Lecture - Chapter7 2020 Part1

Chapter 7: Radiation Dosimetry
NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

Table of Contents
F Units of exposure and dose
F Experimental methods for measuring absorbed dose.
1. Exposure measurement with free-air chamber and air-wall chamber.
2. Exposure-dose relationship
3. Direct measurement of absorbed dose: Bragg-Gray Principle
F Source strength: specific gamma-ray emission
F Beta radiation
1. Dose from contaminated surface
2. Skin contamination
3. Submersion dose
F Internally deposited radioisotopes
1. Corpuscular radiation and the specific effective energy (SEE)
2. Effective half-life
3. Total dose commitment
4. Evaluate the internal dose from gamma ray emitters
5. MIRD method – partial energy absorption of gamma ray energy in tissues
F Neutron dose

Units for Absorbed Dose
F Radiation damage depends on the energy absorption from the radiation and is
approximately proportional to the concentration of absorbed energy in tissue.
F The basic unit of radiation dose is expressed in terms of absorbed energy per
unit mass of tissue, which is called Gary (Gy)
1Gy = 1J / Kg = 100rad
where Rad stands for Radiation Absorbed Dose, which is a non - SI unit.
F The Gary is universally applicable to all types of ionizing radiation dosimetry –

irradiation due to external field of gamma rays, neutrons or charged particles as
well as that due to internally deposited radioisotopes.

The SI Unit for Exposure

F For external radiation of any given energy flux, the absorbed dose to any point
within an organism depends on the type and energy of radiation, the depth
within the organism of the point at which the absorbed dose is required and
the elemental composition of the absorbing medium at that point.
F The x-ray fields to which an organism may be exposed is normally specified in
exposure unit.
1 X unit = 1C / Kg air
F Alternatively, exposure is also measured with the unit Roentgen (R),

1 R=2.58´10-4 C×kg-1

Table of Contents
F Methods for measuring absorbed dose.
F Beta radiation
3. Submersion dose
F Neutron dose

Exposure Measurement: The Free Air Chamber
Electronic Equilibrium, or Charged-

Particle Equilibrium (CPE)
Turner, pp. 365.

Charged-Particle Equilibrium (CPE)
From <<Introduction to Radiological Physics and Radiation Dosimetry>>




Exposure Measurement: The Air Wall Chamber

Solution

Table of Contents
F Beta radiation
3. Submersion dose
F Neutron dose

Does-Exposure Relationship
F Air wall chamber measures exposure in air, which should in some instances, be
converted to the energy absorption in tissue.
F Since energy absorption is approximately proportional to the electron density

of the absorber in the energy region where exposure units are valid, the tissue
does is NOT necessarily equal to the air dose for any given exposure.

How do we convert the exposure measured with a free-air chamber to dose to

tissue exposure to the same x-ray radiation field?

exposure unit.

1 R=2.58´10-4 C×kg-1

F Another example (Cember, p178)

Chapter 4: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter
Energy Transfer by a Gamma Ray Beam
Compton All Compton scattered

gamma rays escaped
scatterin
g
Multiple Compton
scattering ignored
All characteristic
Photoelectric X-rays escaped
effect
All photoelectrons, auger
electrons and Compton recoil
electrons are absorbed
Pair production All annihilation gamma rays

escaped
What is Energy Absorption Coefficients?

The total mass energy transfer coefficient is given by
µtr t æ d ö s æ Eavg ö k æ 2mc 2 ö

= ç1 - ÷ + çç ÷÷ + çç1 - ÷÷
r r è hu ø r è hu ø rè hu ø
Consider the fraction of energy that may be carried away by the subsequent
bremsstrahlung photons, one can define the mass energy-absorption coefficient as
µen µtr
= (1 - g )
r r
where g is the average fraction of energy of the initial kinetic energy transferred to
electrons that is subsequently emitted as bremsstrahlung photons.

