Soil Fertility Evaluation

Literally the word fertile means ‘bearing abundantly’ and a fertile soil is
considered to be one that produces abundant crops under suitable environmental
conditions.
Soil fertility : is concerned with the inherent capacity of soil to provide nutrients in
adequate amounts and in proper balance for the growth of specified plants when
other factors such as light, moisture, temperature and the physical condition of the
soil are favourable. Soil fertility is an aspect of the soil plant relationship viz., plant
growth with reference to plant nutrients available in soil.
Justus Von Liebig 1840 propounded the ‘law of Restitution’ which states
that in order to maintain soil fertility nutrients removed from the soil by crops must
be restored by the application of manures and fertilizers.
The assessment of nutrient supplying capacity of the soil is soil fertility
evaluation. It necessitates understanding of certain major concepts having definite
bearing on soil fertility.
The law of minimum was put forward by Von Liebig which envisages that if
a soil contains optimum / adequate amounts of all but one nutrient element, crop
growth is regulated by that single nutrient.
Approaches for soil fertility evaluation: The wide variety of diagnostic
techniques used so far can be broadly grouped into
1) Soil Analysis
2) Plant Analysis
3) Biological methods
4) Visual symptoms of nutrient deficiency or toxicity.
Soil Testing
Soil testing and plant analysis are useful tools for making recommendations
for application of fertilizers to crops. Soil testing gives a measure of the availability
of nutrients to crops, plant analysis indicates the actual removal of the nutrients
from the soil.
Objectives of soil testing
1. Grouping soils into classes relative to the levels of nutrients for suggesting
fertilizer practices.
2. Predicting the probability of getting profitable responses.
3. Helping to evaluate soil productivity.
4. Determining specific soil conditions like alkali, salinity and acidity which limits
crop yields.
Available nutrients : Plants draw their nutrients from air, water and soil. The bulk
of mineral nutrients come from soil. Soil available form of nutrient is that fraction
which is distributed in different discrete chemical forms, which often exist in a state
of dynamic equilibrium and constitute the pool from which plants draw it. Soil
available form of a nutrient is also that fraction whose variation in amount is
responsible for significant changes in yield and responses. The nutrient available
to biological organisms is termed as bioavailable nutrient.
Chemical methods for estimating nutrients
Soil testing includes measurement of available N, P, K, S, micronutrient,
lime and gypsum requirement, besides measuring pH, EC and calcium carbonate,
texture by Bouyoucos hydrometer method.
The different extractants for the available nutrients

Nutrient Extractant

Available P 0.5 M NaHCO3, pH 8.5 Olsen’s extractant

0.03 N NH4F + 0.025 NHCl Bray’s No.1 extratant

Available K Neutral normal ammonium acetate

Available S 0.15 % CaCl2

Available Zn, Fe, Cu, Mn 0.005 M DTPA, pH 7.3 (Diethylene Triamine penta Acetate)

Gypsum requirement Schoonover method

Lime requirement Shoemaker et al.

