the wood is called ripping. If you use
a handsaw, it should have a ripping or general-purpose blade. When-
ever it is practical to do so, clamp the board in a vise. Larger boards
can be placed across two or more sawhorses.
Start by positioning the saw blade. The cutting edge of the
blade should form about a 60-degree angle with the board. Use short
easy strokes of the saw. Hold the part of the board you are cutting
off or have it positioned over the sawhorse so that it will not break
off when you saw through.
Portable power circular saws, stationary table saws, and sta-
tionary radial arm saws can make easy work of ripping jobs.
Usually, a ripping or general-purpose blade should be used.
You will often need to saw curved patterns. While compass,
keyhole, and coping saws can be used for this, a portable electric
saber saw makes the work much easier and faster. Power jigsaws
and band saws are other possibilities. If you plan extensive altera-
tion work, a band saw is especially useful.
Take special care when sawing plywood. To help prevent chip-
ping and splintering along the edges of the cut, special fine- toothed
blades can be used, regardless of whether you are using a hand-
saw or power saw. Special carbide-tipped blades are even better.
It might also help to clamp a board to the underside of the plywood

and saw through this too. Applying masking tape over the area
where the cut is to be made also helps.
The wood can require additional shaping, planing, and sur-
facing after the saw cutting has been completed. A common job
is to plane the edge of a board in the area where a saw cut has been

made using a wood plane. Keep the plane sharp. Adjust it for the
particular job at hand. A jointer can also be used. It makes quick
and easy work of this type of job.
A variety of hand tools, including drawknifes, files, and sur-
facing tools, can be used for shaping and dressing curved edges.
Whenever possible, completely shape a piece of wood before in-
stalling it, because this work is usually more difficult once the wood
has been installed.

Drilling Holes in Wood

Alteration work frequently requires making holes in wood for
screws, bolts, fittings, and other purposes. A brace and auger bit
can be used for drilling by hand.
Begin by marking the position where the hole is to be drilled.
Do this carefully.Use an awl or other pointed object to make an

277
indentation for starting the drilling. Select the correct size auger
bit. Install the bit in the chuck and hold it securely. Position the
feed screw in the starting hole and turn the brace to start the bor-
ing. After the hole has been started, use a small square to make
certain that the bit is at right angles to the surface of the wood.
Then, continue drilling until the tip of the feed screw passes through
the other side of the wood. Remove the bit and finish drilling from
the opposite side.
A portable electric drill can also be used instead of hand drill-
ing. Ordinary twist from about 1/16 inch to 1/2 inch or larger
drills

can be used making holes in wood. To drill a

in electric drills for
hole, select the desired twist drill size. Install it in the chuck of the
electric drill, securing it with the chuck key. The drill should al-
ways be unplugged when this is done. Remove the chuck key from
the chuck, then plug the drill back in. Make a starting indentation
for the desired hole using an awl or other sharp-pointed metal ob-
ject. Place the point of the twist drill in this. Hold the drill by the

grip with your right hand while using your left hand to guide the
drill. Start the drill and apply light pressure with your right hand.

Hold the drill steady to prevent breaking the twist drill, especially
when using smaller drill sizes. When the drill goes through the
wood, control the drilling so that the chuck does not contact the
wood.
For drilling larger size holes— up to about 1 1/2 inches— in wood
using a portable electric drill, spade-type bits can be used. When
drilling all the way through a piece of wood, reverse the'drill when
the point comes through, then finish the drilling.
Holesaws can be used for cutting holes from a 1/2-inch diameter
to 2 inches or larger. These fit in the chuck of ordinary portable
electric drills. Use an awl to make a starting hole. Place the tip
Hold the drill at right angles to the wood
of the pilot bit in the hole.
surface. Start the drill, keeping it at right angles to the wood sur-
face. To prevent splintering when the blade cuts through, clamp
a block of wood underneath the board being drilled.
Holesaws limit you to set sizes. If you need a hole of some size
in between, drill the next smaller size and then file the hole out
to the correct size. Another possibility is to use an adjustable fly-
cutter, which can be adjusted for cutting any desired hole size within
a certain range. Use the fly-cutter in the same manner as the
holesaw.
Combination wood drill and countersink bits are useful attach-
ments for boat alteration work. These make a hole for wood screw

278
threads and screw shank and a countersink for the flathead screw
all in a single drilling operation. Each screw size and length requires
a different bit. There is also a similar type bit that has a counter-

bore section, which in addition to the above operations, also makes

a counterbore for a wood plug.
You can purchase precut wood plugs or use a plug cutter to
cut your own. By making your own, you can cut them from the
same stock of wood as you are plugging to give a better match.
To cut a plug, install the plug cutter in the chuck of an electric drill.
Position the drill at right angles to the wood surface. Cut all the
way through the board. Repeat to make additional plugs. Methods
for installing these are detailed later in this chapter.
Drill presses allow even greater drilling accuracy. Various jigs
and guides are also available that attach to standard portable elec-
tric drills to increase drilling precision.

Joining Wood Pieces Together

Many boat alterations require joining separate pieces of wood to-
gether. Possiblemethods include fastening with nails, screws, bolts,
and various glues, of some combination of these.
A variety of comer joints are possible. A common lap joint is
shown in The problem with this joint is that the fasteners
Fig. 11-21.
go into theend grain of the wood, which is not very secure. This
type of joint can be improved by adding a comer post (Fig. 11-22).
The fasteners can now go into the comer post. A rabbeted comer

Fig. 11-21. A corner lap joint,

279
Fig. 11-22. Corner lap joint with corner post.

post (Fig. 11-23) further improves the joint by covering up the end
grains of the wood. Another possibiHty is to use a comer trim piece
over a lap joint (Fig. 11-24).
Two basic methods are used for joining boards end to end:
a butt joint with a backing board (Fig. 11-25) and a scarf joint (Fig.
11-26). The scarf joint is frequently used for joining separate pieces
of wood to make up the required length for rub rails.
Screws are often used in combination with glue for making
these and other wood joints. Flathead, roimd, oval, and Head wood
screws are available. For boat work, stainless steel, bronze, or

Fig. 11-23. A corner joint with rabbeted corner post.

280
Fig. 11-24. A lap joint with corner trim piece.

monel screws are recommended. Avoid common steel screws. Even

when they are hot-dipped galvanized, they can still rust. I don't
recommend brass screws either. They are too weak, and in ma-
rine environments, tend to dezincify.
Use the correct diameter and length of screw for the particu-
lar job. As a rule, the longer the screw, the larger the diameter
should be.
Drill pilot holes. While regular twist bits can be used for drill-

ing these, the special drills that make the pilot, shank, and coim-
tersink are better. If you want wood plugs to cover the screw heads,

use the type of drill that also has the counterbore.

Fig. 11-25. Boards joined with a butt joint and backing block.

281
Fig. 11-26. A scarf joint.

To install a screw, first clamp the boards in position. Mark lo-

cations for screws. Use an awl to make a starting hole for the bit.

Drill the pilot hole. Countersink and counterbore in same opera-

tion by using special drills.
If the joint is to be glued, apply the glue before the initial clamp-
ing or after the holes have been drilled. Remove the clamps, apply
the glue (additional information about gluing is covered later in this
chapter), and clamp the boards back together again. For driving
screws, use a screwdriver that fits the screw. Hold the screwdriver
firmly when turning the screw so that the screwdriver does not slip
out of the screw slot.
If wood plugs are to be installed in counterbores, apply glue

to each plug. Place the plug over the counterbore, line up the grain,
and tap the plug in place. After the glue has set up, use a sharp
chisel to remove excess wood. Finish by sanding.
I don't recommend nails for boat alteration work. Bronze or

monel ring boat nails are sometimes used for attaching plywood
to framing, usually in combination with gluing. Even here I prefer
to use screws, however. Do not use ordinary steel nails, even if

plated. These are almost certain to rust in a boating environment.

Ifyou do use ring nails for plywood planking, the length of the
nails used should be at least three times the thickness of the ply-
wood for adequate holding power. Drill pilot holes for the nails.
Stagger the nails instead of placing them in straight lines. As a rule,
they must be placed closer together than screws.
Bolts are another possibility. They give maximum holding
power. The bolts should be of stainless steel, bronze, or monel.

282
Avoid regular steel and brass bolts. Washers are required to keep
the bolts from digging into the wood at the head or nut ends. Bolts
can be countersunk into the wood. A counterbore can be used for
installing wood plugs in the same manner as detailed for screws.
Bolts are not only useful for attaching separate pieces of wood
together, but also for attaching wood to fiberglass (for example,
grab rails to cabin tops) and attaching metal handles and hinges
to wood. Whenever it is practical, I try to use bolts rather than
screws.
Gluing is an important part of joining wood pieces together.
When I first started boatbuilding, I tried urea resin glues and resor-

cin resin glues, with less than satisfactory results. The wood must
be clamped together so that the glue under pressure for proper
is

setting. This can be a lot of trouble.have now switched almost

I

entirely to epoxy glue. While the epoxy glue is more expensive,

the superior results seem worth the extra cost.
Urea resin glue is mixed with water. The glue
a powder that is

is said to be water resistant, but not completely waterproof. To be

effective, the joints must be clamped together so the glue can set
under pressure. The one advantage of this type of glue is the low
cost in comparison to waterproof glues.
Resorcin resin glue is a two-part glue: one part is powder, the
other liquid. These are mixed together. The glue is cold-setting and
waterproof. It is more costly than the urea resin glue, but gives
superior joints.
Epoxy glue is also a two-part mixture. The hardener or curing
agent is added to the resin part. The wood parts will bond together
even if they are not tightly clamped together or perfectly fitted,

although it is better if they are.

Regardless of the type of glue used, the first step is to shape
the pieces of wood to be joined so there is a tightly fitted joint. When
using fasteners, predrill the holes or pilot holes. Use the fasteners
to hold the joint together while the glue sets or cures. Otherwise,
use clamps, wedges, or other means for holding the pieces tightly
together until the glue sets or cures.
Follow manufacturer's directions for mixing and applying the
particular glue used. After mixing the glue, apply a thin layer to
both surfaces. Use a brush or knife to apply the glue. Position parts
together and install fasteners or clamps or wedges. Wipe off ex-
cess glue with a rag. Allow glue to set or cure.
Do not use urea resin or resorcin resin glues for filling in areas
around poorly fitted wood parts. Though poorly fitted parts should

283
be avoided, thick epoxy glue can be used to fill in any gaps. Don't
mix the various types of glue, however. If you are going to fill with
epoxy glue, also use epoxy glue for the basic joint.
A good practice exercise is to glue scrap pieces of wood to-
gether with the various types of glue. After the glue has set or
cured, test the gluing by trying to break the parts loose. I've tried
this a number of times, and the epoxy glue has always come out
way is stronger than the wood
ahead, usually giving a joint that
itself.This does not mean that other types of glue cannot also be
satisfactory. You might get good results if you use them.

Sanding Wood
Sanding an extremely important step in preparing wood for var-
is

nishing or painting. Use a waterproof wood filler to fill in small

holes, checks, and other defects. Another possibility is to mix saw-
dust from the same kind of wood with clear epoxy resin or glue.
Add a curing agent or hardener before applying. If applying a col-
ored finish, use regular epoxy filler compounds. Manufactured ep-
oxy fillers are available for matching mahogany and other woods.
Apply a primer or sealer to Douglas fir plywood before doing
any sanding. If this is not done, an uneven surface can quickly re-
sult, even if a sanding block is used.

