Turton 1+2-b4

Chen CL 1
Turton/Bailie/Whiting/Shaeiwitz: Analysis, Synthesis, and Design of Chemical Processes

Chapters 1, 2
The Structure and Synthesis

of Process Flow Diagrams
Diagrams for Understanding
Chemical Processes
Cheng-Liang Chen
PSE
LABORATORY
Department of Chemical Engineering
National TAIWAN University
Chen CL 2 Chen CL 3
Block Flow Process Diagram

A Block Flow Diagram (BFD) Drawn for A Single Process
Production of Benzene via the Hydrodealkylation of Toluene
C7H8 + H2 −→ C6H6 + CH4
The most effective way of Compound BP (oC)

communicating information about a process Hydrogen H2 −253
is through the use of flow diagrams Methane CH4 −164
Benzene 80.1
Toluene 110.6
Chen CL 4 Chen CL 5
Block Flow Process Diagram Block Flow Process Diagram

A Block Flow Diagram (BFD) Drawn for A Single Process A Block Flow Diagram (BFD) Drawn for A Single Process
Production of Benzene via the Hydrodealkylation of Toluene Production of Benzene via the Hydrodealkylation of Toluene
C7H8 + H2 −→ C6H6 + CH4 C7H8 + H2 −→ C6H6 + CH4
Chen CL 6 Chen CL 7
BFD BFD ⇒ Skeleton PFD

A Block Flow Diagram (BFD) Drawn for A Single Process A Skeleton Process Flow Diagram Drawn for A Single Process
Production of Benzene via the Hydrodealkylation of Toluene Production of Benzene via the Hydrodealkylation of Toluene
C7H8 + H2 −→ C6H6 + CH4 C7H8 + H2 −→ C6H6 + CH4
Chen CL 8 Chen CL 9
BFD ⇒ Skeleton PFD ⇒ PFD Process Flow Diagram

A Process Flow Diagram (PFD) Drawn for A Single Process Symbols for Drawing Process Flow Diagrams
C7H8 + H2 −→ C6H6 + CH4
Chen CL 10 Chen CL 11
Process Flow Diagram Process Flow Diagram

Conventions Used for Identifying Process Equipment Conventions Used for Identifying Process Equipment
Process Streams
All conventions shown in Table 1.1 apply.
Equipment General format XX-YZZ A/B Diamond symbol located in flow lines.
XX are identification letters for equipment classification Numerical identification (unique for that stream) inserted in diamond.
Flow direction shown by arrows on flow lines.
C - Compressor or Turbine (C-101A/B)
Utility Streams
E - Heat Exchanger (E-106) lps Low-pressure Steam: 3-5 barg (sat)
H - Fired Heater (H-101) mps Medium-pressure Steam: 10-15 barg (sat)
hps High-pressure Steam: 40-50 barg (sat)
P - Pump (P-102A/B)
htm Heat Transfer Media (Organic): to 400oC
R - Reactor (R-101) cw Cooling Water: From cooling tower 30oC returned at less than 45oC
T - Tower (T-101) wr River Water: From river 25oC returned at less than 35oC
rw Refrigerated Water: In at 5oC returned at less than 15oC
TK - Storage Tank rb Refrigerated Brine: In at −45oC returned at less than 0oC
V - Vessel (V-104) cs Chemical Waste Water with high COD
Y designates an area within the plant ss Sanitary Waste Water with high BOD, etc.
el Electric Heat (specify 220, 440, 660V service)
ZZ is number designation for each item in an equipment class ng Natural Gas
A/B identifies parallel units or backup units fg Fuel Gas
fo Fuel Oil
Supplemental Information Additional description of equipment given on top of PFD fw Fire Water
Process Flow Diagram The summary table for the Benzene process
Stream 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Information Provided in a Flow Summary Temp (o C) 25. 59. 25. 225. 41. 600. 41. 38. 654. 90.
Required Information Pressure (bar) 1.90 25.8 25.5 25.2 25.5 25.0 25.5 23.9 24.0 2.6
Stream Number Vapor Fraction 0.0 0.0 1.00 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.0
Temperature (oC) Flow (ton/h) 10.0 13.3 0.82 20.5 6.41 20.5 0.36 9.2 20.9 11.6
Pressure (bar) Flow (kmol/h) 108.7 144.2 301.0 1204.4 758.8 1204.4 42.6 1100.8 1247.0 142.2
Vapor Fraction Component Mole Flow (kmol/h)
Total Mass Flowrate (kg/h) Hydrogen 0.0 0.0 286.0 735.4 449.4 735.4 25.2 651.9 652.6 0.02
Total Mole Flowrate (kmol/h) Methane 0.0 0.0 15.0 317.3 302.2 317.3 16.95 438.3 442.3 0.88
Individual Component Flowrates (kmol/h) Benzene 0.0 1.0 0.0 7.6 6.6 7.6 0.37 9.55 116.0 106.3
Optional Information Toluene 108.7 143.2 0.0 144.0 0.7 144.0 0.04 1.05 36.0 35.0
Component Mole Fractions Stream 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 —
Component Mass Fractions Temp (o C) 147. 112. 112. 112. 38. 38. 38. 38. 112. -.-
Individual Component Flowrates (kg/h) Pressure (bar) 2.8 3.3 2.5 3.3 2.3 2.5 2.8 2.9 2.5 -.-
Volumetric Flowrates (m3/h) Vapor Fraction 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 0.0 1.0 -.-
Significant Physical Properties Flow (ton/h) 3.27 14.0 22.7 22.7 8.21 2.61 0.07 11.5 0.01 -.-
Density, Viscosity, Other Flow (kmol/h) 35.7 185.2 290.7 290.7 105.6 304.2 4.06 142.2 0.90 -.-
Thermodynamic Data Component Mole Flow (kmol/h)
Heat Capacity, Stream Enthalpy Hydrogen 0.0 0.0 0.02 0.0 0.0 178.0 0.67 0.02 0.02 -.-
K-values Methane 0.0 0.0 0.88 0.0 0.0 123.05 3.10 0.88 0.88 -.-
Stream Name Benzene 1.1 184.3 289.46 289.46 105.2 2.85 0.26 106.3 0.0 -.-
Toluene 34.6 0.88 1.22 1.22 0.4 0.31 0.03 35.0 0.0 -.-
Equipment Summary Equipment Summary

