East African Scholars Journal of Engineering and Computer Sciences

Abbreviated Key Title: East African Scholars J Eng Comput Sci

ISSN: 2617-4480 (Print) & ISSN: 2663-0346 (Online)
Published By East African Scholars Publisher, Kenya
Volume-3 | Issue-8 | October-2020 | DOI: 10.36349/easjecs.2020.v03i08.001

Research Article

Computer Aided Simulation of Multiple Effect Evaporator for

Concentration of Caustic Soda Solution
Wai-Ogosu, Biriye Danwi, Kenneth K. Dagde*, Jackson G. Akpa, ThankGod Oweifa Goodhead
Department of Chemical of Petrochemical Engineering, Rivers State University, Nkpolu-Oroworukwo, Port Harcourt, Nigeria

Abstract: In this work, a mathematical model has been developed for the simulation of
Article History multiple effect evaporators (MEE) system from a set of non-linear equations, Evaporation is
Received: 18.09.2020 the most energy intensive unit in pulp and paper industries, feed and product flashing,
Accepted: 05.10.2020
condensate, boiling point rise, vapour bleeding, etc are considered to reduce energy
Published: 29.10.2020
consumption. An inquiry into PZ PLC, a manufacturing industry situated in Aba, Abia state;
Journal homepage: for concentrating liquor using falling film plate evaporator in steam splitting in the first two
https://www.easpublisher.com/easjecs effects to generate vapour used in vapour bodies within the system. Evaporation is the
removal of solvent as vapour from a solution. It is the operation which is used for
Quick Response Code concentration of solution. There could be single effect evaporator or multiple effect
evaporators. With addition of each effect steam economy of the system also increases.
Evaporators are integral part of a number of a process industry like Pulp and Paper, Sugar,
Caustic Soda, Pharmaceuticals, Desalination, Dairy and Food Processing etc. Caustic Soda
Industry is of present interest. The system consists of triple effect having falling film
evaporator as each effect. There is forward feed and backward feed flow. This paper
describes a steady state model of multiple effect evaporators for simulation purpose. The
model includes overall as well as component mass balance equations, energy balance
equations and heat transfer rate equations for area calculation for all the effects. Each effect
in the process is represented by a number of variables which are related by the energy and
material balance equations for the feed, product and vapour flow for forward feed &
backward feed, The results of present work with concentration in effect-I at 0.853558 was
validated against previous work of (Kumar and Zain, 1996) at 0.7942216 and it shows close
agreement. Also considering a backward result of effect-III product as 0.327396 while
that of (Kumar and Zain, 1996) as 0.398923 from the comparison with past work as well as
industrial data at an inlet temperatures of 90 and 76 for 1st and 2nd effects respectively,
it shows that the present model can be applied to simulate a real MEE system by improving
steam economy up to 2.46 through the incorporation of flash vapours from condensate
steam. The code has been developed using MATLAB 5.8B. Results of the present approach
are validated with industrial data.
Keywords: Triple/Multiple Effect Evaporator, Newton Raphson Method, Caustic Soda,
Matlab 5.8B, Forward/Backward Feed.
Copyright © 2020 The Author(s): This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
License (CC BY-NC 4.0) which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium for non-commercial use provided the original
author and source are credited.

INTRODUCTION that the concentration of caustic to a strength of about

Evaporation is of immense importance in the 50% weight fraction (commercial strength) results in
process industries and is widely used for salvage precipitation impregnated salts from its solution [1].
solvate, food concentration, pulp and paper, soap Multiple-effect evaporators (MEE) in most industries
processes, etc. The goal of evaporation is to vaporize operate in the forward-feed arrangement, in which
water out of a solution containing an end product. The steam and solute flow in the same direction.
recovery of useful chemicals, which include sodium Advantages of this flow arrangement include the
sulphide, sodium hydroxide and sodium carbonate from exposure of the most concentrated solute to the lowest
the Kraft process that uses multiple effect evaporator saturated water vapor temperature in the last effect; feed
system as recovery process. Caustic soda (NaOH) is flashing on entering the second and subsequent effects,
commercially involved in the production of solid soap which assists flow circulation, and favourable pressure
and detergents while caustic potash (KOH) is involved profile that does not require pumping between effects.
in the production of liquid soap and detergents. Multiple-effect evaporators were also operated in the
Concentration of dilute alkali solution reduces bulk and backward-feed arrangement, in which steam and solute
weight for further processing. It has also been indicated flow in opposite directions. It can be shown that if the