Rating limits of soil test values

Nutrient Low Medium High

Organic carbon (%) Below 0.5 0.5 – 0.75 Above 0.75

Avail. N (kg ha-1) Below 250 250 – 400 Above 400

Avail. P (kg ha-1) Below 10 10 – 20 Above 20

Avail. K (kg ha-1) Below 200 200 – 400 Above 400

Avail. S (ppm) Deficient < 10 ppm Sufficient > 10 ppm

DTPA Zn Deficient < 0.6 ppm Sufficient > 0.6 ppm

Visual symptoms of nutrient deficiency or toxicity

Chemical analysis of plants may indicate the presence of more than 90
elements but 17 of them have been established to be essential for their successful
growth and development; as per the criteria of essentiality. A constant balanced
supply of these nutrients is essential for normal plant growth. Any imbalance
among them leads to the emergence of nutritional disorders owing to their
deficiencies or toxicities when an essential nutrient is in extremely short / excess
supply, the plant suffers from its deficiency which is manifested in the form of
specific sign termed as deficiency / toxicity symptom of the nutrient.
 Visual deficiency symptoms are generally characteristic enough to permit
easy identification of the deficiency of a nutrient as these appear on particular plant
part at specific growth stage. The mobility of nutrients with in a plant differs
markedly. Nutrients like N, P and K are readily translocated from old to young
leaves under stress condition and are termed as mobile nutrients within the plant
and they show up their deficiencies initially on the old leaves. The nutrients such
as calcium, sulphur, boron and iron which are not retranslocated are called
immobile nutrients and their deficiency symptoms first appear on young leaves.
Mobility of other nutrients is intermediate.
Eg : Shortening of internodes due to Zn deficiency results primarily from impaired
auxin metabolism.
The visual identification of nutrient deficiencies or toxicities is considered as
a simple and inexpensive diagnostic tool in plant nutrition as it does not involve the
use of any analytical equipment.
Limitations
 Confident diagnosis by this approach requires much experience as the
symptoms of some nutrient deficiencies are difficult to differentiate.
 By the time the deficiency / toxicity symptoms appear, the crop has
undergone marked set back and the ameliorative measures taken at that time
may not produce optimum yields. The appearance of deficiency symptoms is
an extreme limit of nutrient deficiency but even if the symptoms are not
manifest, reduction in the yield of crop may occur. This condition has been
termed as hidden hunger.

Plant analysis: Rapid tissue tests – DRIS – Indicator plants

Although plant analysis is an indirect evaluation of soil, it is a valuable

supplement to soil testing. Plant analysis is useful in confirming nutrient
deficiencies, toxicities or imbalances, identifying hidden hunger, evaluating fertiliser
programme and determining the availability of elements. Sometimes adequate
nutrients may be present in the soil, but because of other problems like soil
moisture and inadequate amounts of some other nutrients, the plant availability of
the nutrient in question may be constrained.
Plant analysis is based on the fact that the amount of a given element in
plant is an identification of the supply of that particular nutrient and as such is
directly related to the quantity in the soil.

For most diagnostic purposes, plant analyses are interpreted on the basis of
critical value approach, which uses tissue nutrient concentration calibrated to
coincide 90% or 95% of the maximum yield, below which the plants are considered
to be deficient and above that value sufficient.
Two general types of plant analysis are in use.
1. The tissue test which is customarily made on fresh tissue in the field.
2. Total analysis performed in the laboratory with precise analytical
techniques.

A. Tissue Tests

Rapid tests for the determination of nutrient elements in the plant sap of fresh
tissue. In these tests, the sap from ruptured cells is tested for unassimilated
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. They are semi quantitative tests mainly
intended for verifying or predicting deficiencies of N, P or K. The results are read
as low, medium or high. Through the proper application of tissue testing it is
possible to anticipate or forecast certain production problems which still in the field.
The concentration of the nutrients in the cell sap is usually a good indication of how
well the plant is supplied with nutrients at the time of testing.
(1) Plant Part to be Selected: In general the conductive tissue of the latest
mature leaf is used for testing.
(2) Time of Testing: The most critical stage of growth for tissue testing is at
the time of bloom or from bloom to early fruiting stage. Nitrates are usually
higher in the morning than in the afternoon if the supply is short.
Test for nitrates  Diphenylamine
Phosphates  Molybdate + Stannous oxalate test
For potassium  Sodium cobalti nitrate
B. Total Analysis

Total analysis is performed on the whole plant / plant parts. Precise analytical
techniques are used for measurement of the various elements after the plant material is
dried, ground and ashed and used for estimating total nutrient content.

Relative and Average Plant Nutrient Concentrations

Plant Nutrient Average

Concentration*
H 6.0%
O 45.0%
C 45.0%
N 1.5%
K 1.0%
Ca 0.5%
Mg 0.2%
P 0.1%
S 0.1%
Cl 100 ppm (0.01%)
Fe 100 ppm
B 20 ppm
Mn 50 ppm
Zn 20 ppm
Cu 6 ppm
Mo 0.1 ppm

* Concentration expressed by weight on a dry matter basis.

Critical Nutrient Concentration:

Critical Nutrient Concentration is the level of a nutrient below which crop

yield, quality or performance is unsatisfactory. However it is difficult to choose a
specific concentration.
For crops such as sugarbeet excessive concentration of N seriously affects
the quality. So, CNC is maximum rather than a minimum consequently it is more
realistic to use the critical nutrient range (CNR) which is defined as the range of
nutrient concentration at a specified growth stage above which the crop is amply
supplied and below which the crop is deficient.