Don't start with any coarser sandpaper than is absolutely neces-

sary for the particular sanding task. Whenever practical, use a sand-
ing block. Gradually work down to finer grits of sandpaper. Sand
parallel to the grain of the wood, as cross-grain sanding can scratch
and roughen the surface.
Portable power sanders can also be used. A disk sander is suit-
able only for rough sanding. A belt sander can be used for coarse,
medium, and fine sanding with the appropriate sandpaper and ad-
justment of the sander. Pad sanders are ideal for finishing work.

Laminating Layers of Wood Together

For some alteration jobs, you might want two or more
to laminate
layers of wood together. Form curved pieces without steaming by
clamping the pieces of wood together in a mold or form that holds
them in the desired curve until the glue sets. Sailboat tillers are
often shaped in this manner.
Veneers for laminating can be of one or more kinds of wood.
Alternating layers of two kinds of wood often gives a good effect.
While thick pieces of wood can be laminated together, thin veneers

284
are usually used, especially if curves are to be formed. For a curve,
construct a clamp mold to hold the wood pieces together in the
desired shape. For straight pieces, use regular clamps to hold them
together until the glue sets or cures. When everything is ready,
wood. Mix and apply the glue. Clamp the pieces
lay out the strips of
of wood together. Wipe all excess glue off with a rag. Allow the
laminate glue to set or cure. Then finish shaping the laminates and
sand and finish as desired.

LAMINATING PLASTIC TO WOOD

Boat alteration work sometimes requires adding plastic laminates
to plywood for counter and tabletops and for other uses. Select high-
quality plastic laminates for boat use. Use waterproof contact ce-
ment for bonding the plastic laminate to the plywood.
While strips of plastic laminate can also be applied to the edges
of plywood, I don't recommend this for boat work. Use wood, metal,
or plastic trim or wood rails that combine as edge trim instead.
These should extend over the edge of the plastic laminate (Fig.
11-27).
To install a plastic laminate, fill in all holes and defects on the
bonding surface of the plywood. Use epoxy putty for this. Rough
sand the bonding surface. Mark the pattern on the plastic laminate,
making it slightly larger than the surface to be covered. Then cut
the plastic laminate to the pattern with a handsaw or power saw
and a fine-tooth blade. Saw carefully to avoid chipping or break-
ing the plastic laminate.
Another method for cutting plastic laminate is by scoring the
plastic. Draw a carbide-tip knife along a metal straightedge to cut
through the decorative surface of the laminate. To break the lami-
nate, bend it toward the decorative surface side. This method gives
a clean break.

Trim

Fig. 11-27. Trim strip extends over the edge of plastic laminate.

285
 Next, apply contact cement to both the bonding surface of the
plywood and the bonding side of the plastic laminate. Apply it with
a brush or a metal spreader with a serrated edge. Use a thin appli-
The drying time is usually about 30 minutes, but
cation. this varies.
Follow the manufacturer's instructions.
After the cement dries, place a sheet of heavy wrapping paper
over the cement on the plywood. Position the plastic laminate over
the paper. The contact cement shouldn't stick to the paper. Posi-
tion the laminate exactly because once the two cement surfaces
make contact, they stick together immediately, and you will not
be able to change the position of the plastic laminate. When every-
thing is ready, pull the paper out so that the plastic laminate and
plywood make contact. Place a small block of wood on the lami-
nate and use a hammer to lightly tap the wood, moving to all areas
of the laminate. This should firmly secure the plastic laminate in
place. Remove excess plastic laminate from the edges with a metal
file or a router.

ADDING FIBERGLASS TO WOOD

Adding fiberglass to wood is a technique often used in making boat
alterations.The fiberglass can be a thin layer that can protect the
wood and/or improve the appearance. Thicker laminates can be
added to provide structural strength. In some cases, the wood part
is mainly used as a form or male mold for laying up a fiberglass
laminate. The wood is left as part of the laminate, however.

Suitable Wood Surfaces

To add an effective fiberglass skin to wood, you need a suitable
wood surface. This is especially important if only a relatively thin
fiberglass skin be applied. The surface must be stable. Ply-
is to
wood usually provides such a surface, although there can be prob-
lems at the joints.
An example of an unstable surface is carvel planking (Fig.
11-28). This type of surface expands and contracts with changing
environmental conditions. A thin layer of fiberglass applied to this
would probably crack and break apart at the plank seams. To ef-

fectively cover this type of unstable wood surface with fiberglass

would require either some means of holding the wood together as
a single unit or a very thick and strong fiberglass laminate capable
of performing this function, or some combination of these.

286
 Bonding
Another major consideration is bonding. There must be an effec-
tive bond between the wood and the fiberglass so delamination does
not occur. This is especially important with relatively thin layers
of fiberglass, which would not have the structural strength to hold
up on their own.
Even under the best of conditions, it is difficult to achieve a
good bond with polyester resin. A better bond can be achieved with
polyester resin to new wood than old wood, especially if the old
wood has been painted. Even if the paint is removed, oils and other
contaminates still remain. Whether new or old, the wood should
be as dry as possible. Although polyester bonds reasonably well
to relatively soft woods, it is unsuitable for bonding to hard woods.
Epoxy resin gives a much better bond, especially to harder
woods. Even though epoxy resin is more expensive and perhaps
more difficult to work with, it can be worth the extra expense and
difficulties for this type of bonding work. To keep extra costs to
a minimum, use epoxy resin only for bonding the initial layer of
reinforcing material to the wood. After the epoxy resin has
thoroughly cured, finish out the laminate using the less expensive
polyester resin.

Applying Fiberglass to Wood

There are two basic methods: wet and dry. For the dry method,
place the dry fiberglass reinforcing material (usually an open weave
cloth) on the dry wood surface. Sometimes the reinforcing mate-
rial can be stapled or otherwise mechanically fastened to the wood.
Apply the resin to the surface of the reinforcing material.
There are two problems with this method. First, it is difficult
to achieve a good bond. Second, it is difficult to thoroughly wet

Frame

Plank — ^ N— Seam
Fig. 11-28. Carvel planking.

287
 Wood Fiberglass

Fig. 11-29. The edge of the fiberglass is feather sanded.

out the reinforcing material. The main advantages are that the rein-
forcing material can be fitted dry and mechanical fasteners can be
used to hold it in place. Additional layers can then be added to the
laminate as desired.
For the wet application, first apply a layer of resin to the wood
surface. Position the dry reinforcing material in the wet resin and
smooth it Apply additional resin to the reinforcing material
out.
to thoroughly wet it out.
This method gives a better bond than the dry method. It is
somewhat more difficult to handle the reinforcing material, how-
ever, and using mechanical fasteners is less convenient. Staples
can be shot in while the resin is still wet, but resin must be cleaned
from the staple gun before it cures to keep it from jamming.
Regardless of the method used, prepare the wood surface care-
fully before applying the fiberglass. Rough sand the wood across
the grain using coarse sandpaper. This will give a good bonding
surface.
When adding fiberglass to old wood, remove all paint by sand-

Wood
Fig. 11-30. The second section of fiberglass is applied.

288
 Wood
Fiberglass

Fig. 11-31. The joint is sanded flush.

ing. If done chemically, the wood surface might be further con-

taminated.
While small areas can be covered with a single piece of fiber-
glass reinforcing material, larger surface areas require more than
one piece. Usually lap joints are used. If a smooth surface is im-
portant, apply one piece of the reinforcing material first. Allow this
to cure, then feather sand the edge (Fig. 11-29). Add the next piece
of reinforcing material (Fig. 11-30). Allow the resin to cure, then
sand the surface flush (Fig. 11-31).
Delaminating is most likely at the edges of the fiberglass. To

prevent this, end the laminate under a trim piece, such as a rail.
It is difficult to fiberglass over sharp outside or inside angles.
Whenever possible, round off outside angles. Round off inside an-
gles by using a resin putty filler. Use a round dowel as a drag for
shaping the putty.
Fiberglass reinforcing materials can sometimes be shaped
around corners without making cuts. In other cases, corner cuts
will have to be made.
After the complete laminates have been applied and allowed
to cure, sand and fair (see Chapter 10). Then apply gel coating or
paint.

289
Repairing Fiberglass Boats
In spite ofsome claims to the contrary, fiberglass boats can be dam-
aged. Fortunately, damage to fiberglass itself is fairly easy to re-
pair. Not all damage to fiberglass boats is in the fiberglass part of
the boats, however. Wood and metal parts can be damaged as well.
Repair or replacement of broken or damaged wood and metal
usually involves familiar methods.
This chapter describes how to repair fiberglass itself. Many
do-it-yourselfers who feel quite comfortable making cdmplicated
repairs to wood or metal are often hesitant to attempt repairs to
fiberglass. This often because the methods and techniques for
is

making the fiberglass repairs are less familiar, not because they
are any more difficult. Once the techniques are understood, repairs
to fiberglass are often much easier to make.
Before undertaking fiberglassing repair work, you should first
know the fundamentals of fiberglassing (see Chapter 10). You
should also follow the health and safety rules and procedures for
working with fiberglassing chemicals and materials.

WORKING CONDITIONS
When you make repairs to fiberglass laminates, the repair should
be as strong or stronger than the original. This must be done un-
der working conditions that are not as ideal as those under which
the boat was originally constructed at the factory.

290
 Ideally, fiberglass boat repair work should be done under
laboratory conditions with factors such as temperature and humidity
carefully controlled. For most of your own fiberglassing repair
work, you will probably have to work under much less satisfactory
conditions. Some repairs can be made with the boat in the water;
others require that the boat be hauled out. Regardless, always strive
for the best conditions possible, especially for crucial jobs such as
fiberglass hull repairs.
A
temperature of about 75 degrees Fahrenheit with low hu-
midity works best when laying up laminates with polyester resin.
By varying the amounts of catalyst used, however, satisfactory re-
pair work can be done in a temperature range from about 60 degrees
to 90 degrees Fahrenheit, though try to avoid the extremes as much
as possible. For the most crucial work, the temperature should be
as close to the 75-degree Fahrenheit mark as possible. By using
special low- temperature work is possible
polyester resins, repair
at temperatures even below 60 degrees Fahrenheit. Whenever pos-
sible, avoid fiberglassing in direct sunlight. Rig up some type of

sun shade or awning over the work area if necessary.

While the techniques in the practice fiberglassing exercises in
Chapter 10 are basically the same as those used for major repairs,
there are some important differences. First, the practice exercises
used small, 6-inch square areas of reinforcing material. Fiberglass-
ing repairs often involve much larger areas that might require some-
what different techniques.
Second, the practice exercises were done on a level plane. This
often isn't practical when making actual repairs. Fiberglassing is

often done on inclined, vertical, and even overhead surfaces. You

will have problems with resin dripping, running, and pooling, and
with reinforcing material sagging and bunching up. In some cases,
high-viscosity resins or regular viscosity polyester resin with a thix-
otropic agent added can alleviate some of these problems.
And third, actual repair work might have to be done under less
sanitary conditions thanwere the practice exercises. Dust, dirt, and
grime can mix in with fiberglassing materials and chemicals and
greatly reduce the quality of the resulting laminates. Still, you will
want to do your fiberglassing repair work under the cleanest pos-
sible conditions. Always clean up the work area as much as possi-
ble before starting fiberglassing.
damaged by wear, abrasion, impact,
Fiberglass boats can be
sun exposure, and other ways. The resulting damage can range
from minor to major. Sometimes it is only cosmetic, other times

291
it is structural, and others a combination of cosmetic and structural.