*Corresponding Author: Kenneth K. Dagde 146

Wai-Ogosu et al; East African Scholars J Eng Comput Sci; Vol-3, Iss- 8 (Oct, 2020):146-156

hot and cold fluids in a counter-flow heat exchanger method has been used by many researchers for the
and a parallel-flow heat exchanger have identical inlet simulation of multiple effect evaporator systems [12,
temperatures, the log-mean temperature difference is 13, 3, 2], and there simulation results have been
larger in the counter-flow heat exchanger. Since heat reported. However, no specific study has been made
transfer between the hot and cold fluids is proportional about the computational aspects. During this work, we
to the log-mean temperature difference, the counter- present the computational experiences in industrial
flow heat exchanger can transfer more heat than the scale which we encountered during the simulation of a
parallel-flow heat exchanger that has the same heating triple effect evaporators used for concentrating the
surface area. As a result, if the inlet temperatures of the caustic soda solution. Besides, empirical correlations
hot and cold fluids are fixed, the counter-flow heat for the enthalpies of steam condensate and caustic soda
exchanger will yield lower outlet temperature of the hot solution have been developed. A new arrangement of
fluid and higher outlet of the cold fluid. Superior energy model equations is also proposed to facilitate their
efficiency of the counter-current flow or backward-feed solution. An enquiry into the caustic soda employed by
arrangement in the multiple-effect evaporators was a manufacturing industry, PZ, PLC in Aba, Nigeria,
demonstrated by Bhargawa et al. [2]. The backward- indicates that the caustic soda solution employed in
feed arrangement is used in several industries. their soap production is prepared from imported
concentrated anhydrous caustic pellets, diluted to a
There have been several investigations on the required concentration. This is probably due to the fact
improvement of energy efficiency of the MEE system there is no caustic soda concentration plant, available in
by reducing steam consumption in the evaporator [3] the country; therefore, leading to revenue loss.
recommended retrofitting the evaporation process to
improve heat recovery [4] performed an analysis In this paper, performances of MEE systems
showing that steam consumption could be reduced by that use the backward-feed multiple-effect evaporator
increasing the number of effects. Mechanical vapour and the forward-feed multiple-effect evaporator in their
compression and thermal vapour compression have also evaporation processes are compared. Mathematical
been suggested, [5] and [4] as methods of increasing the models of both multiple-effect evaporators were
energy efficiency of a multiple-effect evaporator. Steam developed for this purpose. It will be demonstrated by
consumption by a multiple-effect evaporator can also be simulation that the backward-feed multiple-effect
minimized by distributing heating surface areas evaporator is responsible for the higher energy
optimally in the process. Previous investigations by [4] efficiency of the MEE system. The simulation of a
have demonstrated the existence of the optimum caustic soda concentration plant is therefore necessary
distribution of heating surface areas that results in the to fully comprehend the operation of a real situation of
minimum steam consumption. Modelling and caustic concentration, using multiple effect evaporators.
simulation of multiple effect evaporator systems has
been subject of many investigations Stewart and MATERIALS AND METHODS
Beveridge, Radovic et al. [6], Newell [7], Kumar and Model Development
Zain, [8], Bhargava et al. [2], Miranda et al. [9], Development of Models for N-Forward and N-
Vazquez et al. [10], etc. Holland [11] talked about a Backward Multiple Effect Evaporators
general simulation model in an excellent monograph on Figure 1 and 2 shows a multiple effect
fundamentals and modelling separation processes evaporator system of N-Forward feed and N-Backward
whereby a large number of non-linear equations are to feed arrangement of a triple stage for the concentration
be solved during simulation of a MEE system. The of caustic soda solution. This evaporator system is
extent of non-linearity depends upon the number of depicted schematically, for system of
effects and complexities of the constitutive relationships evaporators.
etc. Use of Newton Raphson numerical method was
recommended by [11] to solve model equations, this

© East African Scholars Publisher, Kenya 147

Wai-Ogosu et al; East African Scholars J Eng Comput Sci; Vol-3, Iss- 8 (Oct, 2020):146-156