Calculation of Energy Transfer and Energy Absorption

For simplicity, we consider an idealized case, in which
F Photons are assumed to be monoenergetic and in broad parallel beam.
F Multiple Compton scattering of photons is negligible.
F Virtually all fluorescence and bremsstrahlung photons escape from the absorber.
F All secondary electrons (Auger electrons, photoelectrons and Compton electrons)

generated are stopped in the slab.
Under these conditions, the transmitted energy intensity (the amount of energy
transmitted through a unit area within each second) can be given by
! !
Y = Y0 e - µ en x

Calculation of Energy Transfer and Energy Absorption

Assuming µenx<<1, which is consistent with the thin slab approximation and the
energy fluence rate carried by the incident gamma ray beam is Ψ̇ ! J ⋅ cm"# ⋅ s "$ .
Then the energy absorbed in the thin slab per second over a unit cross section area is
given by
𝛹̇ ! 𝜇%& 𝑥 (𝐽 ⋅ 𝑐𝑚"# ⋅ 𝑠 "$ )
The rate of energy absorbed in the slab of area A (cm# ) and thickness x is
𝐴𝛹̇ ! 𝜇%& 𝑥 (𝐽 ⋅ 𝑠 "$ )

Given the density of the material is r, the rate of energy absorption per unit mass
(Dose Rate) in the slab is
0 12! ⋅3̇ " 4⋅12#!⋅5#$ ⋅6%&(12#$)⋅9 (12)
𝐷̇ = : ;⋅12#' ⋅0 12! ⋅9 12
,
!"
𝝁 𝒆𝒏 𝑐𝑚
𝐷𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑟: 𝑫̇ 𝐽 ⋅ 𝑔!" ⋅ 𝑠 !" = 𝜳̇ 𝟎 (𝐽 ⋅ 𝑐𝑚 !$ ⋅ 𝑠 !" )
𝝆 𝑔⁄𝑐𝑚 '
F Another example (Cember, p178)

 φ ⋅ E ⋅ µm
D=
ρm

F The relationship between exposure and dose is obtained from the ratio of the
absorbed dose rate and the exposure rate,
F For an X-ray flux that could induce 1 X-unit of exposure in air, it could lead to
the following amount of dose in a given tissue
F The relationship between exposure and dose is obtained from the ratio of the
absorbed dose rate and the exposure rate,
F For an X-ray flux that could induce 1 X unit of exposure in air, it could lead to
and similarly
An example:

exposure unit.

1 R=2.58´10-4 C×kg-1

A few remarks:
F In the case of tissue, the ratio of dose to exposure remains approximately
constant over the quantum energy range of about 0.1 to 10MeV. (Why?)
F At lower energy, material with greater atomic number absorbs much more
energy.
Photoelectric Effect
In photoelectric process, an incident photon transfer its energy to an orbital
electron, causing it to be ejected from the atom.
E e- = hv - E b
h is the Planck's constant
v is the frenquency of the photon
F Photoelectric interaction is with the atom in a whole and can not take place
with free electrons.
F Photoelectric effect creates a vacancy in one of the electron shells, which leaves
the atom at an excited state.

Photoelectric Effect Cross Section

Probability of photoelectric absorption per atom is
ì Z4
ïï 3.5
low energy
(hv )
s µí 5
ï Z high energy
ïî (hv ) 3.5
F The interaction cross section for photoelectric effect depends strongly on Z.
F Photoelectric effect is favored at lower photon energies. It is the major

interaction process for photons at low hundred keV energy range.
Page 49, Radiation Detection and Measurements, Third Edition, G. F. Knoll, John Wiley & Sons, 1999.

Table of Contents
F Beta radiation
3. Submersion dose
F Neutron dose

How is the human dose typically measured?

Bragg-Gray Principle

Solution

Bragg-Gray Principle: Problem Statement
• Homogeneous medium, wall (w) Q
• Probe - cavity - thin layer of gas (g)
• Charged particles crossing w-g interface +

-
• Objective: find a relation between the dose gas
Dg
in a probe to that in the medium wall Dw
• Basis for dosimetry
F.A. Attix, Introduction to Radiological Physics and Radiation Dosimetry

If we look at the very thin layers of wall media immediately
adjacent to the interface, then the flux of the charged particles is
almost unchanged across the boundary. The dose rate to the
wall is given by Q
+
-
where 𝛍w is the linear energy absorption coefficient. gas
Dg
wall
Then the ratio of dose (rate) in the wall and in the gas is Dw
For charged particles, the linear energy absorption coefficient

!"
𝜇 is roughly the same as the linear stopping power, 𝑠 = ,
!#
therefore

•Two conditions:
• Thickness of gas layer is much smaller than the range of secondary
charged particles (medium g is close to w in atomic number).
• The absorbed dose in the cavity is deposited entirely by the charged
particles crossing it.
•Additional assumptions:
• Existence of CPE.
• Absence of bremsstrahlung generation.
• No backscattering of charged particles.