Diagnosis and Recommendation Integrated System (DRIS) proposed by

Beaufils (1973) which considers nutrient concentration ratios rather than individual
elemental concentration for interpreting plant tissue composition. The DRIS
approach measures the relative balance between nutrients by means of index
values with negative values indicating insufficiencies and vice versa. DRIS reveals
 not only the limiting nutrient but also the order in which the nutrients are likely to
become limiting. It is a comprehensive system which identifies all the nutritional
factors limiting crop production and in doing so increases the chances of obtaining
high crop yields by improving the fertilizer recommendations. Index values which
measure how far particular nutrients in the leaf or plant is deviating from the
optimum are used in the calibration to classify yield factors in the order of limiting
importance.
To develop a DRIS for a given crop the following requirements must be met.
All factors suspected of having an effect on crop yield must be defined.

1. The relationship between these factors and yield must be defined.

2. Calibrated norms must be established.
3. Recommendations suited to particular set of conditions and based on
correct and judicious use of these norms must be continuously refined.

Establishment of DRIS Norms

Large number of sites is selected at random in order to represent the whole

production area. At each site plants and soil samples are taken for all essential
element analyses. The entire population of observation is divided into two sub
populations (high and low yielders) on the basis of vigour, quality and yield. Each
element in the plant is expressed in as many ways as possible. For eg: Nutrient
ratios N/P, N/K or products NxP, NxK etc. Each form of expression which
significantly discriminates between high and low yielding sub populations is
retained as a useful diagnostic parameter. The mean values of all the sites for
each of these forms of expression then constitute the diagnostic norms.

NPK requirement of the crop is diagnosed using DRIS chart. The chart is
constructed of three axes for N/P, N/K and K/P represented with mean values of
the sub populations of the high yielder. The concentric circle can be considered

asconfidence limits. Horizontal arrows (→) in the inner circle indicate the balance

between nutrients. Diagonal arrows indicate a tendency to imbalance. The inner

being set at + 15% and outer at the mean + 30% for each expression. Vertical (↓↑)

arrows representing nutrient imbalance. The arrow notation can be replaced by

DRIS indices.

Advantages:
 1. The importance of nutritional balance is taken into account.
2. The norms for the elemental content can be universally applied.
3. Diagnosis can be made over wide ranges of stages.
4. The nutrients limiting the yield either through excess or insufficiency can
be readily identified.
Indicator plants: Certain plants are very sensitive to deficiency of a specific plant
nutrient and they produce specific symptoms which are different from other
deficiency symptoms. Thus the deficiency of that element can easily be detected.
The indicator plants are the following
Element Deficiency indicator plant
N Cauliflower, Cabbage
P Rape seed
K Potato
Ca Cauliflower, Cabbage
Mg Potato
Fe Cauliflower, Cabbage, Potato
Na Sugar beet
Mn Sugarbeet, Oats, Potato
B Sunflower
Biological methods of soil fertility evaluation

For calibrating crop response, besides chemical soil test values other procedures
are also available. They are
1. Mitscherlich pot culture method
2. The Jenny pot culture test
3. The Neubauer seedling method
4. The Stanford and Dement technique
5. Sunflower pot culture technique for boron
6. Sackett and Stewart technique (Azotobacter test for P2O5 and K2O)

7. Mehlich technique for available K2O

8. Mehlich Cunninghamella plaque method for phosphorus
9. The Mulder’s Aspergillus niger test for copper and magnesium
10. A – value (tracer technique)
Microbiological methods are
1. Sackett and Stewart technique : Used to find out P2O5 and K2O status in
the soil judged by colonization of Azotobacter in the culture prepared from soil.
Three containers having soil culture are used of which one portion is supplied with
P2O5 another with K2O and rest with both P2O5 and K2O. The cultures are
inoculated with Azotobacter and incubated for 72 hrs and growth of colony may be
classified as under.

Class Growth of the colony

Class I Very deficient – None or few small pin head sized colonies are seen.

Class II Moderately deficient – few colonies

Class III Slightly deficient – The colonies on unfertilized cultures are equal in
number and development.

Class IV Not deficient – colonies on both fertilized and unfertilized plaques

are equal in number and development.

