FEDERAL UNIVERSITY GASHUA

FACULTY OF SCIENCE

DEPRATMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

400 LEVELS
LECTURE NOTE

ON

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI)

CPS 411

FOR

COMPUTER SCEINCE

COMPILED

BY

ENGR. ISMAIL ABDULMALIK

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 Artificial Intelligence

Definitions

A branch of Computer Science named Artificial Intelligence pursues creating

the computers or machines as intelligent as human beings.

According to the father of Artificial Intelligence, John McCarthy, it is “The

science and engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent
computer programs”.

Artificial Intelligence is a way of making a computer, a computer-controlled

robot, or a software think intelligently, in the similar manner the intelligent
humans think.

AI is accomplished by studying how human brain thinks, and how humans

learn, decide, and work while trying to solve a problem, and then using the
outcomes of this study as a basis of developing intelligent software and
systems.

Philosophy of AI
While exploiting the power of the computer systems, the curiosity of human,
lead him to wonder, “Can a machine think and behave like humans do?”

Thus, the development of AI started with the intention of creating similar

intelligence in machines that we find and regard high in humans.

Goals of AI
 To Create Expert Systems − The systems which exhibit intelligent
behavior, learn, demonstrate, explain, and advice its users.

 To Implement Human Intelligence in Machines − Creating systems

that understand, think, learn, and behave like humans.

Contributes to AI

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Artificial intelligence is a science and technology based on disciplines such as
Computer Science, Biology, Psychology, Linguistics, Mathematics, and
Engineering. A major thrust of AI is in the development of computer functions
associated with human intelligence, such as reasoning, learning, and problem
solving.

Out of the following areas, one or multiple areas can contribute to build an
intelligent system.

Programming Without and With AI

The programming without and with AI is different in following ways −

Programming Without AI Programming With AI

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A computer program without AI can A computer program with AI can
answer the specific questions it is answer the generic questions it is
meant to solve. meant to solve.

AI programs can absorb new

modifications by putting highly
Modification in the program leads to independent pieces of information
change in its structure. together. Hence you can modify even a
minute piece of information of program
without affecting its structure.

Modification is not quick and easy. It

may lead to affecting the program Quick and Easy program modification.
adversely.

AI Technique
In the real world, the knowledge has some unwelcomed properties −

 Its volume is huge, next to unimaginable.

 It is not well-organized or well-formatted.
 It keeps changing constantly.
AI Technique is a manner to organize and use the knowledge efficiently in
such a way that −

 It should be perceivable by the people who provide it.

 It should be easily modifiable to correct errors.
 It should be useful in many situations though it is incomplete or
inaccurate.
AI techniques elevate the speed of execution of the complex program it is
equipped with.

Applications of AI
AI has been dominant in various fields such as −

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  Gaming − AI plays crucial role in strategic games such as chess, poker,
tic-tac-toe, etc., where machine can think of large number of possible
positions based on heuristic knowledge.

 Natural Language Processing − It is possible to interact with the

computer that understands natural language spoken by humans.

 Expert Systems − There are some applications which integrate machine,

software, and special information to impart reasoning and advising. They
provide explanation and advice to the users.

 Vision Systems − These systems understand, interpret, and comprehend

visual input on the computer. For example,

o A spying aeroplane takes photographs, which are used to figure

out spatial information or map of the areas.

o Doctors use clinical expert system to diagnose the patient.

o Police use computer software that can recognize the face of

criminal with the stored portrait made by forensic artist.

 Speech Recognition − Some intelligent systems are capable of hearing

and comprehending the language in terms of sentences and their
meanings while a human talks to it. It can handle different accents, slang
words, noise in the background, change in human’s noise due to cold,
etc.

 Handwriting Recognition − The handwriting recognition software reads

the text written on paper by a pen or on screen by a stylus. It can
recognize the shapes of the letters and convert it into editable text.

 Intelligent Robots − Robots are able to perform the tasks given by a

human. They have sensors to detect physical data from the real world
such as light, heat, temperature, movement, sound, bump, and pressure.
They have efficient processors, multiple sensors and huge memory, to
exhibit intelligence. In addition, they are capable of learning from their
mistakes and they can adapt to the new environment.