Fig-1: General N-Effect Forward feed evaporator System

where: V = Vapour flowrate, kg/hr. T = Saturated Temperature. H = Liquor Enthalpy KJ/kg,

F = Feed flowrate, Kg/hr. = Solution Temperature, L = Process liquor flowrate, kg/hr.
P = Product. C = Condensate. N = Number of evaporator effects, f = feed

Fig-2: General N-Effect Backward feed evaporator system

Model Assumption
The general conservation equation for physical systems is defined as follows:
(1)
i. Material balance on process fluid:
Applying the general conservation equation for physical systems, equation (1) in terms of mass flowrate at
steady state conditions gives;
Total balance (2)
Liquid solute balance (3)
ii. Energy Balance on Process fluid:

[ ] (4)

© East African Scholars Publisher, Kenya 148

Wai-Ogosu et al; East African Scholars J Eng Comput Sci; Vol-3, Iss- 8 (Oct, 2020):146-156

iii. Enthalpy Balance on the Steam Chest:

(5)

(6)

(7)
iv. From mass equilibrium relationship, considering appreciable heat of dilution and Boiling Point
Elevation effects, applying Duhring’s rules (1998):
(8)
(9)
(10)
Also, (11)

Hence, eliminating equation (2) without losing form by substituting equations (10) & (11) into equations (3), (4)
(7) and (9) gives a compressed four models, as:
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
[ ) [ ) [ ] [
(16)
This is derivable from equation (11), through algebraic manipulations as follows:
[ ] (17)
Expanding equation (16), gives
(18)
Modifying equation (17), without altering the equation form:
(19)
(20)
[ ] [ ] (21)
[ ( ) ( )] [ ] [ ]
(22)
Forward Feed N-Effect steady state Model Equations

Effect
( ) V0 o ( ) (23)

V0 o (24)
(25)
(26)

Effect
( )[ ] ( ) (27)
( ) [ ] (28)
( ) ( ) (29)
(30)

[ ] (31)
[ ] (32)
(33)
(34)

Effect
( )[ ] ( ) (35)
( ) [ ] (36)
( ) ( ) (37)

© East African Scholars Publisher, Kenya 149

Wai-Ogosu et al; East African Scholars J Eng Comput Sci; Vol-3, Iss- 8 (Oct, 2020):146-156

(38)

V0 o (39)

V0 o (40)
(41)
(42)

Forward Feed, Triple-Effect function Equations

= (43)

= V0 o (44)
= (45)
= (46)
= (47)
= [ ] (48)
= (49)
= (50)
= [ ] (51)
= [ ] (52)
= (53)
= (54)

Backward Feed, Triple-Effect function Equations

= [ ] (55)
= [ ] (56)
= (57)
= (58)
= [ ] (59)
= [ ] (60)
= (61)
= (62)
= V0 o (63)

= V0 o (64)
= (65)
= (66)

Thermodynamics Relations
The following thermodynamic parameters pertaining caustic soda solution has been correlated:
a) Boiling point of solution (Bhargava et al., 2008)
(67)
The variation in boiling point rise can be calculated using the following expression [2]:
T = 20 X (0.1 + (68)
where: = Solution Temperature. T = Saturation Temperature.
b) Overall heat transfer coefficient [14]
(69)
, where: x = Mass fraction of solute.
c) Latent hat of vaporization of Steam [14]
 ̇
(70)
, The applicable temperature range
d) Enthalpy of saturated and superheated steam [14]
̇
( ) ( )  (71)

© East African Scholars Publisher, Kenya 150

Wai-Ogosu et al; East African Scholars J Eng Comput Sci; Vol-3, Iss- 8 (Oct, 2020):146-156

The applied up to a temperature range of 0 to 100 0C

e. Enthalpy of Condensate at saturation temperature , from the data obtained from steam table [15]
(72)

, the applicable Validity range = 5 to 1600C

f. Enthalpy of caustic soda solution, from enthalpy-concentration data reported by Wilson and McCabe [15]

(73)