While both are important, structural damage should always be

repaired to high standards. The appearance of the repair, while ex-
tremely important to your pride and maintaining the value of your
boat, is secondary. Whenever possible, you will want to make a
structurally sound repair that still has a good appearance, or at least
doesn't show up readily. If you patch a hole in a fiberglass hull,
for example, you probably will want to do it so that no one will know
a repair has ever been made. But the number one priority is still
to make a structurally sound repair.

REPAIRING SCRATCHES AND MINOR GOUGES

Scratches and minor gouges in the gel coating of a fiberglass boat
that cannot be removed by cleaning, polishing, or other routine
maintenance can be repaired. If it does not extend below the gel
coating, saturate a clean white cloth with acetone. Don't use a col-
ored cloth because the coloring might come off and stain the gel
coating. Wipe the area of the scratch or gouge. Use only light pres-
sure so you do not remove the gel coating. The purpose here is
to remove and other loose particles from the surface.
dirt
The next is to carefully sand the scratch or gouge until
step
it disappears. Use a sanding block and 220-grit sandpaper. Sand

carefully and do not remove any more gel coating than is absolutely
necessary. Then thoroughly clean the area using a cloth soaked with
water. Follow with wet block sanding using 400-grit abrasive pa-
per. Continue with wet block sanding using 600-grit abrasive pa-
per. Use rubbing compound to polish the surface and remove any
remaining scratches.
If in making the repair, you happen to sand all the way through
the gel coating, touch up the gel coating using a gel coat touch-up
kit. These often allow color matching. Follow the manufacturer's
directions for applying the gel coating.
Scratches and minor gouges can go below the gel coating into
the laminate itself. To repair them, first clean out the scratch or
gouge. Asharp pointed knife or other metal object can be used,
though a folded-over piece of 100-grit abrasive paper might work
better. It all depends on the particular scratch or gouge. Then clean
out the scratch or gouge with acetone on a clean white cloth.
As a rule, use epoxy putty rather than polyester putty. You can
color match the putty to the gel coating, or you can touch up the
gel coating later.
Apply the putty— following the manufacturer's directions— with

292
a putty knife after the catalyst or hardener has been added. Fill

in the scratch or gouge, then use the putty knife as a drag to re-
move excess putty. Allow putty to cure.
Sand the area using a sanding block. Begin with 100-grit abra-
sive paper, then use 220 grit. If color pigments were mixed into
the putty, finish by wet sanding with 400- and 600-grit abrasive
paper. Polish the surface with a rubbing compound, which can be
applied by hand using a clean white cloth.
If a separate gel coating is to be applied, finish by wet sanding

with 400- and 600-grit abrasive paper, then, touch up the gel coat-
ing using a gel coat touch-up kit. Follow the manufacturer's direc-
tions. A thin layer, about 10 to 15 mils in thickness, is used. If a
thicker layer is applied, it can crack after the resin has cured.

REPAIRING NICKS AND SMALL HOLES

To repair nicks and small holes that do not go all the way through
the fiberglass laminate, first prepare the surface by sanding. Use
abrasive paper that is coarse enough to remove any loose material
or use a sharp pointed knife or other object. An abrasive grinding
burr attachment in a portable electric can also be used. Then
drill

clean out the nick or small hole by wiping with a clean white cloth
saturated with acetone.
Small defects can be filled in with epoxy putty. Slightly larger

areas can be filled in by laminating with fiberglass mat and poly-

ester or epoxy resin.
Allow the putty or resin to cure. If laminating resin was used,
apply a thin layer of finishing resin to the surface so that the resin
will have a tack-free surface.
Remove excessmaterial by sanding with a sanding block and
100-grit abrasive paper. The sandpaper should be coarse enough
to remove excess material in a reasonable amount of time without
sanding scratches beyond the desired finished surface level. When
you have sanded too close to the desired surface level, switch to
220-grit abrasive paper. Finish by touching up the gel coating.

REPAIRING GEL COAT CRACKS AND CRAZING

Small cracks and crazing (hairline breaks of random patterns) can
form in gel coatings for many reasons. Improper application or for-
mulation of the gel coating in the original molding process is one
way. Localized stresses on the moldings are another. Improved for-
mulations of gel coatings have made cracking and crazing less

293
likely, though on older fiberglass boats, these conditions are
common.
When cracking and crazing is only in the gel coating and does
not extend into the laminate, begin by examining the surface to
determine the underlying cause. If possible, correct the problem.
If fasteners are too tight, you can loosen them. If the laminate flexes
or works too much in the area, reinforce the laminate by using one
of the methods detailed in Chapter 11. If you do not correct the
underlying cause, cracking and crazing is likely to reappear again
after the repair has been made.
In most cases, the cracks and crazing extend all the way
through the gel coat resin. If they don't, repair as you would a
scratch or minor gouge that does not extend all the way through
the gel coating.
The cracks in the gel coating are usually too small to fill with
putty unless they are first widened out. This is done with a sharp,
pointed metal object. Do this until it is possible to get the putty
down into the cracks. Then clean the area using a clean white cloth
soaked with acetone.
Use epoxy putty, with or without color pigments mixed in to
match the gel coating, to fill the cracks. Measure out the required
amount of epoxy putty. Add the hardener or curing agent. Mix.
Then apply with a putty knife. Use the blade as a drag for leveling
the putty even with the top of the surrounding gel coating.
Allow the putty to cure, then sand off excess material. Start
with 100-grit or finer (higher grit number) abrasive paper and use
a sanding block. Switch to 220-grit abrasive paper. Try not to make
scratches in the gel coating that surrounds the repair areas.
If you matched gel coat color by mixing in color pigments, fin-

ish by wet sanding with 400-grit and then 600-grit abrasive paper
and a sanding block. Then use rubbing compound to remove any
remaining tiny scratches. If the gel coat color was not mixed in,
finish the job by touching up the gel coating.

FILLING IN SMALL HOLES

There are times when you will want to fill in holes that have previ-
ously been drilled through fiberglass laminates. For small holes up
to about a 1/2 inch in diameter in unimportant areas, use epoxy
putty without additional reinforcement. Important areas require a
more substantial repair. Regardless, "V" the hole outward from
the back side (Fig. 12-1). A small round file or an abrasive bun-
attachment in an electric drill can accomplish this.

294
 Next, apply a backing behind the hole (Fig. 12-2). Use mask-
ing tape or a piece of cardboard propped or held in place. Then,
fill with epoxy putty or by using chopped or milled glass
in the hole
fibers mixed with resin. The backing piece keeps the material from
falling out the back side of the hole.
Allow the filler material (Fig. 12-3) to cure, then remove the
backing material. Add a backing laminate of one or more layers
of mat, extending it well past the hole (Fig. 12-4). If more than one
layer of mat is used, use progressively larger pieces.
Allow the backing laminate to cure. Then sand off excess ma-
terial on the side of the main molding to be finished. Use a sanding
block. Gradually work down to finer grits of abrasive paper. Fin-
ish job by touching up gel coating.

PATCHING LARGER HOLES AND

FRACTURES IN SINGLE-SKIN FIBERGLASS LAMINATES
Larger holes and fractures in fiberglass laminates are repaired by
laminating patches in place. Some sort of backing is used behind
the damaged area as a molding form.

Backing

Fig. 12-3. The hole is filled in.

296
 Backing
Laminate

Fig. 12-4. A backing laminate is applied.

First remove loose or weakened fiberglass (Fig. 12-5). Cut it

away with a saber saw or grind it away with a disk sander and
coarse grit sandpaper. You want to get back to sound fiberglass
laminate.

Damaged
Area

Fig. 12-5. Loose and weakened fiberglass is removed.

297
 Next, taper the hole outward to the desired finished side from
the back of the laminate (Fig. 12-6). For reasonably small open-
ings, use a file, surfacing tool, or abrasive burr attachment in an
electric drill. For larger jobs, use a disk sander with a coarse grit
abrasive paper. The taper gives a larger bonding area for the re-
pair laminate.
The next step is to apply a backing, which can be cardboard,
wood, metal, or other materials (Fig. 12-7). Overlap the opening
all the way around and position it on the back side of the laminate.

Secure it in place with props, clamps, or by other means. Place cel-

lophane over the backing to keep the repair laminate from stick-
ing to it.

Determine the types of reinforcing material to use and the

weights and layers required. Try to use the same laminate as was
used in the original molding. Precut the pieces of reinforcing ma-
terial and arrange them in the order that they will be applied. The
piece that will be directly over the backing inside the hole goes on
first and so on until the repair laminate is built up to the thickness

Gel- Coat Back Side

Side

Original Damaged
Area

Fig. 12-6. A damaged area is tapered for patching.

298
 V

Fig. 12-7. A backing is applied.

of the original laminate. Clean the bonding area on the taper of the
original laminate with acetone.
The next step is to lay up the laminate. Lay up the first layer
over the backing inside the hole (Fig. 12-8). Allow this layer to cure
before adding the second layer. Repeat until the laminate is built

up to the desired thickness. Experienced fiberglassers sometimes

lay up more than one layer to a laminate without allowing the first
layer to cure first.

Use laminating resin for the entire lay-up except for a final coat
of finishing resin over the last layer of the laminate. This allows
the surface to cure tack-free for sanding (Fig. 12-9).
After the laminate has cured, remove the backing material. The
strength of the repair can be reinforced by applying a backing lam-
inate that overlaps the hole that was filled in (Fig. 12-10). To add
a backing laminate, sand the bonding surfaces on the back side
first

of the repair patch and the area of the original laminate where the
backing laminate will overlap. Then clean the area with a clean
white cloth saturated with acetone.
Determine the types of reinforcing material to use and the

299
 First Backing
Layer Of Fig. 12-8.The first layer to laminate
Laminate isapplied directly to the inside of the
backing.

Backing

Repair
Fig. 12-9. The repair area is filled in Laminate
with laminate.

300
 Backing
Repair Laminate
Laminate

Fig. 12-10. A backing laminate is added.

weights and layers required. Precut the pieces of reinforcing ma-

terial and arrange them in the order they will be applied.
Lay up the first layer of laminate directly over the back side
of the repair patch and the surrounding area of the original lami-
nate. Allow adding the second layer. Re-
this layer to cure before
peat to build up the desired thickness. Although not absolutely
necessary, it is good practice to make each added layer progres-
sively larger. This will taper the backing laminate to the original
laminate.
Next, go back to the front side of the repair area. Sand off ex-
cess material. Small areas can be sanded by hand using a sanding
block or surfacing tools. Use a power disk sander for larger jobs.
After you have removed most of the excess material, work down
to finer grits of abrasive paper. Fill small surface indentations with
epoxy putty if desired.
Fair the surface carefully to achieve a professional repair job.
Don't hurry. More repair jobs are probably spoiled by hasty sand-
ing and fairing than any other reason.