for Toluene Hydrodealkylation PFD for Toluene Hydrodealkylation PFD
Heat Exchangers E-101 E-102 E-103 E-104 E-105 E-106 Pumps/ P-101 P-102 C-101
Compressors (A/B) (A/B) (A/B) Heater H-101
Type Fl.H. Fl.H. MDP Fl.H. MDP Fl.H.
Flow (kg/h) 13,000 22,700 6770 Type Fired
Area (m2 ) 36 763 11 35 12 80
Duty (MJ/h) 15,190 46,660 1055 8335 1085 9045 Fluid Density (kg/m3 ) 870 880 8.02 MOC 316SS
Power (shaft) (kW) 14.2 3.2 49.1 Duty (MJ/h) 27,040
Shell
Type/Drive Recip./ Centrf./ Centrf./ Radiant Area 106.8
Temp. (o C) 225 654 160 112 112 185 Type/Drive Electric Electric Electric (m2 )
Pres. (bar) 26 24 6 3 3 11 Efficiency (Fluid 0.75 0.50 0.75 Convective 320.2
Phase Vap. Par. Cond. Cond. Cond. l Cond. Power/Shaft Power) Area (m2 )
MOC 316SS 316SS CS CS CS CS MOC CS CS CS Tube P (bar) 26.0
Tube Temp. (in) (o C) 55 112 38
Temp. (o C) 258 40 90 40 40 147 Pres. (in) (bar) 1.2 2.2 23.9
Pres. (bar) 42 3 3 3 3 3 Pres. (out) (bar) 27.0 4.4 25.5
Phase Cond. l l l l Vap. Key:
MOC 316SS 316SS CS CS CS CS MOC Materials of construction Par Partial
Vessels/Tower/ 316SS Stainless steel type 316 F.H. Fixed head
Reactors V-101 V-102 V-103 V-104 T-101 R-101 CS Carbon steel Fl.H. Floating head
Temp (o C) 55 38 38 112 147 660 Vap Stream being vaporized Rbl Reboiler
Pressure (bar) 2.0 24 3.0 2.5 3.0 25 Cond Stream being condensed s.p. Splash plate
Orientation Horizn’l Vertical Vertical Horizn’l Vertical Vertical Recipr. Reciprocating l Liquid
MOC CS CS CS CS CS 316SS MDP Multiple double pipe Centrf. Centrifugal
Size
Height/Length (m) 5.9 3.5 3.5 3.9 29 14.2
Diameter (m) 1.9 1.1 1.1 1.3 1.5 2.3
42 catalyst
Internals s.p. s.p. sieve packed
trays bed-10m
316SS
Process Flow Diagram BFD ⇒ Skeleton PFD ⇒ PFD

Example 1.2: Check Overall Material Balance A Process Flow Diagram (PFD) Drawn for A Single Process
Check the overall material balance for the benzene process shown in
C7H8 + H2 −→ C6H6 + CH4
Figure 1.3 (PFD). From the figure, we identify the input streams as
Stream 1 (toluene feed) and Stream 3 (hydrogen feed) and the
output streams as Stream 15 (product benzene) and Stream 16 (fuel
gas). From the flow summary table, these flows are listed as (units
are in (103 kg)/h):
Input Output
Stream 3 0.82 Stream 15 8.21
Stream 1 10.00 Stream 16 2.61
3
Total 10.82 × 10 kg/h Total 10.82 × 103 kg/h
Balance is achieved since Output = Input.
The summary table for the Benzene process Process Flow Diagram
Stream 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Temp (o C) 25. 59. 25. 225. 41. 600. 41. 38. 654. 90. Example 1.3: Check Species Conversion
Pressure (bar) 1.90 25.8 25.5 25.2 25.5 25.0 25.5 23.9 24.0 2.6 Determine the conversion per pass of toluene to benzene in R-101 in
Vapor Fraction 0.0 0.0 1.00 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.0
Flow (ton/h) 10.0 13.3 0.82 20.5 6.41 20.5 0.36 9.2 20.9 11.6
Figure 1.3. Conversion is defined as
Flow (kmol/h) 108.7 144.2 301.0 1204.4 758.8 1204.4 42.6 1100.8 1247.0 142.2
Component Mole Flow (kmol/h) benzene produced
ε=
Hydrogen 0.0 0.0 286.0 735.4 449.4 735.4 25.2 651.9 652.6 0.02
total toluene introduced
Methane 0.0 0.0 15.0 317.3 302.2 317.3 16.95 438.3 442.3 0.88
Benzene 0.0 1.0 0.0 7.6 6.6 7.6 0.37 9.55 116.0 106.3
From the PFD, the input streams to R-101 are shown as Stream 6
Toluene 108.7 143.2 0.0 144.0 0.7 144.0 0.04 1.05 36.0 35.0
Stream 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 — (reactor feed) and Stream 7 (recycle gas quench), and the output
Temp (o C) 147. 112. 112. 112. 38. 38. 38. 38. 112. -.- stream is Stream 9 (reactor effluent stream).From the information in
Pressure (bar) 2.8 3.3 2.5 3.3 2.3 2.5 2.8 2.9 2.5 -.-
Vapor Fraction 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 0.0 1.0 -.-
Table 1.5 (units are kmol/h):
Flow (ton/h) 3.27 14.0 22.7 22.7 8.21 2.61 0.07 11.5 0.01 -.-
Flow (kmol/h) 35.7 185.2 290.7 290.7 105.6 304.2 4.06 142.2 0.90 -.- toluene introduced = 144 (Stream 6) + 0.04 (Stream 7) = 144.04 kmol/h
Component Mole Flow (kmol/h)
Hydrogen 0.0 0.0 0.02 0.0 0.0 178.0 0.67 0.02 0.02 -.- benzene produced = 116 (Stream 9) − 7.6 (Stream 6) − 0.37 (Stream 7)
Methane 0.0 0.0 0.88 0.0 0.0 123.05 3.10 0.88 0.88 -.-
Benzene 1.1 184.3 289.46 289.46 105.2 2.85 0.26 106.3 0.0 -.- = 108.03 kmol/h
Toluene 34.6 0.88 1.22 1.22 0.4 0.31 0.03 35.0 0.0 -.-
ε = 108.03/144.04 = 0.75

Example 1.3: Check Species Conversion Combining Topology, Stream Data, and Control Strategy
Alternatively, we can write
moles of toluene − toluene = 144.04 − 36.00

benzene = in (6+7) out (9)
produced
= 108.04 kmol/h Example 1.4
We locate Stream 1 in Figure 1.5 and note that immediately
108.04
ε = following the stream identification diamond a staff is affixed. This
144.04
staff carries three flags containing the following stream data:
= 0.75
1. Temperature of 25oC
2. Pressure of 1.9 bar
3. Mass flow rate of 10.0 × 103 kg/h
The units for each process variable are indicated in the key provided
at the lefthand side of Figure 1.5.