2. Mehlich technique for available K2O : A small amount of soil is taken in

conical flasks in which appropriate nutrient solution is added and then it
isinoculated with Aspergillus niger and incubated for four days. Weight of mycelial pad and
its K2O content are taken into account.
Critical limits for available K by using the Aspergillus niger method

Weight of 4 pads K2O absorbed by A niger Degree of potassium

(g) per 100 g soil (mg) deficiency
<1.4 <15 Very deficient
1.4 to 2.0 15 to 20 Moderate to slight
deficiency
2.0 >20 Not deficient
3. Mehlich’s cunninghamella plaque method for P : Cunninghamella is
sensitive for P2O5 status. The soil is mixed with nutrient solution and paste is
prepared which is spread in clay dish. Then inoculated with cunninghamella and
allowed to incubate for 4-5 days. The diameter of the mycelial growth is considered
as an index for P status.
P – deficiency and mycelial growth

Diameter of colonies (mm) Degree of P deficiency

<10 Very deficient

11-15 Moderately deficient

16-21 Slightly deficient

>22 Not deficient

4. Mulder’s aspergillus niger test for Cu and Mg : Color of the mycelia and
spores give an indication of either deficiency or sufficiency of Cu and Mg. For
comparison, known standards are prepared as follows and their colors are
compared with those on the unknown soil.
Ranges for Cu and Mg in Mulder’s test

Cu in µg /g of air –dry Deficiency degree mg in µg/3 g of air –

soil dry soil

< 0.4 Very deficient < 50

1 – 1.5 Slightly deficient 50 - 100

>2.0 Not deficient >100

Besides plant analysis there are some biological tests which may be used to
evaluate soil fertility.

1. The Mitscherlich pot culture method : In this method pots containing 2.72 kg
soil are taken for growing oats as test crop. N, P and K are added in different
combinations in these pots [No - one pot, Po - three pots (NK), Ko- three pots (NP)
and NPK - three pots) ]. The crop is grown till maturity and percentage increase in
yield is calculated by using Mitcherlich tables from rotation of given quantity of
fertilizers over native fertility status (control).

2. The Jenny’s pot culture test : Smaller pots consisting of 1.81 kg soil are used
for growing lettuce (Lactuca sativa longifolia) as test crops for 6 weeks. Following
treatments are used in four replications.
Control NoPoKo
Full fertilizer N150 P150 K100
No nitrogen N0 P150 K 100
No phosphorus N150 P0 K100
No potash N150 P150 K0
The percentage values are categorized as deficiency, probable deficiency
and uncertain deficiency as mentioned below :

% yield
Jenny’s values Definite Probable Uncertain
deficiency deficiency deficiency

N 20 20-50 51-70
P 20 20-50 51-65
K 70 70-75 76-80
S 66 66-76 77-83

3. The Neubauer’s seedling method

In this technique, 100 seedlings of rye or oats are made to feed exhaustively
on 100 g of soil mixed with 50 g of sand for 17 days in dishes of 11 cm and 7 cm
depth. A blank without any soil also is taken. The total P 2O5 and K2O uptake is
calculated and the blank value is deducted to obtain root soluble P 2O5 and K2O in
100 g of air dry soil. These values are designated as Neaubauer’s numbers and
expressed as mg/100 g of dry soil. The following Neaubauer limit values are used
to determine the deficiency.
Neaubauer limit values mg/100 g soil

Nutrient Barley Oats Rye Wheat Turnip Potato Sugarbeet

P2O5 6 6 5 5 7 6 6

K2O 24 21 27 20 39 37 25

4. The Stanford and Dement technique : Round waxed cardboard cartons of

about 100 g capacity with bottom removed which are nested in similar containers
having intact bottom filled with 680 g of sand. The seeds of the test crop are sown
about 1.25 cm deep. After growing the seedlings for 2 to 3 weeks, a carton
containing the plants are nested in second carton holding 200 g of soil or soil
mixed with fertilizers. The plant roots enter the second carton where these plants
are allowed to feed for 3 to 5 days. Four plants of maize and 30 plants of wheat are
maintained for the study. After 5 days the plant samples are taken to determine the
nutrient content.
4. Sunflower pot culture technique for Boron : In this method 500 g soil is
taken in small pot and 5 sunflower seedlings are allowed to grow. The soil is
fertilized with a solution containing all the nutrients except B and deficiency of B is
noticed and ranked.
Class Days after which B deficiency is noticed
Marked deficiency < 28
Moderate deficiency 28 – 36
Little or no deficiency > 36
5. A value : By using radioactive isotopes, it has now become possible to
calculate the available nutrients in the soil. Fried and Dean (1952) defined A-value
as that amount of nutrients in soil which behave in a similar way as the applied
fertilizer nutrient doses. This can be calculated by the formula.
1  y 
A = B 
 y 

Where.,
A = Available soil nutrient
B = Amount of fertilizer nutrient applied.
Y = The fraction of the nutrient derived from fertilizer contained in the plant.