History of AI

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Artificial intelligence (AI) is intelligence exhibited by machines. In computer
science, the field of AI research defines itself as the study of "intelligent
agents": any device that perceives its environment and takes actions that
maximize its chance of success at some goal. Colloquially, the term "artificial
intelligence" is applied when a machine mimics "cognitive" functions that
humans associate with other human minds, such as "learning" and "problem
solving".

As machines become increasingly capable, mental facilities once thought to

require intelligence are removed from the definition. For instance, optical
character recognition is no longer perceived as an example of "artificial
intelligence", having become a routine technology. Capabilities currently
classified as AI include successfully understanding human speech, competing at
a high level in strategic game systems (such as chess and Go), autonomous cars,
intelligent routing in content delivery networks, military simulations, and
interpreting complex data. In recent years, chatbot with artificial intelligence is
also considered to be used for education, e.g. construction safety.

AI research is divided into subfields that focus on specific problems,

approaches, the use of a particular tool, or towards satisfying particular
applications
Here is the history of AI during 20th century −

Year Milestone / Innovation

John McCarthy coined the term Artificial Intelligence. Demonstration of

1956
the first running AI program at Carnegie Mellon University.

1958 John McCarthy invents LISP programming language for AI.

Danny Bobrow's dissertation at MIT showed that computers can

1964 understand natural language well enough to solve algebra word
problems correctly.

Joseph Weizenbaum at MIT built ELIZA, an interactive problem that

1965
carries on a dialogue in English.

Scientists at Stanford Research Institute Developed Shakey, a robot,

1969
equipped with locomotion, perception, and problem solving.

1973 The Assembly Robotics group at Edinburgh University built Freddy, the

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 Famous Scottish Robot, capable of using vision to locate and assemble
models.

The first computer-controlled autonomous vehicle, Stanford Cart, was

1979
built.

1985 Harold Cohen created and demonstrated the drawing program, Aaron.

Major advances in all areas of AI −

 Significant demonstrations in machine learning

 Case-based reasoning
 Multi-agent planning
1990
 Scheduling
 Data mining, Web Crawler
 natural language understanding and translation
 Vision, Virtual Reality
 Games
The Deep Blue Chess Program beats the then world chess champion,
1997
Garry Kasparov.

Interactive robot pets become commercially available. MIT displays

2000 Kismet, a robot with a face that expresses emotions. The robot Nomad
explores remote regions of Antarctica and locates meteorites.

INTELLIGENCE

While studying artificially intelligence, you need to know what intelligence is. This
chapter covers Idea of intelligence, types, and components of intelligence.

Intelligence

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The ability of a system to calculate, reason, perceive relationships and analogies, learn
from experience, store and retrieve information from memory, solve problems,
comprehend complex ideas, use natural language fluently, classify, generalize, and
adapt new situations.

TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE

As described by Howard Gardner, an American developmental psychologist, the

Intelligence comes in multifold −

Intelligence Description Example

The ability to speak,

recognize, and use
mechanisms of phonology
Linguistic intelligence Narrators, Orators
(speech sounds), syntax
(grammar), and semantics
(meaning).

The ability to create,

communicate with, and Musicians,
Musical intelligence understand meanings made Singers,
of sound, understanding of Composers
pitch, rhythm.

The ability of use and

understand relationships in
Logical-mathematical Mathematicians,
the absence of action or
intelligence Scientists
objects. Understanding
complex and abstract ideas.

The ability to perceive visual

or spatial information,
change it, and re-create Map readers,
Spatial intelligence visual images without Astronauts,
reference to the objects, Physicists
construct 3D images, and to
move and rotate them.

Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence The ability to use complete Players, Dancers

or part of the body to solve
problems or fashion

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 products, control over fine
and coarse motor skills, and
manipulate the objects.

The ability to distinguish

Intra-personal intelligence among one’s own feelings, Gautam Buddhha
intentions, and motivations.

The ability to recognize and

Mass
make distinctions among
Interpersonal intelligence Communicators,
other people’s feelings,
Interviewers
beliefs, and intentions.