Combining Topology, Stream Data, and Control Strategy Combining Topology, Stream Data, and Control Strategy
Example 1.6 Example 1.7

In the benzene process, the feed to the reactor is substantially hotter The pressures of the streams to and from R-101 in the benzene
than the rest of the process and is crucial to the operation of the process are also important. The difference in pressure between the
process. In addition, the reaction is exothermic, and the reactor two streams gives the pressure drop across the reactor. This, in turn,
effluent temperature must be carefully monitored. For this reason gives an indication of any maldistribution of gas through the catalyst
Stream 6 (entering) and Stream 9 (leaving) have temperature flags. beds. For this reason, pressure flags are also included on Streams 6
and 9.
PFD ⇒ Piping and Instrumentation Diagram PFD ⇒ Piping and Instrumentation Diagram
A Process Flow Diagram (PFD) Drawn for A Single Process
C7H8 + H2 −→ C6H6 + CH4
Summary: Block Flow Process Diagram

1. Operations shown by blocks
2. Major flow lines shown with arrows giving direction of flow
3. Flow goes from left to right whenever possible
4. Light stream (gases) toward top with heavy stream (liquids and
solids) toward bottom
5. Critical information unique to process supplied
6. If lines cross, then the horizontal line is continuous and the vertical
line is broken.
7. Simplified material balance provided
Summary: Process Flow Diagram (PFD) Summary: Piping and Instrumentation Diagram
A typical commercial PFD will contain the following information: The P&ID is the last stage of process design and serves as a
guide by those who will be responsible for the final design and
1. All the major pieces of equipment in the process will be represented construction. Based on this diagram:
on the diagram along with a description of the equipment. Each
piece of equipment will have assigned a unique equipment number 1. Mechanical engineers and civil engineers will design and install
and a descriptive name. pieces of equipment.
2. All process flow streams will be shown and identified by a number. 2. Instrument engineers will specify, install, and check control systems.
A description of the process conditions and chemical composition 3. Piping engineers will develop plant layout and elevation drawings.
of each stream will be included. These data will be displayed
either directly on the PFD or included in an accompanying flow 4. Project engineers will develop plant and construction schedules.
summary table.
Before final acceptance, P&IDs serve as a checklist against which
3. All utility streams supplied to major equipment that provides a each item in the plant is checked.
process function will be shown.
4. Basic control loops, illustrating the control strategy used to operate
the process during normal operations, will be shown.
The Structure and Synthesis The evolution of every process follows a similar path.
The resulting processes will often be quite different,
of Process Flow Diagrams but the series of steps that have been followed to
produce the final processes are similar.
Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design

1. Decide whether the process will be batch Step 1 — Batch vs. Continuous Process
or continuous.
Factor Batch Processes Continuous Processes
Size Smaller throughput favors batch Economies of scale favor
2. Identify the input-output structure of the
operations. As throughput continuous processes for large
process. increases, the required size of throughput.
the process equipment increases,
3. Identify and define the recycle structure and the technical difficulties
of moving large amounts of
of the process. chemicals from equipment to
equipment rapidly increase.
4. Identify and design the general structure of
the separation system.
5. Identify and design the heat-exchanger

network or process energy recovery
system.

Step 1 — Batch vs. Continuous Process Step 1 — Batch vs. Continuous Process
Factor Batch Processes Continuous Processes Factor Batch Processes Continuous Processes
Batch When the product quality of Continuous or periodic testing of Operational Often the same equipment can Operational flexibility can be
Accountability/ each batch of material must product quality is carried out, but Flexibility be used for multiple operations, built in to continuous processes
Product be verified and certified, batch some potentially large quantities for example, a stirred tank can be but often leads to inefficient
Quality operations are preferred. This is of off-specification product can used as a mixer, then a reactor, use of capital. Equipment not
especially true for pharmaceutical be produced. If off-specification then as a stage of a mixer-settler required for one process but
and food products. If reworking material may be blended or stored for liquid-liquid extraction. needed for another may sit idle
(reprocessing) of off-specification in dump/slop tanks and reworked for months. Often continuous
product is not permitted, small through the process when the processes are designed to
batches are favored. schedule permits, continuous produce a fixed suite of
processes are favored. products from a well-defined
feed material. If market
forces change the feed/product
availability/demand, then the
plant will often be “retrofitted”
to accommodate the change.

Standardized Often batch processes can The product suite or slate Processing Operation of batch processes requires Generally, as throughput
Equipment– be easily modified to produce produced from continuous Efficiency strict scheduling and control. Because increases, continuous processes
Multiple several different products using processes is usually fixed. different products are scheduled back- become more efficient. For
Products essentially the same equipment. Equipment tends to be designed to-back, changes in schedules have a example, fugitive energy
Examples of batch plants that and optimized for a single ripple effect and may cause serious losses are reduced, and
can produce 100 different or small number of operating problems with product availability for rotating equipment (pumps,
products are known [3]. For such conditions. customers. If the same equipment compressors, etc.) operate
processes the optimal control is used to produce many different with higher efficiency. Recycle
and sequencing of operations are products, then this equipment will not of unused reactants and the
critical to the success of such a be optimized for any one product. integration of energy within
plant. Energy integration is usually not the process or plant is standard
possible, so utility usage tends to be practice and relatively easy to
higher than for continuous processes. achieve.
Separation and reuse of raw materials
is more difficult than for continuous
processes.