Absorbed Dose Measurement: Bragg-Gray Principle
Conditions for Reaching the Electronic Equilibrium

F Dimension of the gas volume is small compared to the range of the secondary
charged particles.
F Wall thickness > maximum range of secondary charged particles.
F Wall thickness is not great enough to significantly attenuate the incident radiation.
F Wall and gas have similar atomic compositions.
tracks of secondary
electrons

F The Bragg-Gray principle provides a means of relating ionization
measurements in a gas volume to the absorbed dose in some convenient
materials (such tissue equivalent materials) from which a dosimeter can be
fabricated.
F If the gas cavity is surrounded by a wall medium of proper thickness to
establish electronic equilibrium, then the energy absorbed per unit mass of the
wall, dEm/dMm, is related to the energy absorbed per unit mass of gas,
dEg/dMg, by
where Sm is the main mass stopping power of the wall medium and Sg is the
mass stopping power of the gas to the secondary electrons.

where Sm is the mean mass stopping power of the wall medium to the
equilibrium secondary electrons generated by the specific radiation-of-
interest.
"
"
𝑑𝑇
𝑆 = # 𝑆 𝐸 ⋅ 𝑃 𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑𝐸 = ( ) ⋅ 𝑃 𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑𝐸 ,
𝑑𝑥 #
!
!
()
where ; is the linear stopping power of
(* +
the given media to electrons of energy E.
Chapter 5: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Beta Particles
Specific Energy Loss and Specific Ionization

Specific energy loss: the linear rate of energy loss by an electron though excitation
and ionization, which is given by
specific energy loss ( MeV cm ) dE dx

S= = ( MeV × cm 2
g)
density(g cm ) 3
r
where r is the density of the absorbing medium.

Measurement of X- and Gamma Ray Dose

F For gamma rays with greater energies

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Chapter 7: Radiation Dosimetry

Chapter 7: Radiation Dosimetry

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

Units for Absorbed Dose

F The Gary is universally applicable to all types of ionizing radiation dosimetry –

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

The SI Unit for Exposure

F Alternatively, exposure is also measured with the unit Roentgen (R),

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

Exposure Measurement: The Free Air Chamber

Electronic Equilibrium, or Charged-

Turner, pp. 365.

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

Charged-Particle Equilibrium (CPE)

From <<Introduction to Radiological Physics and Radiation Dosimetry>>

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

Exposure Measurement: The Free Air Chamber

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

Exposure Measurement: The Free Air Chamber

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

Exposure Measurement: The Free Air Chamber

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

Exposure Measurement: The Air Wall Chamber

Exposure Measurement: The Air Wall Chamber

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

F Since energy absorption is approximately proportional to the electron density

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

Exposure Measurement: The Free Air Chamber

How do we convert the exposure measured with a free-air chamber to dose to

The SI Unit for Exposure

F Alternatively, exposure is also measured with the unit Roentgen (R),

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

Energy Transfer by a Gamma Ray Beam

Compton All Compton scattered

Pair production All annihilation gamma rays

What is Energy Absorption Coefficients?

µtr t æ d ö s æ Eavg ö k æ 2mc 2 ö

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

Calculation of Energy Transfer and Energy Absorption

F Photons are assumed to be monoenergetic and in broad parallel beam.

F Multiple Compton scattering of photons is negligible.

F All secondary electrons (Auger electrons, photoelectrons and Compton electrons)

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

Calculation of Energy Transfer and Energy Absorption

𝐴𝛹̇ ! 𝜇%& 𝑥 (𝐽 ⋅ 𝑠 "$ )

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

The SI Unit for Exposure

F Alternatively, exposure is also measured with the unit Roentgen (R),

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

Photoelectric Effect Cross Section

F The interaction cross section for photoelectric effect depends strongly on Z.

F Photoelectric effect is favored at lower photon energies. It is the major

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020