Solution Algorithm and condensate where the predicted values of enthalpies

From the derivation of the set of non-linear are used to compute
equations of each system of model, an iterative step was Vapour flow rates emerging from individual flash tanks.
followed to arrive at a set of final solution. The set of Step c: The value of vapour flow rates are added with
equations were inserted into a ‘system of non-linear the inlet vapour streams
equations’ along with all the constants. An initial guess Entering the steam chest of Effect I to III.
of overall heat transfer coefficient U was made for first Step 4: Set of non-linear equations is developed based
iteration. Detailed algorithms for the steps are as on material and energy balance around each effect,
follows to obtain the final solution: values of U, physical properties and flashed vapour
flow rate.
Step 1: Values of known parameters are collected Step 5: The set of equations are solved to obtain the
Step 2: Assuming equal temperature difference and revised values of temperatures and liquor flow rate of
vaporization in each effect and liquor flow rates, an each effect using solver ‘system of non-linear equation’.
initial guess of U is made to start the calculation. Step 6: Revised values of U are computed considering
Step 3: Inclusion of variations such as BPR, latent heat temperature, flow rate and concentration of each effect.
of vaporization, variation in specific heat of capacity, Step 7: For each effect, if differences of U of two
flashing (condensate, feed and product) and vapour consecutive iterations fall within the range of ±30%
bleeding are considered, if applicable. i.e.: then go to step 8. Otherwise follow step 3 to 7 with
Step a: Material and energy balance around each tank is revised values of temperature, liquor flow rates and U.
carried out. Step 8: Steam economy were computed.
Step b. Balanced equations derived are mainly the
functions of enthalpy of vapour

© East African Scholars Publisher, Kenya 151

Wai-Ogosu et al; East African Scholars J Eng Comput Sci; Vol-3, Iss- 8 (Oct, 2020):146-156

Operating Parameters
Table 1 and 2 show the input parameters from PZ industry, Operational Manual [16] for dilute caustic soda
concentration to 50% weight, using triple-effect system.

Table-1: Input data for forward Feed Simulation

Feed [kg/h) 57857.10
Feed concentration, percent weight fraction 20.000
Feed Temperature Effect I & II (oC) 90 & 76
2
Area of each effect (m ) 79.000
Input steam temperature (oC) 167
o
Last effect temperature ( C) 57,460

© East African Scholars Publisher, Kenya 152

Wai-Ogosu et al; East African Scholars J Eng Comput Sci; Vol-3, Iss- 8 (Oct, 2020):146-156

Table-2: Input Data for Backward feed simulation

Feed [kg/h) 54800.00
Feed concentration, percent weight fraction 20.000
Feed Temperature Effect I & II (oC) 90
2
Area of each effect (m ) 79.000
Input steam temperature (oC) 167
Last effect temperature (oC) 57

Table-3: Steam Economy comparison

STM ECONOMY (E)
Forward feed Simulation 1.48
Backward Feed Simulation 1.64

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION reasonably well with the plant data. These results show
Table 4 & 5 shows the comparison between deviations ranging from 0.05 to 19.6 % for the forward
industrial plant data and predictions from the model feed and 0.07 to 19.5 % for backward feed multiple
(3…..- 3….), indicating that the predicted data agree effect evaporators respectively.

Table-4: Forward Feed Simulation Results

The detailed simulation results are shown in the value of U. Table 4 shows that product is exiting
Table 4 and 5, where it shows that liquor gets much the system with flow rate of 5.69049kg/s which
concentrated when it moves from 3rd Effect to 1st Effect. corresponds to the concentration of 0.853558. For
The rate of water evaporation in the effects is due to Effect-I total steam consumption is 1.480kg/s.
availability of temperature change, it also depends on

© East African Scholars Publisher, Kenya 153

Wai-Ogosu et al; East African Scholars J Eng Comput Sci; Vol-3, Iss- 8 (Oct, 2020):146-156

Table-5: Backward Feed Simulation Result

From Figure 1 and 2, the mass of solute coefficient that an average value of it was reduced when
product concentration from Effect-I of forward and fouling resistance was taking into consideration which
backward simulation were 0.853558 and 0.402108 was an obvious trend.
respectively, which showed that the product
concentration was considerably less in Effect-I of Condensate leaving from each effect was
backward simulation. flashed to lower temperature to obtain vapor that would
be used as heating medium in the subsequent effects
The reduction in steam economy when along with the vapor emerging from previous effect.
compared to Effect-I of Backward simulation was lower This can be used as energy reduction scheme to reduce
which was due to the effect of Overall Heat Transfer energy demand