Maintenance There are higher operating labor For the same process, operating Feedstock Batch operations are favored Continuous plants tend to be
and costs in standard batch plants labor will be lower for continuous Availability when feedstock availability is large and need to operate
Operating due to equipment cleaning and processes. limited, for example, seasonally. throughout the year to be
Labor preparation time. These costs Canneries and wineries are profitable. The only way that
have been shown to be reduced examples of batch processing seasonal variations in feeds can
for the so-called “pipeless batch facilities that often operate for be accommodated is through the
plants” [4]. only part of the year. use of massive storage facilities
that are very expensive.

Product Seasonal demand for products Difficult to make other products Rate of Batch operations favor processes Very slow reactions require very
Demand such as fertilizers, gas-line during the “offseason.” However, Reaction that have very slow reaction large equipment. The flow
antifreeze, deicing chips for roads similar but different products, for to Produce rates and subsequently require through this equipment will be
and pavements, and so on, can be example, a family of solvents, Products long residence times. Examples slow and dispersion can be a
easily accommodated. Because can be produced using the same include fermentation, aerobic and problem if very high conversion is
batch plants are flexible, other processes through a series of anaerobic wastewater treatment, desired and plug flow is required.
products can be made during the “campaigns” at different times and many other biological
“off-season.” during the year. Each campaign reactions.
may last several months.

Equipment When there is significant Significant fouling in continuous Safety Generally, worker exposure to Large chemical plants operating
Fouling equipment fouling, batch operations is a serious problem chemicals and operator error continuously have excellent
operations are favored because and is difficult to handle. will be higher (per pound of safety records, [6], and safety
cleaning of equipment is always Operating identical units in product) than for continuous procedures are well established.
a standard operating procedure parallel, one on-line and the other processes. Operator training Operator training is still of great
in a batch process and can be off-line for cleaning, can solve in chemical exposure and importance, but many of the
accommodated easily in the this problem. However, capital equipment operation is critical. risks associated with opening
scheduling of the process. investment is higher, additional equipment containing chemicals
labor is required, and safety are eliminated.
problems are more likely.

Step 1 — Batch vs. Continuous Process Step 2 — Process Input-Output Structure
Process Concept Diagram
Factor Batch Processes Continuous Processes A diagram uses the stoichiometry of the main reaction pathway to
Controllability This problem arises because Generally, continuous processes identify the feed and product chemicals.
batch processes often use the are easier to control. Also, more
same equipment for different unit work/research has been done for
operations and sometimes to these processes. For complicated
The toluene hydrodealkylation process
produce different products. The and highly integrated (energy
efficient scheduling of equipment and/or raw materials) plants, the
becomes very important. The control becomes complex, and
control used for this scheduling is operational flexiblity is greatly
complicated, [3]. reduced.

Step 2 — Process Input-Output Structure Step 2 — Process Input-Output Structure
Generic Block Flow Process Diagram Generic Block Flow Process Diagram
This chemical process broken down into six basic areas or blocks ➢ Reactor feed preparation block:
Each block provides a function necessary for the operation of the In most cases, the feed chemicals entering a process come from storage. These
process. chemicals are most often not at a suitable concentration, temperature, and
pressure for optimal performance in the reactor.
GBFPD for toluene hydrodealkylation process The purpose of the reactor feed preparation section is to change the conditions
of these process feed streams as required in the reactor.
➢ Reactor block:
All chemical reactions take place in this block. The streams leaving this block
contain the desired product(s), any unused reactants, and a variety of undesired
by-products produced by competing reactions.
➢ Separator feed preparation block:
The output stream from the reactor, in general, is not at a condition suitable
for the effective separation of products, byproducts, waste streams, and unused
feed materials.
The units contained in the separator feed preparation block alter the temperature
and pressure of the reactor output stream to provide the conditions required for
the effective separation of these chemicals.

Generic Block Flow Process Diagram Process Flow Diagram
➢ Separator block: The PFD, by convention, shows the process feed stream(s) entering
The separation of products, by-products, waste streams, and unused feed from the left and the process product stream(s) leaving to the right.
materials is accomplished via a wide variety of physical processes, such as
distillation, absorption, and extraction.
Toluene hydrodealkylation process
➢ Recycle block:
The recycle block represents the return of unreacted feed chemicals, separated
from the reactor effluent, back to the reactor for further reaction. Normally,
the only equipment in this block is a pump or compressor and perhaps a heat
exchanger.
➢ Environmental control block:
Virtually all chemical processes produce waste streams. These include gases,
liquids, and solids that must be treated prior to being discharged into the
atmosphere or sequestered in landfills, and so on.
The purpose of the environmental control block is to reduce significantly the
waste emissions from a process and to render all nonproduct streams harmless
to the environment.

Utility Streams Other Considerations: Feed Purity and Trace Components
Utility streams, such as cooling water, steam, fuel, and electricity,
➢ In general, the feed streams entering a process do not contain pure
rarely directly contact the process streams. They usually provide or
chemicals. The option always exists to purify further the feed to
remove thermal energy or work.
the process. (Q: Purification before feeding ?)
Utility streams for Toluene hydrodealkylation process
➢ The question of whether this purification step should be performed
can only be answered by a detailed economic analysis.
➢ However, some common-sense heuristics may be used to choose
a good base case or starting point. The following heuristics are
modified from Douglas (1988).