Composed of Intelligence
The intelligence is intangible. It is composed of −

 Reasoning
 Learning
 Problem Solving
 Perception
 Linguistic Intelligence

Let us go through all the components briefly −

 Reasoning − It is the set of processes that enables us to provide basis for

judgement, making decisions, and prediction. There are broadly two types
−

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 Deductive Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning
It starts with a general statement and
It conducts specific observations to
examines the possibilities to reach a
makes broad general statements.
specific, logical conclusion.
Even if all of the premises are true in a If something is true of a class of things
statement, inductive reasoning allows in general, it is also true for all
for the conclusion to be false. members of that class.
Example − "All women of age above 60
Example − "Nita is a teacher. All
years are grandmothers. Shalini is 65
teachers are studious. Therefore, Nita is
years. Therefore, Shalini is a
studious."
grandmother."

 Learning − It is the activity of gaining knowledge or skill by studying,

practising, being taught, or experiencing something. Learning enhances
the awareness of the subjects of the study.

The ability of learning is possessed by humans, some animals, and AI-

enabled systems. Learning is categorized as −

o Auditory Learning − It is learning by listening and hearing. For

example, students listening to recorded audio lectures.
o Episodic Learning − To learn by remembering sequences of
events that one has witnessed or experienced. This is linear and
orderly.
o Motor Learning − It is learning by precise movement of muscles.
For example, picking objects, Writing, etc.
o Observational Learning − To learn by watching and imitating
others. For example, child tries to learn by mimicking her parent.
o Perceptual Learning − It is learning to recognize stimuli that one
has seen before. For example, identifying and classifying objects
and situations.
o Relational Learning − It involves learning to differentiate among
various stimuli on the basis of relational properties, rather than
absolute properties. For Example, Adding ‘little less’ salt at the
time of cooking potatoes that came up salty last time, when cooked
with adding say a tablespoon of salt.

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 o Spatial Learning − It is learning through visual stimuli such as
images, colors, maps, etc. For Example, A person can create
roadmap in mind before actually following the road.
o Stimulus-Response Learning − It is learning to perform a
particular behavior when a certain stimulus is present. For
example, a dog raises its ear on hearing doorbell.
 Problem Solving − It is the process in which one perceives and tries to
arrive at a desired solution from a present situation by taking some path,
which is blocked by known or unknown hurdles.

Problem solving also includes decision making, which is the process of

selecting the best suitable alternative out of multiple alternatives to reach
the desired goal are available.

 Perception − It is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and

organizing sensory information.

Perception presumes sensing. In humans, perception is aided by sensory

organs. In the domain of AI, perception mechanism puts the data acquired
by the sensors together in a meaningful manner.

 Linguistic Intelligence − It is one’s ability to use, comprehend, speak,

and write the verbal and written language. It is important in interpersonal
communication.

Difference between Human and Machine Intelligence

 Humans perceive by patterns whereas the machines perceive by set of

rules and data.

 Humans store and recall information by patterns, machines do it by

searching algorithms. For example, the number 40404040 is easy to
remember, store, and recall as its pattern is simple.

 Humans can figure out the complete object even if some part of it is
missing or distorted; whereas the machines cannot do it correctly.

Agent and Environment

An agent is anything that can perceive its environment through sensors and acts upon
that environment through effectors.
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 A human agent has sensory organs such as eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin
parallel to the sensors, and other organs such as hands, legs, mouth, for effectors.

 A robotic agent replaces cameras and infrared range finders for the sensors,
and various motors and actuators for effectors.

 A software agent has encoded bit strings as its programs and actions.

Agent Terminology
 Performance Measure of Agent − It is the criteria, which determines how
successful an agent is.

 Behavior of Agent − It is the action that agent performs after any given
sequence of percepts.

 Percept − It is agent’s perceptual inputs at a given instance.

 Percept Sequence − It is the history of all that an agent has perceived till
date.

 Agent Function − It is a map from the precept sequence to an action.

DOMAIN OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Agent

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Agents are systems or software programs capable of autonomous, purposeful
and reasoning directed towards one or more goals. They are also called
assistants, brokers, bots, droids, intelligent agents, and software agents.

Autonomous Robot

Robot free from external control or influence and able to control itself
independently.

Backward Chaining

Strategy of working backward for Reason/Cause of a problem.

Blackboard

It is the memory inside computer, which is used for communication between

the cooperating expert systems.

Environment

It is the part of real or computational world inhabited by the agent.

Forward Chaining

Strategy of working forward for conclusion/solution of a problem.

Heuristics

It is the knowledge based on Trial-and-error, evaluations, and

experimentation.

Knowledge Engineering

Acquiring knowledge from human experts and other resources.

Percepts

It is the format in which the agent obtains information about the environment.