301
 The final step is to apply matching gel coat resin over the re-
pair area. Blend it in with the original gel coating.
This repair is used when only one side of the laminate needs
to be finished. When a finished appearance is important on both
sides of the laminate, a somewhat different repair can be made.
Taper the opening on both sides to the center of the opening
(Fig. 12-11). Place backing across the opening at the center of the
laminate (Fig. 12-12). Use cellophane to keep the lay-up resin from
sticking to the backing. Lay up the half of the patch on the side
that is most difficult to get, such as the side inside the hull on a
hull repair job.
Determine the types of reinforcing material and the weights
and layers required. Precut the pieces and arrange them in order.
Then lay up the first layer directly over the cellophane on the back-
ing and the taper area of the laminate being repaired. Allow this
layer to cure before adding the second layer (Fig. 12-13). Repeat
to build up to the thickness that matches the laminate being
repaired.

Gel-Coat
Side

\l

Original Damaged
Area

Back Side

Fig. 12-11. The opening is tapered on both sides.

302
 Remove the backing material next. Prepare the surface for lay-
ing up the second half of the patch by sanding and cleaning with
acetone. Then lay up the second half of the patch in the same man-
ner as the first half, except that this time the first half laminate
forms the backing for the second half (Fig. 12-14).
Sand off excess material on both sides. Gradually work down
to finer grits of abrasive paper. The final step is to touch up the
gel coating on the gel coat side and the paint or otherwise finish
the other side.

REPAIRING SANDWICH CORE LAMINATES

Repairing sandwich core moldings is generally more difficult than
repairing similar damage on a single-skin laminate. You now have
two fiberglass skins and a core to repair instead of a single fiber-
glass laminate skin. If thedamage extends all the way through the
sandwich core molding, there will be three repair units: one of the
fiberglass skins, the core, and the other fiberglass skin.

303
 .Ilk

First Half Of
Repair Laminate

Backing

Fig. 12-13. The first half of the repair is laminated in place.

Make a careful inspection of the damaged area. Examine the

damage from both sides of the laminate whenever possilDle. Mark
off the limits of the damage with a marking pen. Remove weak,
broken, and delaminated fiberglass from both fiberglass skins. In
some cases, a section of the core will also have to be removed and
then replaced. Use gradual curves when marking the outside limits
of thedamaged area. The patterns for the two skins can be the
same or different.
Remove damaged fiberglass to get back to sound fiberglass for
bonding in the repair. Use a power disk sander for this job. Try
not to do additional damage to the core material. Taper the
laminates for bonding in the repair laminates.
Next, repair any damage to the core material. Fill in damaged
areas in plywood cores with epoxy putty. might be necessary
It

to remove a section of the damaged plywood and then fit and glue
in a filler piece of plywood. Fill in small damaged areas on rigid
plastic foam and balsa cores with epoxy putty. For larger areas,
remove a section of the core material and splice in a filler piece

304
of the same material. Epoxy glue it in place to the original core
material around the damaged area.
The original or repaired core material will serve as a backing
for laminating the two fiberglass skins in place (Fig. 12-15). Deter-
mine types of reinforcing material to use and weights and layers
required. Use approximately the same laminates as were used in
the original moldings. Precut the pieces of reinforcing material and
arrange them in the order in which they will be applied. Usually
you will laminate one of the skins completely, then move on to the
other skin.
Laminate the two skins in place. Allow them to cure. The fi-

nal layer of resin applied should be finishing resin or laminating

resin with a wax additive that will give a tack-free surface cure.
Sand on one side of the laminate, then move
off excess material
on to the other side. If desired, you can work back and forth, how-
ever. When most of the excess material has been taken off, work
down to finer abrasive paper.

^1/

First Half Of
Second Half
Of Repair
Laminate

Fig. 12-14. The second half of the repair is laminated in place against the first

half.

305
 \
Core
Material
Fig. 12-15. The original or repaired
core serves as a backing for repair
laminates.

The final step is to touch up the gel coating, which is usually

only on one side of the laminate, and then match finish on the other
side. If the back side of the laminate does not show, an overlap-
ping reinforcing laminate can be added to reinforce the repair (Fig.
12-16).

REPAIRING MAJOR DAMAGE

Extensive damage to fiberglass moldings can be repaired in a simi-
lar manner, except that larger and often more complicated back-
ings and forms are required for laying up patching laminates. For
large flat areas or areas with simple gradual curves, plywood makes
an excellent backing material. It can be bolted in place using coun-
tersunk holes if the fasteners are to be left in place along with the
backing plywood. In most cases, however, the backing plywood
is removed and the holes used for the fasteners are filled in. If the
fasteners are left in place in countersunk holes, they can be covered
over with fiberglass filler or epoxy putty.
Rough sand the plywood to give a good bonding surface if it

is to be left in place. If it is to be removed, cover with cellophane

306
 n

Backing
Repair Laminate
Laminate

Fig. 12-16. A backing laminate used on the repair of sandwich core laminate.

or apply a release agent so the laminate does not stick to the ply-
wood and the plywood can be easily removed.
Sharp and complex curves often present additional problems.
In some cases, a backing can be shaped by using frames or ribs
and strip planking. Another method is to use rigid polyur ethane
foam, which can be shaped with a surfacing tool, or use polyvinyl
chloride foam plastic, which can be formed to complex shapes over
a form when heated. The plastic foams can either be left as part
of the laminates or removed after the repair laminates have been
laid up. If the plastic foam is to be removed, use a layer of cel-
lophane between the foam and the first layer of the laminate.
The main idea when repairing major damage to fiberglass mold-
ings is to replace the damaged areas of the moldings with new
laminates. Some type of backing, form, or mold is required for lay-
ing up the laminate. The purpose is to hold the resin and reinforc-
ing materials in position until the resin cures. Bonding the new
laminate to the old one is a major problem. To do this adequately,
proper preparation of the bonding surface is essential. Try to make

307
the bonding surface as large as possible. When it is practical to do
so, reinforce patches with overlapping backing laminates. Because
sanding and fairing can be the most difficult part of many repair
jobs, try to keep this to a minimum by making desired finished sur-
faces of repair laminates as smooth and even as possible. In this
way, less sanding and fairing will be required.
To method has been to laminate a repair
this point, the basic
in place over a male mold or form (the backing). I feel that this
is the best approach to use in making repairs to fiberglass laminates.

The main disadvantage of this method is that you do not end up

with a smooth finished surface like that achieved against a female
mold. This, in turn, involves sanding and fairing to achieve a fin-

ished surface, and even then it is difficult to achieve an against-a-

mold appearance. Even with this in mind, I still think it is the best
method to use, especially for beginners.
An alternate method that you might want to use after you gain
considerable experience with the previously described methods is
to use a female mold backing. This is placed on the desired fin-

Backing

Fig. 12-17. A backing used to provide a female mold for a patch.

308
 Backing

Fig. 12-18. The repair is laminated in place against the female mold.

ished side of the repair. The molding that is being repaired is ta-

pered outward toward the back side (Fig. 12-17). A release agent
is used on the mold surface, which will be removed after the lay-

up has been completed. Gel coating that matches the original can
then be sprayed over the release agent. An alternate method is to
omit this and apply the gel coating or other finish later. The repair
is then laminated in place against the mold surface, with the lami-

nate overlapping the taper surface on the original laminate (Fig.

12-18).
This method might at first sound like an easy way to eliminate
sanding and fairing. There are a number of difficulties associated
with this method, however. First, an accurate female mold surface
is required. It is difficult to achieve a molded surface without defects

under most do-it-yourselfer's working conditions. These defects

have to be filled in or otherwise repaired, and much of the reason
for using this method will then be lost. Still another problem is that
it is almost impossible to achieve a joint that does not show where

the patch joins the original laminate, especially if gel coating was

309
applied to the mold surface. The joint line must be widened and
filledwith epoxy putty, which requires sanding on the finished side
of the laminate. This can also weaken the laminate, which can be
compensated for by applying an overlapping backing laminate.
Thus, while this female molding method for making repairs might
sound attractive, it can be difficult to execute.
If you can only get to one side of the laminate for making a

repair, you will need to set the backing in place through the open-
ing in the laminate that is to be repaired. The backing can then
be held in position by small wires, which can be cut off after a cou-
ple of layers have been applied to the repair laminate. If you don't
have any access at all to the back side of the laminate, the backing
material cannot be removed. This usually will not make any differ-
ence, however.

GETTING STARTED
It's important to gain the necessary skill and experience before you
try repair work on an expensive boat. You need to feel confident
that you can do a particular repair job right.
A starting point is to learn the fundamentals of fiberglassing
by doing all of the practice exercises detailed in Chapter 10. Next,
I suggest that you go on to alterations, as detailed in Chapter 11.
You might alsowant to do some practice repair work. For exam-
ple, obtain some scrap panels of fiberglass moldings or part of a
fiberglass boat that is damaged beyond practical repair and use
these for practice work. Make a hole in a fiberglass laminate, then
practice making the repair of filling it back in. Start with small,
easy repair jobs and gradually work up to more difficult ones.

REFINISHING FIBERGLASS BOATS

Original gel coatings tend to fade and deteriorate over a period of
years to the point where you'll consider refinishing. This is seldom
an easy decision. The old gel coating might not look very good,
but it might still give adequate protection.
One possible way to refinish is to apply a new gel coating. To
do this satisfactorily requires considerable experience and expen-
sive equipment, however. In many ways it's more difficult to ap-

ply gel coating to an existing boat than it is during the molding

process of a new boat. I've only known a few professionals who
could consistently do a good job of applying gel coating to existing
fiberglass boats. And the cost of having this work done is high.

310
 An alternate finish is to apply a two-part epoxy paint. One part
is the resin, the other is the curing agent or hardener. The two parts
are added together just before the paint is applied. This type of
epoxy paint gives excellent adhesion, provided that the surface is
first properly prepared, and a durable finish. While generally eas-

ier to apply than regular gel coating, it can still be difficult. To give
a professional appearance, must be sprayed on, a job that
it really
is usually beyond the scope of most do-it-yourselfers. It requires

not only special spraying equipment, as well as the skill and tech-
niques to use it properly, but also expensive health and safety gear.
Perhaps the best bet is to use a brushable two-part polyurethane
finish.These give a gel-coatlike finish that is quite durable. A num-
ber of brands and a wide choice of colors are now on the market.
If you decide to use a brushable two-part polyurethane finish,

select a quality brand and follow the manufacturer's application in-

structions carefully. In most cases, sanding is required for prepa-
ration of the surface. Most of these finishes are formulated so that
they can be applied in a temperature range of about 60 to 85 degrees
Fahrenheit. If possible, try to avoid the extremes. If done outdoors,
the painting should be done in the shade and on windless days. Use
natural bristle brushes or short nap rollers for applying the poly-
urethane. As a rule, 1 gallon covers about 400 to 600 square feet
with one coat. For optimum results, two coats are recommended,
with about 24 hours between coats.
In any case, refinishing fiberglass boats
is a major undertak-

ing. If notdone properly, it can actually lower the value of a fiber-

glass boat. When most people see an amateur-looking paint job on
a fiberglass boat, they wonder what is being covered up.