Heuristics: Feed Purity and Trace Components Heuristics: Feed Purity and Trace Components
➢ If the impurities are not present in large quantities (say < 10 ∼ ➢ If the impurities foul or poison the catalyst, then purify the feed.
20%) and these impurities do not react to form by-products, then For example, one of the most common catalyst poisons is sulfur. This is
do not separate them prior to feeding to the process. especially true for catalysts containing Group VIII metals such as iron, cobalt,
For example, the hydrogen fed to the toluene HDA process contains a small nickel, palladium, and platinum [7]. In the steam reformation of natural gas
amount of methane (5 mol%–see “Stream 3 in Table 1.5”). Since the methane (methane) to produce hydrogen, the catalyst is rapidly poisoned by the small
does not react (it is inert) and it is present as a small quantity, it is probably amounts of sulfur in the feed. A guard bed of activated carbon (or zinc oxide)
not worth considering separating it from the hydrogen. is placed upstream of the reactor to reduce the sulfur level in the natural gas to
the low ppm level.
➢ If the separation of the impurities is difficult (for example, an
impurity forms an azeotrope with the feed or the feed is a gas at ➢ If the impurity reacts to form difficult-to-separate or hazardous
the feed conditions), then do not separate them prior to feeding to products, then purify the feed.
the process. For example, in the manufacture of isocyanates for use in the production
For example, again consider the methane in Stream 3. The separation of of polyurethanes, the most common synthesis path involves the reaction of
methane and hydrogen is relatively expensive (see “Example 2.3”) because it phosgene with the appropriate amine [8]. Because phosgene is a highly toxic
involves low temperature and/or high pressure. This fact, coupled with the chemical, all phosgene is manufactured on-site via the reaction of chlorine and
reasons given above, means that separation of the feed would not normally be carbon monoxide.
attempted. CO + Cl2 −→ COCl2 (phosgene)

Heuristics: Feed Purity and Trace Components Heuristics: Feed Purity and Trace Components
If carbon monoxide is not readily available (by pipeline), then it must be ➢ If the impurity is present in large quantities, then purify the feed.
manufactured via the steam reformation of natural gas. The following equation This heuristic is fairly obvious as significant additional work and heating/cooling
shows the overall main reaction (carbon dioxide may also be formed in the duties are required to process the large amount of impurity. Nevertheless, if the
process but it is not considered here): separation is difficult and the impurity acts as an inert, then separation may still
not be warranted. An obvious example is the use of air, rather than pure oxygen,
CH4 + H2O → CO + 3H2 as a reactant. Because nitrogen often acts as an inert compound, the extra cost
of purifying the air is not justified compared with the lesser expense of processing
the nitrogen through the process. An added advantage of using air, as opposed
The question to ask is, at what purity must the carbon monoxide be fed to the to pure oxygen, is the heat absorbing capacity of nitrogen, which helps moderate
phosgene unit? The answer depends on what happens to the impurities in the the temperature rise of many highly exothermic oxidation reactions.
CO. The main impurity is hydrogen. The hydrogen reacts with the chlorine to
form hydrogen chloride that is difficult to remove from the phosgene, is highly
corrosive, and is detrimental to the isocyanate product. With this information,
it makes more sense to remove the hydrogen to the desired level in the carbon
monoxide stream rather than send it through with the CO and cause more
separation problems in the phosgene unit and further downstream. Acceptable
hydrogen levels in carbon monoxide feeds to phosgene units are less than 1%.

Addition of Feeds Required to Stabilize Products or Enable Separations Inert Feed Material to Control Exothermic Reactions
➢ Generally, product specifications are given as a series of characteristics that the
➢ In some cases, it may be necessary to add additional inert feed streams to the
product stream must meet or exceed. Clearly, the purity of the main chemical in
process in order to control the reactions taking place. Common examples of this
the product is the major concern. However, other specifications such as color,
are partial oxidation reactions of hydrocarbons.
density or specific gravity, turbidity, and so on, may also be specified.
➢ For example, consider the partial oxidation of propylene to give acrylic acid, an
➢ Often many of these specifications can be met in a single piece or train of
important chemical in the production of acrylic polymers. The feeds consist of
separation equipment. However, if the product stream is, for example, reactive
nearly pure propylene, air, and steam. The basic reactions that take place are:
or unstable, then additional stabilizing chemicals may need to be added to the
product prior to it going to storage. These stabilizing chemicals are additional
3
feed streams to the process. C3H6 + 2 O2 → C3H4O2 + H2O Reaction 1
5
C3H6 + 2 O2 → C2H4O2 + H2O + CO2 Reaction 2
➢ The same argument can be made for other chemicals such as solvent or catalyst
9
that are effectively consumed in the process. If a solvent such as water or C3H6 + 2 O2 → 3H2O + CO2 Reaction 3
an organic chemical is required to make a separation take place, for example,
absorption of a solvent-soluble chemical from a gas stream, then this solvent
All these reactions are highly exothermic, not limited by equilibrium, and
is an additional feed to the process. Accounting for these chemicals both in
potentially explosive. In order to eliminate or reduce the potential for explosion,
feed costs and in the overall material balance (in the product streams) is very
steam is fed to the reactor to dilute the feed and provide thermal ballast to
important.
absorb the heat of reaction and make control easier.

Inert Feed Material to Control Exothermic Reactions Inert Feed Material to Control Equilibrium Reactions
➢ In some processes, enough steam (or other inert stream) is added to move the ➢ Sometimes it is necessary to add an inert material to shift the equilibrium of the
reaction mixture out of the flammability limits, thus eliminating the potential for desired reaction.
explosion. The steam (or other inert stream) is considered a feed to the process, Consider the production of styrene via the catalytic dehydrogenation of ethyl
must be separated, and leaves as a product, by-product, or waste stream. benzene:
C6H5CH2CH3 C6H5CH=CH2 + H2
ethyl benzene styrene
This reaction takes place at high temperature (600 ∼ 750oC) and low pressure
(< 1 bar) and is limited by equilibrium. The ethyl benzene is co-fed to the reactor
with superheated steam. The steam acts as an inert in the reaction and both
provides the thermal energy required to preheat the ethyl benzene and dilutes
the feed. As the steam to ethyl benzene ratio increases, the equilibrium shifts
to the right (LeChatelier’s principle) and the singlepass conversion increases.
The optimum steam-to-ethyl benzene feed ratio is based on the overall process
economics.