Pruning

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Overriding unnecessary and irrelevant considerations in AI systems.

Rule

It is a format of representing knowledge base in Expert System. It is in the

form of IF-THEN-ELSE.

Shell

A shell is a software that helps in designing inference engine, knowledge base,

and user interface of an expert system.

Task

It is the goal the agent is tries to accomplish.

Turing Test

A test developed by Allan Turing to test the intelligence of a machine as

compared to human intelligence.

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE - RESEARCH AREAS

The domain of artificial intelligence is huge in breadth and width. While

proceeding, we consider the broadly common and prospering research areas in
the domain of AI –

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 Speech and Voice Recognition
These both terms are common in robotics, expert systems and natural language
processing. Though these terms are used interchangeably, their objectives are different.

Speech Recognition Voice Recognition

The speech recognition aims at

The objective of voice recognition is
understanding and comprehending
to recognize WHO is speaking.
WHAT was spoken.

It is used in hand-free computing, map, It is used to identify a person by

or menu navigation. analysing its tone, voice pitch, and

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 accent, etc.

Machine does not need training for

This recognition system needs training
Speech Recognition as it is not speaker
as it is person oriented.
dependent.

Speaker independent Speech Speaker dependent Speech

Recognition systems are difficult to Recognition systems are
develop. comparatively easy to develop.

Working of Speech and Voice Recognition Systems

The user input spoken at a microphone goes to sound card of the system. The converter
turns the analog signal into equivalent digital signal for the speech processing. The
database is used to compare the sound patterns to recognize the words. Finally, a
reverse feedback is given to the database.

This source-language text becomes input to the Translation Engine, which converts it
to the target language text. They are supported with interactive GUI, large database of
vocabulary, etc.

Real Life Applications of AI Research Areas

There is a large array of applications where AI is serving common people in their day-
to-day lives −

S.No
Research Areas Example
.

Expert Systems
1
Examples − Flight-tracking systems, Clinical
systems.

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 Natural Language Processing

2 Examples: Google Now feature, speech

recognition, Automatic voice output.

Neural Networks

Examples − Pattern recognition systems such

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as face recognition, character recognition,
handwriting recognition.

Robotics

Examples − Industrial robots for moving,

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spraying, painting, precision checking, drilling,
cleaning, coating, carving, etc.

Fuzzy Logic Systems

5 Examples − Consumer electronics,

automobiles, etc.

Task Classification of AI
The domain of AI is classified into Formal tasks, Mundane tasks, and Expert tasks.

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EXPERT SYSTEM

Expert systems (ES) are one of the prominent research domains of AI. It is introduced
by the researchers at Stanford University, Computer Science Department.

What are Expert Systems

The expert systems are the computer applications developed to solve complex
problems in a particular domain, at the level of extra-ordinary human intelligence and
expertise.

Characteristics of Expert Systems

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  High performance
 Understandable
 Reliable
 Highly responsive
Capabilities of Expert Systems
The expert systems are capable of −

 Advising
 Instructing and assisting human in decision making
 Demonstrating
 Deriving a solution
 Diagnosing
 Explaining
 Interpreting input
 Predicting results
 Justifying the conclusion
 Suggesting alternative options to a problem
They are incapable of −

 Substituting human decision makers

 Possessing human capabilities
 Producing accurate output for inadequate knowledge base
 Refining their own knowledge
Components of Expert Systems
The components of ES include −

 Knowledge Base
 Inference Engine
 User Interface

Let us see them one by one briefly −

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Knowledge Base
It contains domain-specific and high-quality knowledge. Knowledge is
required to exhibit intelligence. The success of any ES majorly depends upon
the collection of highly accurate and precise knowledge.

What is Knowledge?
The data is collection of facts. The information is organized as data and facts
about the task domain. Data, information, and past experience combined
together are termed as knowledge.

Components of Knowledge Base

The knowledge base of an ES is a store of both, factual and heuristic
knowledge.

 Factual Knowledge − It is the information widely accepted by the

Knowledge Engineers and scholars in the task domain.

 Heuristic Knowledge − It is about practice, accurate judgement, one’s

ability of evaluation, and guessing.

Knowledge representation
It is the method used to organize and formalize the knowledge in the
knowledge base. It is in the form of IF-THEN-ELSE rules.

