Chapter 03 - The Cellular Level of Organization

Parts of a cell
1. Plasma (cell membrane), or plasmalemma
2. Cytoplasm containing organelles and cytosol
3. Nucleus containing chromosomes and genes

The plasma membrane (plasmalemma) is a flexible sturdy barrier that surrounds and contains the
cytoplasm of the cell. There are two
types of membrane proteins; Integral
or transmembrane proteins and
peripheral proteins and they help
determine the functions of the cell
membrane. Cholesterol serves to
stabilize the membrane and reduce
fluidity. Membrane lipids and proteins
are mobile in their own half of the
bilayer.

Plasma membranes are selectively

permeable. The lipid bilayer is
permeable to small, non polar, and uncharged molecules. Transmembrane proteins act as channels or
transporters and increase membrane permeability. Macromolecules are able to pass through via vesicular
transport.
 A concentration gradient is the
difference in the concentration of
a chemical between one side of
the plasma membrane and the
other. An electrical gradient is the
concentration difference in ions
between one side and the other
and together they make up an
electrochemical gradient.

Transport
across the
plasma membrane is done in active and passive processes. Passive processes
include simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis. Active processes move
larger molecules with primary and secondary transport, and vesicular transport.

Diffusion is influenced by the

steepness of the concentration
gradient, temperature, mass of differing
substances, surface area, and diffusion
distance.

Transmembrane proteins help solutes

that are too polar or too highly charged
to move through the lipid bilayer. The
processes are
1. Channel mediated facilitated diffusion - most membrane channels are
ion channels
2. Carrier mediated facilitated diffusion - carriers are transported

Osmosis is the net movement of a solvent through a selectively permeable

membrane from a high concentration area to an area
of lower concentration.

Tonicity of a solution relates to how the solution

influences the shape of body cells. Isotonic solutions
for example will allow for a normal blood cell. Hypotonic
solutions undergo hemolysis and burst. Hypertonic
solutions undergo crenation and shrink the cell.
Active Primary Transport is energy derived from
ATP which changes the shape of the transporter
protein that pumps a substance across a plasma

membrane against its concentration gradient.

Passive Secondary Transport is where energy is
stored in a hydrogen or sodium concentration gradient and is used to drive other substances against their
concentration gradient.
Structures of a cell the cytoplasm has two components
1. Cytosol - the intracellular
fluid portion of the
cytoplasm
2. Organelles - which are
the specific specified
structures that perform
a specified function.

Cell Parts:
1. Plasma Membrane - This
lipid fluid bilayer is
studded with proteins
and surrounds the
cytoplasm. It protects
the cell content,
maintains contact with other cells. They
contain channels , transporters, receptors,
enzymes, cell identity markers, linker
proteins, and mediates the entry and exit
of substances.
2. Cytoplasm - These are the cellular contents
between the plasma membrane and
nucleus and have the cytosol and
organelles. It is the site of intracellular
activities for everything but the nucleus.
3. Cytosol - composed of water, solutes,
suspended particles, lipid droplets and
glycogen granule. This is the fluid where most
metabolic processes happen.
4. Cytoskeleton - is the backbone that maintains shape
and organization and regulates cell movement and is
composed of three protein filaments, Microfilaments,
intermediate filaments, and microtubules.
5. Organelles - Specialized structures with
characteristic shapes and each has a specific
function.
6. Centrosome - Pair of centrioles and the
pericentriolar matrix which contains tubulins
which are used for growth of the mitotic
spindle and microtubule formation.
7. Cilia and flagella - Motile cell surface
projections that contain 20 microtubules
and a basal body. The cilia move fluids
over cell surfaces and flagella move an
entire cell.

8. Ribosomes - Comprising two subunits containing ribosomal

RNA and proteins. It may be attached to rough ER or floating
around in the cytosol
9. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) - a membranous network of
flattened sacs or tubules. Rough ER synthesizes glycoproteins and
phospholipids that are transferred to organelles, inserted into
plasma, or
excreted. It is
covered in
ribosomes and
is attached to
the nuclear
envelope.