311
Boatbuilding From

Bare Hulls and Kits

You can purchase a manufactured fiberglass boat hull and finish
it out yourself by using components and kits from the manufac-
turer or by supplying your own materials. You can start with the
bare minimum— a molded fiberglass hull— and construct your own
deck and cabin structures. Or you can use a molded fiberglass deck
and cabin structure supplied by the manufacturer. Most builders
purchase at least the fiberglass moldings, including not only the
hulls and deck and cabin structures, but also hatches, rudders, and
other components that are molded from fiberglass for the particu-
lar boat.
Some manufacturers offer component kits for finishing the boat.
Others offer complete kits with everything you need to finish out
a complete boat. The boats can also come in various stages of com-
pletion. For example, you can purchase a hull with the ballast al-
ready bonded in place, the interior roughed in, and the deck and
cabin structure bonded to the hull with the major bulkheads in place.
Some are even offered as power-away or sail-away versions, with
everything complete except for a bare interior. The buyer then adds
his own custom interior.
Today, everything from small dinghies to world cruisers are
available in bare hull and kit form, including power, sail, and com-
bination boats. For a list of suppliers, see the Appendix. While some
of these manufacturers specialize in kit boats, most offer simply
moldings from the line of boats they sell completed.

312
Fig. 13-1. The Yachtcraft 34 is available in kit form. (Courtesy of Yachtcraft)

Do-it-yourself finishing out of bare hulls and fiberglass kit boats

is not new. What is new is the complete range of boats that are
now had several friends who have
available in these forms. I've
finished out fiberglass versions of the famed Tahiti ketch, the
Dreadnought 32, and actually sailed their boats to Tahiti and be-
yond. It's no idle dream. It can and has been done many times.

REASONS FOR POPULARITY

Perhaps the primary reason for the popularity of this method for
owning a boat is the money saved. The savings over a factory com-
pleted equivalent boat can range from about 30 to 60 percent and
more. Then there is the possibility of custom-tailoring the boat to
your exact needs, especially the interior accommodations. You can
design and build it the way you want.

313
 Over the years, I've had considerable opportunity to observe
firsthand the results of hundreds of amateur boatbuilding efforts.
Boatbuilding from a bare fiberglass hull or kit has many advantages
over building from scratch (see Chapter 14). The main difference
that I have noted is that almost every bare hull and kit boatbuild-
ing effort has resulted in at least a fairly successful boat. With only
a few notable exceptions, most of the boats built from scratch were
disasters, if they were ever even completed at all, and most
weren't. About two thirds of those who went the bare hull or kit
route thought that it was well worth the effort. The other third said
they wouldn't want to do it over again, but even most of these boats
turned out fairly well. A majority of the "from scratch" builders
said it just wasn't worth it. The few bare hull and kit builders who
sold out before they finished the projects all got good prices for
the unfinished boats. The scratch builders who sold out before
finishing the boats usually did so at a considerable loss. Some of
the boats could not be sold and are still sitting in backyards and
boatyards with *Tor Sale" signs on them. They are monuments
of shattered dreams.
Though the bare hull and kit boat method is a major project,
you start out with at least a bare hull that has the shape of a boat.
The "from scratch" builder might take several years just to get
to this point. The bare hull and kit boatbuilders know from the start
that they have at least a reasonably good hull, which is the basis
for a good boat. And because it looks like a boat right from the
start, it's much easier to imagine the completion of the project. For
those who start with additional moldings, such as the deck and cabin
structures, the beginning can look even closer to the day of
launching.
what I have said so far hasn't discouraged you from wanting
If

to build from scratch, go on to Chapter 14. You just might be the

person who has what it takes to successfully build a fiberglass boat
from scratch.
Now back to bare hull and kit boatbuilding. How much can you
save? This depends on so many factors that there is no way to give
a simple answer to this question.
To start with, it depends very much on the person who is un-
dertaking the particular project. The more skills and talents that
you have, or the more you can learn, the more money you can save.
If you can do your own upholstery work, you save the cost of pay-

ing someone else to do it for you. People who hire out almost all
the work for completing a boat often end up saving very little. Thus,

314
themore you can do yourself, the more you can save. The more
work that you hire out, the less the potential savings.
you purchase everything you need for finishing the boat from
If

the manufacturer, your savings will probably be less than if you

do some of your own shopping. In this way, you can take advan-
tage of discount buying. You can also buy some of the materials,
equipment, and supplies secondhand. However, while the manufac-
turer's component packages might cost slightly more, you get
evenrthing you need for a particular part of the construction in a
single unit, which is convenient and can save time.
Many times you can start out with just the bare hull, which
is usually priced less than the down payment on a similar factory-

finished boat. Then you can purchase other components from the
factory or elsewhere when you need them and/or can afford them.
*
This can amount to 'financing" your purchase without paying any
interest. The price of the components might go up in the mean-
time, but some manufacturers will give you a price guarantee if
the additional components are purchased within a stated period of
time.
It can cost almost as much to build a fiberglass hull from scratch
as it does to purchase one already built from a manufacturer. If

you calculated the time that it normally takes a do-it-yourselfer to

build a fiberglass hull from scratch— even a lousy one— at fifty cents
an hour, the manufactured hull usually turns out to be a bargain.
The same thing often applies to deck and cabin structures. Some
builders try to save money by constructing their own from wood
or other materials. They often end up spending about the same
amount for materials as they would have if they had just purchased
the factory-molded version, however. Not only that, but they would
probably have ended up with a better boat, or at least one that would
have more resale value. This is not to say that some do-it-yourselfers
haven't built sound deck and cabin structures. They have. But these
are the exceptions rather than the rule. Most seem to build unsightly
structures that in no way complement the quality of the factory-
molded hull.

REQUIRED SKILLS AND DEDICATION

Because building from a bare hull or kit still means a large outlay
of money, either all at once or spread out over a period of time,
first determine if you have the required skills and dedication be-

fore you begin the project. Remember, if you are a do-it-yourself

type of person, you can learn additional skills as you go along.

315
Fig. 13-2. The Yachtcraft 37 motorsailer is available in kit form. (Courtesy of
Yachtcraft)

Fortunately, do-it-yourselfers are the only ones who seem to

be interested enough to embark on such a project. While it isn't
necessary to have much boatbuilding skill per se, if you don't, you
had better be the type of person who can catch up on the subject
quickly. Most people, once they start considering such a project,
read everything they can find on the subject.
Although many manufacturers give estimates on the number
of hours it will take to complete their boats, I have found that it

usually takes most do-it-yourselfers longer. It is very difficult to

be efficient. Much time can be spent dreaming or figuring out what
to do next or getting set up to do a job or in a hundred other ways.
If you can only work in your spare time, time will be lost getting

started each time you arrive at the boat. This type of work sched-
ule probably won't be as efficient as, say, putting in regular eight-
hour work days.
Most boats are going to involve a considerable part of your life
for a long period of time before you successfully complete them.
Are you the type of person who can stick to a long project? All peo-
ple involved in the project should be dedicated to it, although not
necessarily to the same degree. I've seen kit boat projects that have
brought couples closer together and others that have led to divorces.
It can go either way.

The savings in doing your own construction over buying a com-

pleted boat are the result of you providing your own time, labor,
and ingenuity. It can make for a challenging and interesting proj-
ect, but you need to be dedicated to it.

316
 THE RIGHT BOAT AND STARTING POINT FOR YOU
Once you decide that building from a bare hull or kit is the way
you want to go, you must decide on a particular boat. You need
to select the type, size, and design for the boat that is right for you
(see Chapter 2).
Write to manufacturers for information about boats that sound
like what you have in mind. Be sure to request their latest price
sheets. When you receive this information, you can get an idea of
what the possibilities are. You can begin to calculate what it will
cost you to start the project and the total price to complete it.
With each boat, you will have a number of possibilities. For
example, the minimum is usually a bare hull that is also available
in various stages of completion. You can have some of the more
important jobs done for you at the factory at a cost— such as hav-
ing the major bulkheads installed. The hull and deck and cabin
structure moldings can be bonded together. Ballast or the engine
can be installed. You must decide at what stage of completion you
want to start at. At the same time, you must weigh this with how
much you can afford to spend.
Will you purchase component kits for finishing out the boat
from the manufacturer? If so, will you order them initially or at some
later time? There is an advantage to the single order in that the
component kits can often be shipped along with the hull at little
or no additional cost. The disadvantage is that you have to put out
the money all at once.
Be as realistic as possible when selecting a boat. You might
have a certain size boat in mind, but the manufacturer's price sheet
quickly convinces you that it is out of your price range. Perhaps
you can lower your sights to a smaller size boat that costs less.
There are two lines of reasoning here. Some people go the kit
boatbuilding route so they can get a bigger or better boat for the
same price as purchasing a smaller or lower quality finished boat.
Others go this route because they can't afford a finished boat of
the size and quality that they desire.

A PLACE TO BUILD
Early in the planning process, before you send in an order for a
hull, consider exactly where you will finish out your dream boat.
Perhaps the best choice is your yard or, if the boat will fit, garage.
You can live close to the boat, making it convenient to use short
periods of time for working on it.

317
 Kit boatbuilding is noisy work. Will this disturb your neigh-
bors? you don't care what they think, you had better find out
If

what they can do about it. Are there any ordinances against boat-
building in your yard in the area where you live? Neighbors might
be fascinated when they see your boat hull arrive, but they could
change their minds when the noise continues month after month.
Another possibility is to borrow or rent a building site. There
are many possibilities here. Make certain, however, that the secu-
rity is adequate and that you have a source of electricity, water,
and whatever else you need.
Boatyards are another possibility. Especially attractive are do-
it-yourself boatyards, which are now found in many parts of the
country. These charge a couple of dollars or more per foot of boat
length per month. Electricity and water are usually supplied, and
sometimes some tools and heavy equipment are on hand for rent
also.
It's most convenient under cover, especially if you live
to build
in a rainy area. Many kit boats can be finished out in the open
provided you purchase the deck and cabin structure along with the
hull. If you start from just a bare hull, you will need at least some

sort of shelter over the boat.

Still is to purchase a boat at a stage of com-
another possibility
pletion wherecan be launched and then finished at dockside.
it

Some people have even lived aboard their boats (something like
sleeping on the floor in a bare interior at first) while they completed
them. This is also a possibility with the boat on land.
If you do decide to work at dockside with the boat in the wa-
ter, make certain that this is permitted. Many marinas have rules
against doing major boat constructions at the docks. Also, consider
the increased difficulties of doing a good job. It is much more diffi-

cult to work on a boat with the boat in the water than with it cra-

dled on land.
If at possible,have a convenient workshop close to the boat.
You reallyneed one for a major project like this if you are to effi-
ciently do the best possible job. While a workshop away from the
boat can be better than nothing, much time can be lost moving back
and forth between the boat and the workshop. You shape a board,
then take it to the boat. It doesn't quite fit. You need to take off
a little more wood on one edge but the special tool you need to do
this is back at the workshop. Besides, it's a shop tool that isn't easily
moved. So back to the workshop to do this job. And so on.
If at all possible, have a convenient, large storage space close

318
to the boat.You can probably store things aboard the boat, but they
will be in You will spend considerable time just moving
your way.
things about so that you can get to the various work areas. You
can also store things somewhere away from the boat, but again you
willhave the problem of moving things from one place to another.
Make these decisions before you place your order. You should
have a place for working on the boat, a workshop area, and stor-
age arrangements ready before your bare hull or kit arrives.