Knowledge Acquisition

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The success of any expert system majorly depends on the quality,
completeness, and accuracy of the information stored in the knowledge base.

The knowledge base is formed by readings from various experts, scholars, and
the Knowledge Engineers. The knowledge engineer is a person with the
qualities of empathy, quick learning, and case analyzing skills.

He acquires information from subject expert by recording, interviewing, and

observing him at work, etc. He then categorizes and organizes the information
in a meaningful way, in the form of IF-THEN-ELSE rules, to be used by
interference machine. The knowledge engineer also monitors the development
of the ES.

Inference Engine
Use of efficient procedures and rules by the Inference Engine is essential in
deducting a correct, flawless solution.

In case of knowledge-based ES, the Inference Engine acquires and manipulates

the knowledge from the knowledge base to arrive at a particular solution.

In case of rule based ES, it −

 Applies rules repeatedly to the facts, which are obtained from earlier rule
application.

 Adds new knowledge into the knowledge base if required.

 Resolves rules conflict when multiple rules are applicable to a particular

case.

To recommend a solution, the Inference Engine uses the following strategies −

 Forward Chaining
 Backward Chaining
Forward Chaining
It is a strategy of an expert system to answer the question, “What can happen
next?”

Here, the Inference Engine follows the chain of conditions and derivations and
finally deduces the outcome. It considers all the facts and rules, and sorts them
before concluding to a solution.

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This strategy is followed for working on conclusion, result, or effect. For
example, prediction of share market status as an effect of changes in interest
rates.

Backward Chaining
With this strategy, an expert system finds out the answer to the question, “Why
this happened?”

On the basis of what has already happened, the Inference Engine tries to find
out which conditions could have happened in the past for this result. This
strategy is followed for finding out cause or reason. For example, diagnosis of
blood cancer in humans.

User Interface
User interface provides interaction between user of the ES and the ES itself. It
is generally Natural Language Processing so as to be used by the user who is
well-versed in the task domain. The user of the ES need not be necessarily an
expert in Artificial Intelligence.

It explains how the ES has arrived at a particular recommendation. The

explanation may appear in the following forms −

 Natural language displayed on screen.

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  Verbal narrations in natural language.
 Listing of rule numbers displayed on the screen.
The user interface makes it easy to trace the credibility of the deductions.

Requirements of Efficient ES User Interface

 It should help users to accomplish their goals in shortest possible way.

 It should be designed to work for user’s existing or desired work

practices.

 Its technology should be adaptable to user’s requirements; not the other

way round.

 It should make efficient use of user input.

Expert Systems Limitations

No technology can offer easy and complete solution. Large systems are costly,
require significant development time, and computer resources. ESs have their
limitations which include −

 Limitations of the technology

 Difficult knowledge acquisition
 ES are difficult to maintain
 High development costs

Applications of Expert System

The following table shows where ES can be applied.

Application Description

Design Domain Camera lens design, automobile design.

Diagnosis Systems to deduce cause of disease from

Medical Domain observed data, conduction medical operations on
humans.

Monitoring Systems Comparing data continuously with observed system or

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 with prescribed behavior such as leakage monitoring in
long petroleum pipeline.

Process Control
Controlling a physical process based on monitoring.
Systems

Knowledge Domain Finding out faults in vehicles, computers.

Detection of possible fraud, suspicious transactions,

Finance/Commerce stock market trading, Airline scheduling, cargo
scheduling.

Expert System Technology

There are several levels of ES technologies available. Expert systems
technologies include −

 Expert System Development Environment − The ES development

environment includes hardware and tools. They are −

o Workstations, minicomputers, mainframes.

o High level Symbolic Programming Languages such as LISt

Programming (LISP) and PROgrammation en LOGique
(PROLOG).

o Large databases.

 Tools − They reduce the effort and cost involved in developing an expert
system to large extent.

o Powerful editors and debugging tools with multi-windows.

o They provide rapid prototyping

o Have Inbuilt definitions of model, knowledge representation, and

inference design.

 Shells − A shell is nothing but an expert system without knowledge base.

A shell provides the developers with knowledge acquisition, inference
engine, user interface, and explanation facility. For example, few shells
are given below −

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 o Java Expert System Shell (JESS) that provides fully developed
Java API for creating an expert system.

o Vidwan, a shell developed at the National Centre for Software

Technology, Mumbai in 1993. It enables knowledge encoding in
the form of IF-THEN rules.