10. Smooth ER synthesizes fatty acids and steroids; it

inactivates or detoxifies drugs, removes phosphate groups
from glucose-6-phosphate, and stores and releases
calcium ions in muscle cells.
11. Golgi Complex - Consisting of 3-20 flattened
membranous saccules. They are divided into structurally
and functionally as entry (cis) face which accepts proteins from rough ER, medial saccules form
glyolprotiens, glycolipids and lipoproteins, and exit (trans) face modifies molecules further , then
sorts and packages them to transport to their destination.
12. Lysosome - Vesicle formed from the golgi
complex fuses with and digests contents of
endosomes, phagosomes, and vesicles formed during bulk-phase endocytosis and transports final
products of digestion into cytosol, digests worn out organelles (autophagy), entire cells (autolysis),
and extracellular materials.
13. Peroxisome - are vesicles containing oxidases (oxidative enzymes) that work on amino acids and
fatty acids and catalase
(decomposes hydrogen peroxide)
which detoxifies free radicals; new
peroxisome bud from preexisting
ones.
14. Proteasome - Tiny barrel-shaped
structures that contain proteases
(proteolytic enzymes) that degrade
unneeded, damaged, or faulty
proteins by cutting them into small
peptides.
15. Mitochondrion - COnsists of an
external and an internal mitochondrial
cristae, and mitochondrial matrix. It is
the site of aerobic cellular respiration reactions that
produce most of a cell’s ATP. It plays an early role
in apoptosis or cell death.
16. Nucleus - Consisting of a pored nuclear envelope,
nucleoli, and chromosomes that exist in a tangled
mass of chromatin in interphase cells. The pores
control the movement of substances between the nucleus and cytoplasm. Nucleoli produce
ribosomes and chromosomes consist of genes that control cellular structure and function.
 Gene expression and protein
synthesis through transcription is a
process where it takes the DNA
information and encode it into a
rNA which will direct protein
synthesis
like a
photocopy.
Translation
occurs on
the outside of the nucleus and
reads or translates the MrNA
blueprint to determine the newly
formed amino acid.

Cell division is a process where cells reproduce themselves.

Mitosis occurs when the nucleus of a cell divides and it
results in the distribution of two sets of chromosomes into
separate nucleus’ and has four steps
1. Prophase -
condenses chromatin
into chromosomes
as the nuclear
membrane
disappears and
centrosomes move
to opposite poles.
2. Metaphase -
causes the
centromeres of
chromosomes to line
up at the membrane
plate
3. Anaphase - is where the centromeres of the
chromosomes split and sister chromatids move to the poles.
4. Telophase - is where the mitotic spindle dissolves ,
the chromosomes regain their appearance and a new nuclear
membrane forms.
Cytokinesis causes a furrow to form and pulls the cell apart, splitting
the cell. When this completes, the interphase begins.

Events of the somatic cycle

1. Interphase - is the period between cell division where chromosomes are not visible
2. G1 - is metabolically active phase where the cell duplicates most of its organelles and components.
Some cells sit in limbo in this phase and are considered gO.
3. S - is the replication of DNA and centrosomes
4. G2 - is where cells grow, enzyme and protein synthesis occurs and the replication is complete.
5. Mitotic phase - is where parent cells produce identical units
6. Mitosis - is the separation of the nuclei and chromosomes
7. Prophase - chromatin fibers condense into paired
chromatids. The nucleolus and envelope disappear and the
opposite poles pull the centromeres towards them.
8. Metaphase - lines up the chromatid pairs at the midline
9. Anaphase - splits the cell and the chromosomes move to
the opposite poles via spindles.
10. Telophase - is where the nuclear envelope and nucleoli

reappear. The mitotic spindle

disappears and chromatin is
formed again by chromosomes.
11. Cytokinesis - Cytoplasmic
division where contractile rings form a cleavage furrow around the cell’s center, dividing the cytoplasm
into separate and equal portions.
Meiosis is a special type of cell division in sexual organs used to produce gametes such as a sperm or
egg. It involves splitting twice resulting in four cells each with only one
copy or each chromosome.

Overall cells come in a variety of shapes, sizes, and functions.

Chapter 3 - In class Activity