Fig-3: Variation of Mass Fraction of Caustic Soda with Number of Effects for Forward Feed Evaporators

© East African Scholars Publisher, Kenya 154

Wai-Ogosu et al; East African Scholars J Eng Comput Sci; Vol-3, Iss- 8 (Oct, 2020):146-156

Fig-4: Variation of Mass Fraction of Caustic Soda with Number of Effects for Backward Feed Evaporators

From outside and enhance steam economy of from previous effect, this can be used as energy
the system. In the multiple effect evaporator system, reduction scheme to reduce energy demand from
there were 3 condensate flash tanks placed in between outside and enhance steam economy of the system.
effects I, II and III. The condensate from each of the
effect entered the respective flash tanks and the flashed The easiest model of the present investigation
vapor was used as heating medium for next effects. is Effect-I, which is derived based on boundary
conditions, the solution of this model is varied with
Simulation results from Effect-III of both known values of U and area.
forward and backward feeds were developed
considering steam splitting. Total steam was split CONCLUSION
equally in 1st and 2nd Effects and entered at 90 and The main objective of this paper is to
76 respectively, the rise in evaporation rate was due demonstrate that the backward-feed multiple-effect
to larger temperature difference caused by steam evaporator is more energy efficient than the
splitting in the first two effects and the steam conventional forward-feed multiple-effect evaporator
consumption was more at 1.64kg/s, consequently steam that has the same total heating surface area and process
economy for Effect-III was reduced to 2.8. Hence, the same amount of solute. Mathematical models were
introduction of steam splitting increased evaporation developed for both evaporators for this investigation.
rate but reduced the economy of multiple effect Comparison was made between multiple effect
evaporator system because for Effect-III steam was fed evaporator systems that use the forward-feed and
to the first two effects at higher temperatures of 90 backward-feed multiple-effect evaporators. Both
and 76 . It was a fact that as steam/vapor temperature evaporators had the optimum distributions of heating
decreased, latent heat of vaporization increased, so at surface areas that yielded the maximum inlet caustic
higher temperature of the first two effects, Effect-III soda solution flow rates. Since each system consumed
gets lesser amount of vaporization heat which caused the same amount of fuel, and produced the same
higher steam flowrate. It can be seen from Table 3 that amount of product, the energy efficiency parameter was
the rate of evaporation had increased in the 3rd effect the power output.
and decreased from Effect-I and Effect-II due to the fact
that in the 3rd effect latent heat was supplied by the Hence from Table 3 steam economy
vapor streams emerging from 1st and 2nd effects ( + comparison, the forward feed simulation is more ideal
) together, however combined value of and for hot feed condition. But for practical feed condition
caused more evaporation in the entire Multiple Effect of dilute caustic soda stored at room temperature, the
Evaporator (MEE) system. backward feed simulation finds more relevance in this
respect leading to better steam economy and also cost
Steam is split equally in 1st and 2nd effects and saving in feed preheating for use in forward feed.
enters these effects at 900C & 760C as the data is used Computational aspects associated with the
to compute liquor flow rate, this is because steam is fed numerical solution of model equations of multiple
to the first two effects at higher temperatures. It is a fact effect evaporator system by Newton Raphson method
that as temperature of steam/vapour decreases latent have been studied. It has been found that the
heat of vaporization increases. Condensate leaving computation should be done using double precision
effect II is flashed to lower temperature to obtain arithmetic in order to obtain the converged solution. In
vapour that can be used as heating medium in the the process, empirical correlations for the enthalpy of
subsequent effects along with the vapour emerging steam condensate and caustic soda solution have also

© East African Scholars Publisher, Kenya 155

Wai-Ogosu et al; East African Scholars J Eng Comput Sci; Vol-3, Iss- 8 (Oct, 2020):146-156