DELIVERY
Getting the bare hull or kit boat from the factory to the building
site is another important consideration. There are many possibili-
ties here. If the boat is trailerable, you can purchase a trailer with
the hull, pick up the boat at the factory, and tow it behind your
own vehicle to the building site. The trailer can then be used as
a cradle or stand for the boat while you finish it out.
Some companies specialize in transporting boats. Delivery is
made on a low-bed truck or trailer. These companies will help you
make the arrangements for having your boat shipped. Sometimes
the manufacturer of the boat has delivery equipment. This simpli-
fies arrangements and is often less expensive than a separate deliv-
ery firm.
Hulls are shipped on a cradle, which is also used as a building
cradle after the boat is delivered to the building site. After the boat
is completed, the same cradle can be used when the boat is trans-
ported to the launching site. You might have to buy the cradle out-
right from the manufacturer. Other companies let you pay the cost
of the cradle, but refund all or part of this money when you return
the cradle to the factory. Make certain that you have any arrange-
ment like this in writing, especially in regards to getting the cra-
dle back to the factory.
Shipping is based not only on the size and weight of the load,
but also on the distance. The closer you live to the factory, the less
the shipping will be. Fm not suggesting that you buy an unsuitable
boat just to get cheaper shipping, but if there are two boats that
equally suit your needs, you might want to select the one that is

manufactured closest to where you live so you can get lower ship-
ping costs.
Another possibility is to sell out house and home and move to
the area where the boat is made. Finish out the boat there, either
in an area provided by the manufacturer (some manufacturers make

provisions for this) or at a rental site near the manufacturer. You

319
can live aboard the boat while you do so or someplace else. When
the boat is finished, launch it and set out on your world cruise.

This might sound remote and hardly worth mentioning, but

many bare hull and kit boatbuilders do follow this route. It has the
important advantage of allowing you to be close to the factory for
advice, components, etc. Also, if the dream is world cruising or
building a live-aboard boat home, you have already sold out the
old lifeand can concentrate on the new one.
Still another possibility when you purchase a power-away or

sail-away version of a finish-it-yourself boat is to have the boat

launched near the factory and power or sail it back to where you
live. There must be suitable waterways and conditions for this to

be practical, but in some cases it has been done.

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS BEFORE YOU ORDER

Before placing an order, go over everything again to be sure you
are purchasing the right boat and that you are not getting in over
you head an unsuitable boat can be ex-
financially. Getting rid of
pensive, although I don't any people who have lost very
know of
much money here. Some even turned a profit, doing little or no work
on the boat and then selling out for more than they had paid.
Before you order the actual hull or kit, order an instruction man-
ual for your tentative choice. You will probably have to pay a rather
hefty amount of money for this, at least as a deposit for its return,
which is the reason for waiting so long before taking this step. The
instruction manual will help you make your final decision, however.
If you do order the hull or kit, the price of the instruction manual
is then often deducted from the purchase.

Study the manual carefully. If it is a good one, it should clearly

show how to perform every step of the assembly.
If at all possible, visit the factory. You will not only get to see
the manufacturing process, but also meet some of the people respon-
sible for the production of the boats.

PLACING AN ORDER
When you order a bare hull, a partially completed boat, or a power-
away or sail-away version, with or without additional components
or kits to complete the boat, you have to pay a certain percentage
of the purchase price. The balance is due before delivery is made.
Sometimes the arrangement is one-third on order, one-third when

320
the hull is completed, and one-third when the boat is ready for
delivery.
The orders are taken by the company before they mold your
fiberglass hull oryour hull and other fiberglass components. How
long it takes before delivery varies— sometimes only a few weeks,
sometimes six months or longer. Be sure you get a firm commit-
ment in writing as to when the delivery date will be and what hap-
pens if the boat is not ready by that time. Some of the greatest
friction between manufacturers and buyers can be about an order
that is not ready by a promised delivery date. A few companies
already have their hulls and kits ready for shipping. Delivery can
be right after the order is received. If you plan to pick up your hull
or kit at the factory, you can then just go there, make the payment,
and leave with your hull or kit.

GETTING READY
After your order has been placed, you can use the time while you
wait for delivery to get everything ready and for planning. You can
use some of this time to carefully study the assembly manual. You
can also gather up the tools, materials, equipment, and supplies
that you will need.
The needed vary, depending on the type and size of the
tools
boat, its stage of completion, whether or not you use a manufac-
turer's kit for completing the boat, and how difficult the boat is
to assemble.
I don't know of any fiberglass boat kit that can be assembled
with just a screwdriver and a couple of wrenches. It just doesn't
work that way. Some manufacturers do not even apply the term
"kit" to what they are offering, but say that their boats are avail-
able as bare hulls and in various stages of completion. Only a few
manufacturers offer anything that even approaches a complete kit
in the sense that you simply assemble parts that are prefitted.

All but a few of the small open boats require at least some fiber-
glassing. Most require considerable While this is
fiberglassing.
usually in the form of secondary bonding rather than primary mold-
ing work, it is still fiberglassing that requires fiberglassing skills
and tools. In addition, you will often have to cut, drill holes in, file,
and otherwise work with cured fiberglass. Interior components, if
supplied by the manufacturer, are often preshaped, but you will
usually have to do additional shaping, drill holes for fasteners, and
other work besides simply fastening parts together with mechani-

321
cal fasteners. From the assembly manual, you should have a good
idea of what work needs to be done and what tools are needed.
At least some power tools are, if not absolutely essential, at
least highly desirable. You can probably use a portable electric drill,

a saber saw, and a heavy-duty disk sander. The more work you
intend to do on your own, the more tools you need. For extensive
work, power shop tools make sense.

TYPICAL CONSTRUCTIONS
If you start from and supply all of the materials
just a bare hull
for finishing the boat, major boatbuilding work. You
you are in for
will have to cut and shape bulkheads and cabin soles, add shelf
clamps to the hull for attaching the deck, and construct deck and
cabintop beams. Once the framing is in place, you must install ply-
wood planking and often sheathe the plywood with fiberglass. Ob-
viously, this is more like boatbuilding than assembling a kit.
Purchasing all of the factory moldings for the boat will greatly
reduce the construction work required for finishing the boat. It will

further reduce the remaining work if you have some of the most
crucial and difficult work done for you at the factory. Typical jobs
of this type include instalHng ballast, bonding in major bulkheads,
and joining decks to hulls. Installing engines is another job that you
might not want to tackle. Usually this can be done for you at the
factory, for a price. Of course you must stop somewhere, other-
wise you will have a completed boat with nothing left to finish out
and probably nothing saved over the cost of simply buying a com-
pleted boat in the first place. The more work you do, the more you
save. Having some of the work done for you, however, can greatly
speed the construction and help to assure the successful comple-
tion of the project.
Some of the power-away and sail-away versions of these boats
are complete except for bare interiors. Some even have roughed-
in interiors. There can still be some savings over factory completed
boats here, but perhaps even more important is the possibility of
installing a custom interior.
Component kits offered by many manufacturers can be very
helpful, or at least make the project more like assembling a kit.
For example, a typical interior kit contains all of the required wood
components precut to the required shapes, the required glues and
fasteners, etc. The rigging kit consists of the spars and all the
standing rigging of the correct lengths with the fittings attached.

322
 It's easy to see that this type of boatbuilding can range from
quite easy to very difficult, depending on the particular project
and
how you tackleAnother important variable is the type of boat
it.

that you want. This can range from very plain and simple to cus-
tom deluxe. The cost differences between these two extremes can
be considerable.

323
One-Off
Fiberglass Boat Construction
A number of methods are used to construct fiberglass boats that
do not require the expensive female or cavity molds described in
Chapter 4. These methods are often called (w^-o//" fiberglass con-
struction because they are practical for building a single boat of
a new design. A manufacturer can afford to use an expensive fe-
male or cavity mold because many boats of the same design can
be molded in the same mold. For one-off fiberglass boat construc-
tion, a less expensive molding method is required.
One-off boat construction uses a male mold or form. This type
of mold is less expensive to construct because a precise molding
surface is not required. The finished side of the boat molding is
the side away from the mold, the reverse of the female molding
method generally used for manufactured boats. There is a price
to be paid, however. In exchange for being able to use an inexpen-
sive mold, you end up with an unfinished surface on the desired
finished side of the molding. To fair and smooth this surface re-
quires many hours of tedious work if the results are to equal the
appearance of a factory-molded laminate with a gel coat surface.
A number of custom boatbuilding firms that specialize in one-
off boats use this method. A customer typically goes to a designer
and has plans drawn up. The plans are then taken to a custom one-
off boatbuilder who constructs the boat. The time from start to fin-
ish for building a typical manufactured boat is usually a few weeks
in a volume plant. It is also just one of many that came off the as-

324
sembly line. A single one-off boat might take from six months to
a year with a large number of workers on the job to produce one
boat.
Custom one-off boatbuilding is obviously expensive. The ad-
vantage is that you can have a special design, in some cases the
only boat that will be constructed to that particular design. But you
have to pay dearly for this advantage. This type of boat construc-
tion means big money, the type associated with sailboat racing.
This is perhaps all that needs to be said about one-off
boatbuilding— if it weren't for the fact that it is also a popular
method for amateur boatbuilding.
After having spent many years observing the amateur boat-
building scene,I wonder if this type of boat construction isn't over-

rated.Out of perhaps a hundred one-off fiberglass boats that I've

seen started by amateur builders, less than a dozen were finished.
Most of these were disasters. Two were masterpieces. On closer
examination, however, the builders of these two boats could hardly
be considered "amateurs." True, at the time they built their boats
they were not making their livings by building boats. But both had
*
years of 'amateur" experience building boats behind them. Most
custom boatbuilding firms would have bid high to get craftsmen
like these. Few professionals could match their skills.
My first word of advice is don't attempt to build a fiberglass
boat from scratch unless you have had years of experience with
fiberglass and fiberglassing. At least make a careful evaluation of
your reasons for wanting to build from scratch. Why not buy a new
or used boat that is already completed? If doing it yourself is all

that's important to you, why not finish out a bare fiberglass hull
or fiberglass kit boat as detailed in Chapter 13?
One answer I sometimes get to this question is that "I want
to do all the work." This certainly has merit, though even so-called
building from "scratch" uses many preformed and manufactured
materials and products, such as resins, fiberglass reinforcing
materials, etc. Isit so degrading to start with a manufactured hull?

Another answer is that "I don't have enough money to buy a

manufactured hull." In that case, you probably don't have enough
money to build one from scratch either. At best, building from
scratch can be an awful lot of work for very little savings in money.
Sometimes there isn't any savings at all; sometimes it costs more
than a manufactured hull of the same type and size. All this can
be especially depressing when you end up with a lousy hull to boot.
If your reason for wanting to build from scratch is to save money.

325
I suggest that you examine the economics of the situation carefully.
Perhaps the most disturbing reasons for building from scratch
is want to build a boat of my own design." Amateur boat design-
ing combined with amateur boatbuilding doesn't seem to be a very
realistic combination. Anyone contemplating building from scratch
for this reason should first take a realistic look at both their boat
designing talent and skill and their boatbuilding abilities.

If what
have said so far hasn't discouraged you from build-
I

ing a fiberglass boat from "scratch," you just might be a candi-

date for successful completion of such a project.

PLANS
I suggest that you at least start with plans drawn up by a compe-
tent boat designer. There are several firms that specialize in plans
drawn especially with one-off amateur construction in mind (see
Appendix for a listing). These firms not only sell you proven plans,
but also give you advice and answer any questions you might have
as the construction goes along. These are considerably different
from most plans, which assume that the builder knows how to con-
struct the boat.

A PLACE TO BUILD
If you decide to "build from scratch," you need a suitable building
site. First, consider your own backyard, assuming that you have
one. If this is suitable, it will be much more convenient than hav-
ing the boat (as soon as "scratch" can be called a boat) some dis-
tance from where you live.