What Information Can Be Determined? The Profit Margin
The following basic information, obtained from the input-output diagram, is Ex: Evaluate the profit margin for the HDA process
limited but nevertheless very important. The toluene hydrodealkylation process
➢ Basic economic analysis on profit margin

➢ What chemical components must enter with the feed and leave as products
➢ All the reactions, both desired and undesired, that take place
The potential profitability of a proposed process can be evaluated and a decision Prices for raw materials and products:
whether to pursue the process can be made.
Benzene = $0.657/kg
Toluene = $0.648/kg
Natural gas (methane and ethane, MW = 18) = $11.10/GJ

= $11.89/1000 std. ft3 = $0.302/kg Hydrogen = $1.000/kg
(based on the same equivalent energy cost as natural gas)

Step 2 — Process Input-Output Structure Step 3 — The Recycle Structure of the Process
The Profit Margin
Ex: Evaluate the profit margin for the HDA process ➢ This step basically involves the recovery of materials and energy
Using 1 kmol (92 kg) of toluene feed as a basis: from the process. It may be instructive to break down the operating
costs for a typical chemical process.
Cost of Raw Materials
➢ Peters and Timmerhaus suggest that raw materials make up
92 kg of Toluene = (92kg)($0.648/kg) = $59.62
between 10% and 50% of the total operating costs for processing
2 kg of Hydrogen = (2kg)($1.000/kg) = $2.00
Value of Products
plants; however, due to increasing conservation and waste
78 kg of Benzene = (78kg)($0.657/kg) = $51.25
minimization techniques this estimate may be low, and an upper
16 kg of Methane = (16kg)($0.302/kg) = $4.83 limit of 75% is more realistic.
Profit Margin ➢ Because these raw materials are so valuable, it is imperative that
Profit Margin = (51.25 + 4.83) − (59.62 + 2.00) we be able to separate and recycle unused reactants.
= −$5.54 or − $0.060/kg toluene
➢ The extent of recycling of unused reactants depends largely on the
Based on this result, we conclude that further investigation of this process is ease with which these unreacted raw materials can be separated
definitely not warranted. (and purified) from the products that are formed within the reactor.

Step 3 — The Recycle Structure of the Process Step 3 — The Recycle Structure of the Process
Efficiency of Raw Material Usage Efficiency of Raw Material Usage
Single-pass Conversion = reactant consumed in reaction
reactant fed to the reactor
C7H8 + H2 −→ C6H6 + CH4
reactant consumed in process
Overall Conversion = reactant fed to the process
moles of reactant to produce desired product
Yield = moles of limiting reactant reacted
Benzene Process: (for the most costly reactant, toluene)

144.0 − 36.0
Single-pass Conversion = = 0.75 or 75%
144.0
108.7 − 0.4 − 0.31
Overall Conversion = = 0.993 or 99.3%
108.7
105.2 + 2.85
Yield = = 0.9995 or 99.95%
108.7 − 0.4 − 0.31
The summary table for the Benzene process Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design
Stream 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Temp (o C) 25. 59. 25. 225. 41. 600. 41. 38. 654. 90. Step 3 — The Recycle Structure of the Process
Pressure (bar) 1.90 25.8 25.5 25.2 25.5 25.0 25.5 23.9 24.0 2.6 Efficiency of Raw Material Usage
Vapor Fraction 0.0 0.0 1.00 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.0
Flow (ton/h) 10.0 13.3 0.82 20.5 6.41 20.5 0.36 9.2 20.9 11.6
Flow (kmol/h) 108.7 144.2 301.0 1204.4 758.8 1204.4 42.6 1100.8 1247.0 142.2 Benzene Process: (for the second reactant, hydrogen)
Hydrogen 0.0 0.0 286.0 735.4 449.4 735.4 25.2 651.9 652.6 0.02 735.4 − 652.6
Single-pass Conversion = = 0.113 or 11.3%
Methane 0.0 0.0 15.0 317.3 302.2 317.3 16.95 438.3 442.3 0.88
735.4
Benzene 0.0 1.0 0.0 7.6 6.6 7.6 0.37 9.55 116.0 106.3
286.0 − 178.0
Toluene 108.7 143.2 0.0 144.0 0.7 144.0 0.04 1.05 36.0 35.0
Overall Conversion = = 0.378 or 37.8%
Stream 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 — 286.0
Temp (o C) 147. 112. 112. 112. 38. 38. 38. 38. 112. -.-
Pressure (bar) 2.8 3.3 2.5 3.3 2.3 2.5 2.8 2.9 2.5 -.- ➢ The single-pass conversion is kept low because a high hydrogen-to-hydrocarbon
Vapor Fraction 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 0.0 1.0 -.- ratio is desired everywhere in the reactor so as to avoid coking of the catalyst.
Flow (ton/h) 3.27 14.0 22.7 22.7 8.21 2.61 0.07 11.5 0.01 -.-
Flow (kmol/h) 35.7 185.2 290.7 290.7 105.6 304.2 4.06 142.2 0.90 -.- ➢ The low overall conversion of hydrogen indicates poor raw material usage!
Hydrogen 0.0 0.0 0.02 0.0 0.0 178.0 0.67 0.02 0.02 -.-
Q: Why is the material usage for toluene so much better than that of hydrogen?
Methane 0.0 0.0 0.88 0.0 0.0 123.05 3.10 0.88 0.88 -.-
How can the hydrogen usage be improved?
Benzene 1.1 184.3 289.46 289.46 105.2 2.85 0.26 106.3 0.0 -.-
⇒ These questions can be answered by looking at the ease of separation of hydrogen
Toluene 34.6 0.88 1.22 1.22 0.4 0.31 0.03 35.0 0.0 -.-
and toluene from their respective streams and leads us to investigate the recycle
structure of the process.

Identification and Definition of Recycle Structure Separate and Purify
There are basically three ways that unreacted raw materials can be recycled in
continuous processes. ➢ The decision on whether to separate the unreacted raw materials must be made
purely from economic considerations.
➢ Separate and purify unreacted feed material from products and then recycle. ➢ In general, the ease with which a given separation can be made is dependent on
➢ Recycle feed and product together and use a purge stream. two principles.
➢ Recycle feed and product together and do not use a purge stream. ☞ First, for the separation process (unit operation) being considered, what
conditions (temperature and pressure) are necessary to operate the process?
☞ Second, for the chemical species requiring separation, are the differences in
physical or chemical properties for the species, on which the separation is
based, large or small?

Separate and Purify Separate and Purify
For The Hydrodealkylation Process The Separation of Methane and Hydrogen
➢ The reactor effluent, Stream 9, is cooled and separated in a two-stage flash ➢ First look at distillation:
operation.
Normal boiling point of methane = −161oC
➢ The liquid, Stream 18, contains essentially benzene and toluene.
Normal boiling point of hydrogen = −252oC
➢ The combined vapor stream, Streams 8 and 17, contain essentially methane and
hydrogen.
Separation should be easy using distillation due to the large difference in boiling
points of the two components.
However, in order to get a liquid phase, we will have to use a combination of
high pressure and low temperature. This will be very costly and suggests that
distillation is not the best operation for this separation.