been developed. A new arrangement of model equations 12. Ghosh, P., & Lamb, F. K. (1979). Accretion by
is taking into consideration whereby the number of rotating magnetic neutron stars. III-Accretion
model equations can be reduced from 12 to 5, which torques and period changes in pulsating X-ray
possesses a number of distinct merits over the previous sources. The Astrophysical Journal, 234, 296-316.
one and can be applied to other multiple effect 13. Veeramani, K. (1979). Periyar and his
evaporator systems. Therefore, the backward-feed Ideologies. Periyar Self-respect Propaganda
multiple effect evaporators were responsible for more Institution, Chennai.
energy efficiency in this MEE system compared with 14. Agawal, V. K. (1992). Energy Conservation in
the Forward-Feed Multiple Effect Evaporator systems. Multiple Effect Evaporators, Ph.D Thesis,
University of Roorkee, Roorkee, India
REFERENCES 15. Kumar, D.V., & Singh, V. (2010). To study the
1. Standiford, T. J., & Huffnagle, G. B. (1997). parametric effects on optimality of various feeding
Cytokines in host defense against sequences of multiple effect evaporation in paper
pneumonia. Journal of investigative medicine: the industry using mathematical modeling and
official publication of the American Federation for simulation with MAICAAB, word Academy of
Clinical Research, 45(6), 335. science, Engineering and Technology 72, 114-121.
2. Bhargava, R., Khanam, S., Mohanty, B., & Ray, A. 16. PZ Industry PLC, Aba. Abia State. (2010). Nigeria,
K. (2008). Simulation of flash falling film Operational Manual.
evaporator system for concentration of Black
liquor, computes and Chemical Engineering 32, NOTATIONS
3213-3223.43 IN = Input Term
3. Urbaniec, K., Zalewski, P., & Zhu, X. X. (2000). A GEN = Generation term
decomposition approach for retrofit design of Out = Output term
energy systems in the sugar industry. Applied ACC = Accumulation term
DEPL = Depletion Term
thermal engineering, 20(15-16), 1431-1442. Q = Heat Term, kJ
4. Chen, T., & Ruan, Q. (2009). Modelling and W = Work Term, kJ
Energy reduction of Multiple Effect Evaporator = Latent heat of steam, kJ/kg
System with Thermal Vapour Compression. Comp. U = Overall heat transfer coefficient,
Chem. Eng., 515-522 W/m2 OC
5. Palacios-Bereche, R., Ensinas, A., Modesto, M., & TE, τ = Solution Temperature, OC
Nebra, S. A. (2014). New alternatives for the α = relaxation parameter
fermentation process in the ethanol production T = Saturation temperature, OC
from sugarcane: Extractive and low temperature = Mass fraction of caustic soda
solution
fermentation. Energy, 70, 595-604.
H = Vapour enthalpy, kj/kg
6. Radovic, L., Tasic, A., Grozdanic, D., Djordjevic, H = Liquid Enthalpy, kJ/kg
B. D., & Valent, V. J. (1979). Computer design and F = Feed flow rate, kg/hr
analysis of operation of a multiple-effect L = Process liquor flowrate, kg/hr
evaporator system in the sugar industry. Industrial A = Heat transfer area, m2
& Engineering Chemistry Process Design and = Temperature Drop, OC
Development, 18(2), 318-323. Z = Evaporator cost per unit heating
7. Newell, A. (1980). Physical symbol surface are
systems. Cognitive science, 4(2), 135-183. P = Pressure, kPa
X = Variable
8. Kumar, S. & Zain, O. S. (1996). Simulation of
V = Vapour flowrate, kj/hr
Multiple Effect Evaporators for concentrating Hj = Vapour enthalpy of effect j,
caustic soda solution-computational aspects, chem. kJ/kg
Eng. J. of Japan, 29(5), 889-893. BPE = Boiling Point Elevation, OC
9. Miranda, V., & Simpson, R. (2005). Modeling and
simulation of an industrial multiple effect Subscripts
evaporator: Tomato concentrate, Journal of food N = Number of evaporator effects
Engineering 66, 92, 203-210. 0 = Steam stream to effect 1
10. Vazquez-Rojas, R. A., Garfias-Vazquez, F. J. E = Evaporator effect
P = Product
Bazua-Rueda E. R. Simulation of Tripple Effect
Evaporator of a solution of caustic soda, Sodium = feed function
f
chloride and Sodium Sulfate using Aspen plus. J=1, N = Evaporator effect number
Comp. Chem. Eng. 2018, 112, 265-273 Av = Average
11. Holland, J. H., & Miller, J. H. (1991). Artificial C = Condensate
adaptive agents in economic theory. The American t = Total
Economic Review, 81(2), 365-370.

© East African Scholars Publisher, Kenya 156