Fiberglass boatbuilding from scratch is a long, messy, and

sometimes noisy job. Is your yard suitable for this? Will it bother
your neighbors? Are there any ordinances against it? If you are
building a very small boat, you might be able to do it inside your
garage. Be sure there is enough ventilation, though.
Whether you work inside or outside, this type of boatbuilding
is messy. Every work area I've seen has been coated with resins,
glass fibers, fiberglass sanding dust, and no telling what else. When
the workdone outside, these things get scattered about every-
is

where. When
the work is done inside a garage, chemicals and
materials— especially the sticky ones— get tracked everywhere, in
eluding inside the house.
The main point is to make certain that you are not fiberglassed
out of house and home. The advantage of being close to the work

326
area can be quickly lost by living so close to fiberglassing, and the
effects thereof.
Another possibility is to borrow or rent a building site. Make
certain, however, that security is adequate and that you have elec-
tricity and water available. Also, check that there are no zoning
codes against the type of work you are intending.
Boatyards are often a better possibility. These are accustomed
to fiberglassing work, so you're less likely to get friction here. Do-
it-yourself boatyards can be ideal. Be sure, however, that you take
the rental cost into consideration. This can add up to a substantial
amount of money by the time the boat is completed.
It is almost essential that you build under a cover of some type.

Fiberglassing should not be done in direct sunlight. Dry conditions

are important. At the same time, you need good ventilation. An
open-sided structure with a roof that doesn't leak works well. Many
builders rig up something from materials purchased secondhand.
It is handy to also have a workshop and storage building at the work

site.

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

You need at least a basic set of fiberglassing and woodworking tools.
You should also have the basic portable power tools, including a
drill, disk sander, saber saw, and circular saw. Additional power

shop tools make sense. Boatbuilding from scratch can be a long

project. You will need all the help in the way of tools that you can
get.

TYPICAL CONSTRUCTION METHODS

While some form of male mold is used, there are many variations
to this. You will, hopefully, follow building plans for constructing
the boat. Construct the hull first. Make a form for laying up the

fiberglass hull laminate from wood and/or other materials (Fig.

14-1). In most cases, the form does not become part of the finished
hull molding. Sometimes the basic form is little more than a frame-
work for a wire mesh, closed-cell PVC foam, or glass planking that
has fiberglass rods bound together in the form of sheets with a dry
fiberglass reinforcing material (Fig. 14-2). All of these materials
can be shaped to compound curves. They are attached to the basic
framework in some manner. Their purpose is to give the basic form
for laying up the fiberglass laminate.
Lay up the outside laminate first, with the hull constructed up-
side down. Follow a laminating schedule. A number of layers of

327
Fig. 14-1. Frames and stringers are used for shaping a male mold.

reinforcing material are required, which should be detailed in the

building plans. Follow the plans to the letter. It is extremely im-
portant to keep the laminate as smooth and fair as possible. Even
then, there will be a lot of fairing and sanding left to do later. Care-
less fiberglassing only adds to this.
After the laminate has been completed, sand and fair it while
the hull is still upside down. The basic technique is to remdve high

Fig. 14-2. Closed-cell PVC foam is shaped over a male mold.

328
spots and to fill in low areas. Remove the high spots by sanding.

low areas with a fiberglass putty or glazing compound. This

Fill in

should be done in such a way as not to weaken the laminate. If putty

and filler compounds and applied too thick, cracking is likely.
After the hull is sanded and faired, turn it upright and set it
on a cradle (Fig. 14-3). Remove the framework for the building
form. If wire mesh, closed cell PVC foam, or glass planking was
used, these materials usually become part of the hull. Apply a sec-
ond fiberglass laminate inside the hull over these.
When this is completed, install plywood bulkheads and cabin
soles next. Bond these to the hull with secondary fiberglass bond-
ing straps.
The remainder of theconstruction can take a variety of direc-
tions.For example, the deck and cabin structures can be con-
structed from wood with plywood planking, which can in turn be
sheathed with fiberglass. Or the deck and cabin structure can be
constructed from fiberglass in the same manner as detailed for the
hull.

At some point, the outside of the hull must be gel coated or

painted (see Chapter 12). The remainder of the construction is simi-
lar to finishing out a manufactured fiberglass hull or kit boat.
All this might sound like it's fast and easy work, but this is
farfrom the truth. A large fiberglass hull alone can take one per-
son working in his spare time months and even years to complete.

Fig. 14-3. The hull is removed from the mold and turned upright for laminating
the inside skin in place.

329
And the completed hull is only the first step toward a completed
boat.
Perhaps the biggest drawback to such a long fiberglassing job
is the potential risks to your health. While the risks can certainly
be reduced by carefully following safety rules and taking health
precautions, you still face a lot of exposure.
In spite of the odds against it, successful one-off fiberglass boats
have been constructed by amateur builders.

330
 Appendix: Suppliers

Mail-Order Fiberglassing Materials and Supplies

CLARKCRAFT, 16 Aqualane, Tonawanda, NY 14150.

Polyester and epoxy resins; fiberglass cloth, mat, and woven

roving; plastic foams; etc.

DEFENDER INDUSTRIES, INC., 255 Main St., New Rochelle, NY

10801.

Offers complete line of fiberglassing materials and supplies at

discount prices. Also has large selection of marine equipment,
hardware, and supplies. Their 168 page catalog is $1.

GLEN-L-MARINE, 9152 Rosecrans, Bellflower, CA 90706.

Complete line of fiberglassing materials and supplies.

Retail Fiberglassing Material and Supply Stores

TAP PLASTICS, INC.

Offers a complete line of fiberglassing materials and supplies

331
 1401 N. Clovis Ave., #101, Fresno,
at the following retail stores:
CA 93727; 1212 The Alameda, San Jose, CA 95126; 4227 Pa-
cific Ave., Stockton, CA 95207; 3011 Alvarado St., San Lean-

dro, CA 94577; 2041 East St., Concord, CA 94520; 4538 Auburn

Blvd., Sacramento, CA 95841; 606 South B St., San Mateo, CA
94401; 12404 N.E. Halsey, Portland, OR 97230; and 2945 S.W.
Temple, Salt Lake City, UT 84115.

Other Fiberglassing Material and Supply Sources

ALADDIN PRODUCTS, INC., RFD2, Wiscasset, Maine 04578.

STR-R-STCH MESH® and FER-A-LITE® .

AMERICAN KLEGECELL CORPORATION, 204 North Dooley St., Grape-

vine, Texas 76051.

Klege-Cell® polyvinyl chloride rigid foam core material in four

different densities ranging from 2.0 to 15.0 Ib./cu. ft.

BALTEK CORPORATION, 10 Fairway Center, Northvale, NJ 07647.

Balsa core material.

DEVCON CORPORATION, Endicott St., Danvers, MA 01923.

Underwater epoxy.

FIBRE GLASS EVERCOAT COMPANY, 6600 Cornell Rd., Cincinnati, OH

45242.

Resin, fiberglass reinforcing materials, filler materials, and re-

pair kits.

LAN-O-SHEEN, 1 W. Water St., St. Paul, MN 55107.

Resin and fiberglass reinforcing materials.

LONZA, 'lNC., 22-10 Rt. 208, Fairlawn, NJ 07410.

Airex® polyvinyl chloride rigid foam core material.

PETTIT PAINT COMPANY, INC., 36 Pine St., Rockaway, NJ 07866.

332
 Complete line of marine paint (including two-part polyurethane)
and resins, fiberglass reinforcing materials, and fiberglass re-
pair kits.

PLASTIC SALES AND MANUFACTURING COMPANY, INC., 3030 McGee

Trafficway, Kansas City, MO
64108.

Polyester and epoxy resins and fiberglass reinforcing materials.

RAM CHEMICALS, 210 E. Alondra Rd., Gardena, CA 90248.

Gel coat resins and release agents.

RULE INDUSTRIES, INC., Cape Ann Industrial Park, Gloucester, MA

01930.

Resins, fiberglass reinforcing materials, and fiberglass repair

kits.

TRAVACO LABORATORIES, INC., 345 Eastern Ave., Chelsea, MA

02150.

Marine-Tex® epoxy repair compound.

Fiberglass Kit Boats

AHG BOAT COMPANY, 31 Water St., Mystic, CT 06355.

23-foot powerboat.

ACAPULCO YACHTS, P.O. Box 7824, San Diego, CA 92107.

40-foot sailboat.

ALAJUELA YACHT CORP., 5181 Argosy Dr., Huntington Beach, CA

92649.

36-foot cruising sailboat.

BELLEVILLE CORP., 4001 Georgine St., Santa Ana, CA 92703.

26-foot sailboat.

333
BLUE WATER BOATS, P.O. Box 625, Woodinville, WA 98072.
38-foot cruising sailboat.

CRAFT MASTER BOATS, 6440 Flying Cloud Dr., Eden Prairie, MN

55344.

15-foot bass boat.

DECK HANDS MARINE, Hwy. 98E, Ft. Walton Beach, FL 32548.

48-foot houseboat.

DREADNOUGHT BOATWORKS, P.O. Box 221, Carpinteria, CA 93013.

32-foot world cruising type sailboat.

GLANDER BOATS, INC., P.O. Box 1107, Tavemier, FL 33070.

23-foot and 33-foot sailboats.

HERITAGE MARINE, INC., 2919 Gardena, Long Beach, CA 90806.

27-foot cruising sailboat.

HOLDIAY MANSION, 2328 Hein Rd., Salina, KS 67401.

Houseboats.

HOUSEBOATING CORP. OF AMERICA, 365 Maple St., P.O. Box 950,

Gallatin, TN 37066.

Houseboats.

IRWIN YACHT & MARINE CORP., 13055-49th St. N., Clearwater, FL

33520.

Sailboats.

KELLS CORPORATION, 1 Shove St., Tiverton, RI 02878.

22-, 23-, and 28-foot sailboats.

334
LAKEVIEW BOAT COMPANY, P.O. Box 5595, Riverside, CA 92507.

Canoes and kayaks.

LUGER INDUSTRIES, INC., 3800 West Hwy. 13, Burnsville, MN

55337.

Sailboats ranging from 16 to 30 feet in length and powerboats

ranging from 21 to 30 feet in length.

PACIFIC SEACRAFT, 3301 South Susan St., Santa Ana, CA 92704.

20-, 25", and 31 -foot cruising sailboats.

ROBERTS & MATTHEWS YACHT CORP., INC., P.O. Box 10324, Braden-
ton, FL 33507.

25-, 26-, and 40-foot sailboats.

TRAILCRAFT, INC., P.O. Box 606, Concordia, KA 66901.

Kayaks, canoes, and crossbreeds.

YACHT CONSTRUCTORS, INC., 7030 N.E. 42nd Ave., Portland, OR

97218.

Sailboats ranging from 27 to 43 feet in length.

YACHTCRAFT CORP., 551 W. Crowther Ave., Placentia, CA 92670.

Sailboats ranging from 30 to 44 feet in length.

Plans for One-Off Fiberglass Boatbuilding

CLARKCRAFT, 16 Aqualane, Tonawanda, NY 14150.

GLEN-L-MARINE, 9152 Rosecrans, Bellflower, CA 90706.

BRUCE ROBERTS INTERNATIONAL, INC., P.O. Box 1548, Newport

Beach, CA 92663.