The Separation of Methane and Hydrogen The Separation of Methane and Hydrogen
➢ Absorption: ➢ Pressure-Swing Adsorption:
☞ It might be possible to absorb or scrub the methane from Streams 8 and 17 ☞ The affinity of a molecule to adhere (either chemically or physically) to a solid
into a hydrocarbon liquid. material is the basis of adsorption.
☞ In order to determine which liquids, if any, are suitable for this process, we ☞ In pressure-swing adsorption, the preferential adsorption of one species from
must compare the solubility parameters for both methane and hydrogen in the gas phase occurs at a given pressure, and the desorption of the adsorbed
the different liquids. species is facilitated by reducing the pressure and allowing the solid to “de-
☞ Because of the low boiling point of methane, it would require a low temperature gas.”
and high pressure for effective absorption. ☞ Two (or more) beds operate in parallel with one bed adsorbing and the other
desorbing.
☞ The separation and purification of hydrogen contained in gaseous hydrocarbon
streams could be carried out using pressure-swing adsorption.
☞ In this case, the methane would be preferentially adsorbed on to the surface of
a sorbent, and the stream leaving the unit would contain a higher proportion
of hydrogen than the feed.
☞ This separation could be applied to the HDA process.

The Separation of Methane and Hydrogen The Separation of Toluene and Benzene
➢ Membrane Separation: ➢ Distillation:
☞ Commercial membrane processes are available to purify hydrogen from
Normal boiling point of benzene = 79.8oC
hydrocarbon streams.
☞ This separation is facilitated because hydrogen passes more readily through Normal boiling point of toluene = 110oC
certain membranes than does methane.
☞ This process occurs at moderate pressures, consistent with the operation of Separation should be easy using distillation, and neither excessive temperatures
the HDA process. nor pressures will be needed. This is a viable operation for this separation of
☞ However, the hydrogen is recovered at a fairly low pressure and would have benzene and toluene in the HDA process.
to be recompressed prior to recycling.
☞ This separation could be applied to the HDA process.
Economic considerations often make distillation the separation
From this Example, we see that pressure-swing adsorption and membrane method of choice. The separation of benzene and toluene is
separation of the gas stream should be considered as viable process alternatives,
but for the preliminary PFD for this process, no separation of hydrogen was routinely practiced through distillation and is the preferred method
attempted. in the preliminary PFD for this process.

Recycle Feed and Product Together with a Purge Stream Recycle Feed and Product Together without a Purge Stream
If separation of unreacted feed and products is not accomplished easily, then This recycle scheme is only feasible when product can react further in reactor and
recycling both feed and product should be considered. therefore there is no need to purge it from the process. (2C6H6 C12H10 + H2)
Recycle structure of hydrogen stream. Because diphenyl reacts back to benzene, it can
Methane is purged via stream 16. be recycled without purging it from the system.

Other Issues Affecting the Recycle Structure Other Issues Affecting the Recycle Structure
How many potential recycle streams are there? How does excess reactant affect recycle structure?
Consider first the reacting species that are of value. Each reacting species that
does not have a single-pass conversion 90-99% should be considered as a potential ➢ When designing the separation of recycled raw materials, it is important to
remember which reactant, if any, should be in excess and how much this excess
recycle stream, depending on the cost of raw materials, the cost to separate and
should be.
recycle unused raw materials, and the cost of disposing of any waste streams
➢ For the toluene HDA process, the hydrogen is required to be in excess in order
containing these chemicals.
to suppress coking reactions that foul the catalyst.
➢ The result is that the hydrogen:toluene ratio at the inlet of the reactor is
735.4 : 144, or slightly greater than 5 : 1.
This means that the hydrogen recycle loop must be large, and a large recycle
compressor is required.
➢ If it were not for the fact that this ratio needs to be high, the hydrogen recycle
stream, and hence the recycle compressor, could be eliminated.

How many reactors are required? How many reactors are required?
The reasons for multiple reactors are: The reasons for multiple reactors are:
➢ Approach to equilibrium. ➢ Concentration control.

The classic example is the synthesis of ammonia from hydrogen and nitrogen. If one reactant tends to form by-products, then it may be advantageous to keep
As ammonia is produced in a packed bed reactor, the heat of reaction heats the this reactant at a low concentration. Multiple side feeds to a series of staged
products and moves the reaction closer to equilibrium. beds/reactors may be considered.
By adding additional reactants between staged packed beds arranged in series, the
➢ Optimization of conditions for multiple reactions.
concentration of the reactants is increased, and the temperature is decreased.
When several series reactions (A → R → S → T ) must take place to produce
Both these factors move the reaction away from equilibrium and allow the
the desired product (T ), and these reactions require different catalysts and/or
reaction to proceed further to produce the desired product, ammonia.
different operating conditions, then operating a series of staged reactors at
➢ Temperature control. different conditions may be warranted.
If the reaction is mildly exothermic or endothermic, then internal heat transfer
may not be warranted, and temperature control for gas-phase reactions can be
achieved by adding a “cold (or hot) shot” between staged adiabatic packed beds
of catalyst. This is similar to the ammonia converter described earlier.

Do unreacted raw material streams need to be purified prior to Is recycling of an inert warranted?
recycling?
The next issue is whether the components need to be separated prior to recycle. ➢ We next consider components in the feed streams that do not react, that is, are
inert. Depending on the process, it may be worth recycling these streams.
For example, if distillation is used to separate products from unused reactants, and
two of the reactants lie next to each other in a list of relative volatility, then no ➢ For example, consider the water feed to the absorber, Stream 8, in the acetone
production process. (not available now!) This water stream is used to absorb
separation of these products is necessary. They can be simply recycled as a mixed
trace amounts of isopropyl alcohol and acetone from the hydrogen vent, Stream
stream. 5. After purification, the water leaves the process as a wastewater stream,
Stream 15. This water has been purified in column T-1103 and contains only
trace amounts of organics.
➢ An alternative process configuration would be to recycle this water back to the
absorber.