335
Glossary

abaft— Further aft or toward rear of boat than something else,

abeam— Off to one side of the boat perpendicular to a fore-and-
aft centerline.
accelerator— A highly active oxidizing material, such as cobalt,
that is added to polyester resin to produce internal heat so the
resin will cure at room temperature.
acetone— A cleaning solvent for removing uncured resin from
brushes and tools.
aft— Toward the rear of the boat.
air-inhibited resin— A resin in which the presence of air inhibits
the cure of the surface. The surface becomes hard but is tacky.
ambient temperature— Surrounding temperature or "room"
temperature.
amidship— Midway between the bow and stern of a boat; toward
the middle of the boat,
astern— Behind a boat,
athwartships— Across a boat.

barrier cream— A skin cream used to protect skin from possible

contact with resins,
binder— An adhesive that is solublein resin that is used to loosely
bind glass fibers together to form fiberglass mat.
bow— The forward part of a boat hull.

buttocks— Lines that represent vertical cuts in a longitudinal

plane.

336
catalyst— Component added to polyester resin to initiate the cur-
ing, usually by oxidizing an accelerator.
cavity— A female mold or the laminating space between matched
molds.
chopped strands— Glass fiber strands chopped up into short
lengths.
close weave— Reinforcing fabric with the woven strands almost
touching.
color pigments— Pigments that are added to resin to change its

color.
core— Material used between two fiberglass skins to space them
apart and give greater stiffness.
counter— Part of boat extending from the waterline to the bot-
tom of the transom.
crazing— Tiny cracks in the surface of a fiberglass molding.
cure— The process of resin changing from a liquid to a solid state.
curing time— The time from when the catalyst or hardener is
added to a resin until the resin reaches a cured state.

deck— A platform extending from one side of a boat to the other,

often at or near the level of the rail,

draft— The distance from the waterline to the bottom of keel on

a boat.

epoxy resin— A resin that is usually stronger and has better phys-
ical properties than polyester resin, but is more difficult to use
and considerably more expensive.
exothermic heat— Developed within the resin.

feathered edge— Tapered edge of fiberglass laminate,

fiberglass— Fine fibers of glass. Reinforcing materials made from
glass fibers. Laminates of glass fiber reinforcing material and
cured resin.
filler— A substance added to resin to form a putty. A resin filler

or putty.
finish— Chemicals applied to glass fibers to allow resin to flow
around and adhere to the fibers,
foam— A rigid plastic material that is very light in weight,
foam core— Foam used as a core material between two skins of
fiberglass.
foredeck— The forward part of the deck on a boat,
forefoot— The part of a boat hull between the bow and the keel.

337
forward— Toward the front of a boat hull.

gel— A semisolid or jellylike state of resin when partially cured,

gel coat— Surface coat of resin that does not contain glass fibers
and is usually colored,
glass fiber— A fine fiber of glass.

hardener— Component added to epoxy resin to initiate the curing.

keel— Applied to powerboats, it's the main structural member run-

ning longitudinally from the stem to the stem along the bottom.
Applied to sailboats, it's a vertical downward extension on the
bottom of the hull.

lamination— Layers of glass reinforcing materials and resin that

form a fiberglass panel,
lay-up— Process of applying resin to reinforcing materials placed
in amold or on a form,
length of waterline (LWL)— Length of a boat hull at the
waterline.
Length overall (LOA)— A boat's greatest length, not counting
rudders, bowsprits, or other protuberances.

mold— The form used for fiberglass lay-up to give desired shape
and surface.
mold release— Substance used to prevent the molding from stick-
ing in the mold.

nonair-inhibited resin— A resin that gives a surface cure in the

presence of air by excluding air from the surface of the resin.

open weave— Reinforcing fabric with considerable space between

woven strands.

plain weave— Common over and under weave used for making
fabrics.
plastic— Synthetic materials. Sometimes used to mean fiberglass.
polyester resin— Resin commonly combined with reinforcing
materials to form fiberglass boat moldings. Because of its lower
cost, it is often used instead of the more expensive epoxy resin.
port— The left side of the boat when looking forward.
pot life— The length of time that a resin remains useable in a con-

338
 tainer after a catalyst or hardening agent has been added,
putty— A resin filler material.

release agent— A coating applied to mold to prevent the mold-

ing from sticking to the mold.
resin— A liquid plastic substance that cures to a solid state when
a catalyst or hardener is added. It is combined with reinforcing
material to form fiberglass.
roving— Continuous strands of glass fibers used to form untwisted
yam that can be woven into woven roving reinforcing material.
rudder— A flat vertical member that extends from the hull and
is used for steering the boat.

sandwich construction— A core material with fiberglass skins.

shelf life— The length of time uncatalyzed resin remains useable
when stored in sealed container. Also applies to paints, glues,
and other substances.
starboard— The right side of the boat when looking forward.
stations— Athwartship vertical slices or vertical cuts in a trans-
verse plane.
stem— The forwardmost part of the bow of a boat,
stern— The after or rear part of a boat,
styrene— Liquid plastic used to thin polyester resin,
surfacing agent— Oil or wax material that goes to the surface
of polyester resin during curing to inhibit air.

tack-free— A surface that is not sticky,

tacky— Sticky.
tensile strength— Resistance of a material to a force tending to
pull it apart.
thixotropic— A liquid that has a high viscosity so that it will not
flow easily.
thixotropic paste or powder— Added to resin to increase vis-
cosity.
topsides— The sides of a boat from the waterline to the rail,
transom— Aftermost part of the stern of a boat.

undercut— Reverse draft in a mold.

unidirectional— Strength is greater in one direction than another.

vacuum bag molding— A method of molding that uses a flexi-

ble bag and a vacuum.

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viscosity— Degree to which a Uquid resists flow.

warp— Fibers woven across a fabric,

waterline— The level of water on a floating hull,
waterlines— Horizontal cuts in a longitudinal plane,
woven roving— Reinforcing fabric woven from strands of rovings,
which are untwisted groups of glass fibers.

yam— Twisted strands of glass fibers that are woven to form cloth.

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 Index

A catalyst, 12, 81
accelerator, 81 catalyzing polyester resins, 232
alterations, 254 center of buoyancy (CB), 56
angle of heel, 61 center of gravity, 56
centerboards, 39
B chopped fiber strands, 78
backing block, 188 chroming, 217
backings, 265 cobalt naphthanate, 81
bare-hull boatbuilding, 312-323 commissioning, 14, 176
beam, 52 common member, 124
boat construction, 324-327 compression strength, 71
boats computer design, 65
characteristic hull types in, 20 contact molding, 1 93 ,

costs and responsibilities of, 168 hand lay-up and spray-up

open and partially decked, 21 methods, 93
personal selection of, 45 core materials, 87, 221 265 ,

power-, 19 cracks, 293

sail-, 32 crazing, 293
selection of, 17 cured fiberglass, working with, 226
small open, 17
bonding, 119, 127 D
boundary layer, 63 daggerboard, 40
braces, frames, knees, and ribs, 113 deck mounting, 189
brokers, 163 design fundamentals, 47
bubble inhibitors, 84 alterations to, 255
buoyancy, 48, 56 designed waterline, 53
buttocks, 53 diagonals, 54
dinghies, 17
C displacement, 48
canoes, 18 displacement planimeter, 55
car-top boats, 19 draft, 52
carbon fiber, 4, 80 drilling, 227

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dry storage, 174 flexural strength, 71
Dynel acrylic, 79 form stability, 60
frictional resistance, 63
E
eddy-making, 64 G
elevation, 53 gel coat, 83, 201
engine maintenance, 204 application of, 253
epoxy resins, 84, 220 cracks in, 293
exteriors, examination of, 141 gimbal bracket, 190
glass fiber cloth, 75
F gluing, 127
fiberglass
boatbuilding with, 9-11 H
development and early use of, 1 half breadth plan, 53
health and safety precautions for, heel, 61
222 holes and fractures, 296-303
life expectancy of, 7 horizontal waterplane, 53
other materials vs., 4 houseboats, 29-32
wood and, 286 hull dimensions and nomenclature,
fiberglass boatbuilding from scratch, 49-51
16 hull speed, 20, 64
fiberglass boats hull weight, 48
buying new, 152 hulls, 20-22, 35-41
buying used, 156, 160
care and maintenance of, 192 I

construction of, 74 impact strength, 71

design of, 46 in-the-water storage, 170
judging construction quality of, interiors, examination of, 146
131. 134 isotropic, 70
one-off construction of, 324
painting of, 199 K
prices of, 157, 166 kayaks, 18
refinishing of, 310 Kevlar, 4, 80
repair of, 290 kit boatbuilding, 312-323 «

selection of, 13
special design problems for, 72 L
surveying 136
of, laminates, 263
fiberglass cloth, 217 inspection of, 138
fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP), 3 mechanical properties of, 67
fiberglassing reinforcement of, 104
basic skills and techniques for, laminating fiberglass to plywood,
205 245
do-it-yourself, 15 laminating plastic to wood, 285
fundamentals of, 11, 232 laminating resin, 81
materials and supplies for, 216, leeboard, 40
221 length overall (LOA), 51
tools and equipment for, 206 line drawings, 52
working with cured fiberglass in, liners, 114
226 load waterline, 53
workplace for, 216
filing, 229 M
finishing out, 16 major damage, repair of, 306
finishing supplies, 81, 221 masts and rigging, 32-36
fishing boats, 19 examination of, 146
fitting out and equipping, 180 mat, 77, 218
flexibility, 82 material quality, 132

342
mechanical fasteners, 123, 128 righting arm, 62
metacentric height, 62 roving, 76, 217
metallic boats, 6
methyl-ethyl-ketone (MEK), 12 S
milled fibers, 78, 218 sailboats, 32-45
modulus of elasticity, 71 32-34
sails,
moldings sanding and fairing, 229, 252
assembly of, 117 sandwich core laminates, repair of,
attachments to, 127, 255 303
common member joining of, 124 sawing, 228
heavy load reinforcement of, 1 16 scratches, repair of, 292
lay-up of, 100 shear strength, 71
logistics of, 130 sheer projection, 53
mechanical fasteners joining of, Simpson's rule, 56
123 skin friction, 63
reinforcing and stiffening of, 107, small holes, 294
263 solvents and cleaners, 87, 220
removal of, 103 soundness of design, 132
supporting of, 117 specifications, 134
molds, 94-98 stability, 58
motorsailer, 45 static or level waterline, 60
stations, 53
N stern drives, 22
nicks and small holes, 293 stiffeners, 109
laminating in place, 112
O core materials under, 110
operational systems, inspection of, storage, 168
148 structural design, 65
orthotropic, 71 styrene, 84
surfacing mat, 78
P surveyors, 150
painting, 199, 253
phenolic microballoons, 88, 220
T
plans, 53, 64
tenders, 17
plugs, 97
tensile strength, 67
plywood bulkheads, 107
thermosetting plastic, 80
polyester resin, 11, 80, 218
torque, 61
application of, 235
trailers, 168
polymerization, 81, 232
transverse metacenter, 62
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 89
power cruisers, 23-29
powerboats, 19 V
profile views, 53 vectra polypropylene, 79
putty, 84, 220, 251
W
R warranties and guarantees, 155
reinforcing materials, 74, 78 waterlines, 52-53
lamination of, 240 waves, 64
release agents, 87, 221 waxing, 198, 221
repairs, 290 wood, 4, 90, 271-289
residual resistance, 63
resins, 80-83 X
resistance, 62 Xynole polyester, 79

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I