Can recycling an unwanted product or an inert shift the reaction Can recycling an unwanted product or an inert shift the reaction
equilibrium to produce less of an unwanted product? equilibrium to produce less of an unwanted product?
➢ Another example of recycling an inert or unwanted product is when that material ➢ The resulting mixture of product gases forms the basis of the synthesis gas. The
can be used to change the conversion and selectivity of an equilibrium reaction. carbon dioxide is an unwanted by-product of the reaction and must be removed
from the product stream, usually by a physical or chemi-physical absorption
➢ For example, consider the production of synthesis gas (H2 and CO) via the
process.
partial oxidation (gasification) of coal:
➢ A viable process alternative is recycling a portion of the separated carbon dioxide
stream back to the reactor. This has the effect of pushing the equilibrium of
CmHn + m + n4 O2 → mCO + n
2 H2 O partial oxidation
2 the water-gas shift reaction to the left, thus favoring the production of carbon
CmHn + m + n4 O2 → mCO2 + n
2 H2 O complete oxidation
monoxide.
CO + H2O CO2 + H2 water-gas shift
➢ Coal, simply shown here as a mixture of carbon and hydrogen, is reacted with a
sub-stoichiometric amount of pure oxygen in a gasifier, and steam is added to
moderate the temperature.

Is recycling of an unwanted product or an inert warranted for the What phase is the recycle stream?
control of reactor operation?
➢ The phase of the stream to be recycled plays an important role in determining
➢ For highly exothermic reactions such as the partial oxidation of organic molecules, the separation and recycle structure of the process.
it is sometimes necessary to add an inert material to the reactor feed to moderate
➢ For liquids, there are concerns about azeotropes that complicate the separations
the temperature rise in the reactor and/or to move the reacting components
scheme.
outside of the explosive (flammability) limits.
➢ For gases, there are concerns about whether high pressures and/or low
➢ The most often used material for this purpose is steam, but any inert material
temperatures must be used to enable the desired separation to take place.
that is available may be considered.
➢ In either case gas compression is required, and, generally, this is an expensive
➢ For example, in the coal gasification example given earlier, steam is used to
operation.
moderate the temperature rise in the reactor.
➢ For example, the use of membrane separators or pressure-swing adsorption
➢ For the case of recycling carbon dioxide to affect the watergas shift reaction,
requires that the gas be fed at an elevated pressure to these units.
there is another potential benefit.
The recycling of carbon dioxide reduces the amount of steam needed in the ➢ If separation of a gas (vapor) is to be achieved using distillation, then a portion
feed to the reactor, because the carbon dioxide can absorb heat and reduce the of the gas must be condensed which usually requires cooling the gas significantly
temperature rise in the reactor. below ambient temperatures.

What phase is the recycle stream? What phase is the recycle stream?
➢ This cooling process generally requires the use of compressors in the refrigeration ➢ Costs of refrigeration can be found in some textbooks, and these costs increase
cycle; the lower the desired temperature, the more expensive the refrigeration. drastically as the temperature decreases.
➢ Some typical refrigerants and their range of temperature are given below. ➢ For this reason, separations of gases requiring very low temperatures are avoided
unless absolutely necessary.
Because separations of gases require expensive, low-temperature refrigeration,
they are avoided unless absolutely necessary.
Typical Temp Vapor P Critical
Refrigerant Range o C at 45o C P (bar) T (o C)
➢ Only refrigerants with critical temperatures above the typical cooling water Ethane −59 to −115 1453. 48.8 32.3
condenser temperature of 45oC can be used in single stage, noncascaded, Ethylene −59 to −115 2164. 50.3 9.3
refrigeration systems. Propane 4 to −46 15.3 42.5 96.7
Propylene 4 to −46 18.45 46.1 91.6
Therefore, such systems are usually limited to the range of −45 to −60oC (for N-Butane 16 to −12 4.35 38.0 152.0
example, propylene, propane, and methyl chloride). Ammonia 27 to −32 17.8 112.8 132.5
Carbon dioxide 4 to −50 787. 73.8 31.1
4 to −12 1.21 60.8 236.9
➢ For lower temperatures, refrigeration systems with two different refrigerants are Methylene chloride
Methyl chloride 4 to −62 9.84 66.8 143.1
required, with the lower temperature refrigerant rejecting heat to the higher R-134a (1,1,1,2- 4 to −50 11.6 40.6 101.0
tetrafluoro-ethane)
temperature refrigerant that in turn rejects heat to the cooling water. R-152a (1,1-
difluoroethane) 4 to −50 10.4 45.0 113.5
Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design

Step 4 — General Structure of Separation System
Step 5 — HEN or Process Energy Recovery System
Thank You for Your Attention

Next Lecture Questions Are Welcome

Turton 1+2-b4

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Turton 1+2-b4

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Turton 1+2-b4

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chen CL 1

Turton/Bailie/Whiting/Shaeiwitz: Analysis, Synthesis, and Design of Chemical Processes

The Structure and Synthesis

Block Flow Process Diagram

The most eﬀective way of Compound BP (oC)

Block Flow Process Diagram Block Flow Process Diagram

BFD BFD ⇒ Skeleton PFD

BFD ⇒ Skeleton PFD ⇒ PFD Process Flow Diagram

Process Flow Diagram Process Flow Diagram

Equipment Summary Equipment Summary

Process Flow Diagram BFD ⇒ Skeleton PFD ⇒ PFD

Balance is achieved since Output = Input.

Process Flow Diagram Process Flow Diagram

moles of toluene − toluene = 144.04 − 36.00

Process Flow Diagram Process Flow Diagram

Example 1.6 Example 1.7

Summary: Block Flow Process Diagram

Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design

5. Identify and design the heat-exchanger

Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design

Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design

Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design

Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design

Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design

Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design

Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design

Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design

Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design

Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design

Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design

Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design

Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design

Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design

➢ Basic economic analysis on proﬁt margin

Natural gas (methane and ethane, MW = 18) = $11.10/GJ

Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design

Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design

Benzene Process: (for the most costly reactant, toluene)

Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design

Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design

Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design

Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design

Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design

Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design

Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design

➢ Approach to equilibrium. ➢ Concentration control.

Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design

Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design

Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design

Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design

Hierarchy of Conceptual Process Design

Thank You for Your Attention

You might also like