Development of Expert Systems: General Steps

The process of ES development is iterative. Steps in developing the ES include
−

Identify Problem Domain

 The problem must be suitable for an expert system to solve it.

 Find the experts in task domain for the ES project.
 Establish cost-effectiveness of the system.
Design the System
 Identify the ES Technology

 Know and establish the degree of integration with the other systems and
databases.

 Realize how the concepts can represent the domain knowledge best.

Develop the Prototype

From Knowledge Base: The knowledge engineer works to −

 Acquire domain knowledge from the expert.

 Represent it in the form of If-THEN-ELSE rules.

Test and Refine the Prototype

 The knowledge engineer uses sample cases to test the prototype for any
deficiencies in performance.

 End users test the prototypes of the ES.

Develop and Complete the Expert Systems

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  Test and ensure the interaction of the ES with all elements of its
environment, including end users, databases, and other information
systems.

 Document the ES project well.

 Train the user to use ES.

Maintain the Expert Systems

 Keep the knowledge base up-to-date by regular review and update.

 Cater for new interfaces with other information systems, as those systems
evolve.

Benefits of Expert Systems

 Availability − They are easily available due to mass production of
software.

 Less Production Cost − Production cost is reasonable. This makes them

affordable.

 Speed − They offer great speed. They reduce the amount of work an
individual puts in.

 Less Error Rate − Error rate is low as compared to human errors.

 Reducing Risk − They can work in the environment dangerous to

humans.

 Steady response − They work steadily without getting motional, tensed

or fatigued.

AI - Search Algorithms

Searching is the universal technique of problem solving in AI. There are some single-
player games such as tile games, Sudoku, crossword, etc. The search algorithms help
you to search for a particular position in such games.

Single Agent Path finding Problems

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The games such as 3X3 eight-tile, 4X4 fifteen-tile, and 5X5 twenty four tile puzzles are
single-agent-path-finding challenges. They consist of a matrix of tiles with a blank tile.
The player is required to arrange the tiles by sliding a tile either vertically or
horizontally into a blank space with the aim of accomplishing some objective.

The other examples of single agent pathfinding problems are Travelling Salesman
Problem, Rubik’s Cube, and Theorem Proving.

Search Terminology
 Problem Space − It is the environment in which the search takes place.
(A set of states and set of operators to change those states)

 Problem Instance − It is Initial state + Goal state.

 Problem Space Graph − It represents problem state. States are shown

by nodes and operators are shown by edges.

 Depth of a problem − Length of a shortest path or shortest sequence of

operators from Initial State to goal state.

 Space Complexity − The maximum number of nodes that are stored in

memory.

 Time Complexity − The maximum number of nodes that are created.

 Admissibility − A property of an algorithm to always find an optimal

solution.

 Branching Factor − The average number of child nodes in the problem

space graph.

 Depth − Length of the shortest path from initial state to goal state.

Brute-Force Search Strategies

They are most simple, as they do not need any domain-specific knowledge.
They work fine with small number of possible states.

Requirements −

 State description
 A set of valid operators
 Initial state

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  Goal state description
Breadth-First Search
It starts from the root node, explores the neighboring nodes first and moves
towards the next level neighbors. It generates one tree at a time until the
solution is found. It can be implemented using FIFO queue data structure. This
method provides shortest path to the solution.

If branching factor (average number of child nodes for a given node) = b and
depth = d, then number of nodes at level d = bd.

The total no of nodes created in worst case is b + b2 + b3 + … + bd.

Disadvantage − Since each level of nodes is saved for creating next one, it
consumes a lot of memory space. Space requirement to store nodes is
exponential.

Its complexity depends on the number of nodes. It can check duplicate nodes.

Depth-First Search
It is implemented in recursion with LIFO stack data structure. It creates the
same set of nodes as Breadth-First method, only in the different order.

As the nodes on the single path are stored in each iteration from root to leaf
node, the space requirement to store nodes is linear. With branching factor b
and depth as m, the storage space is bm.

Disadvantage − This algorithm may not terminate and go on infinitely on one

path. The solution to this issue is to choose a cut-off depth. If the ideal cut-off
is d, and if chosen cut-off is lesser than d, then this algorithm may fail. If
chosen cut-off is more than d, then execution time increases.

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Its complexity depends on the number of paths. It cannot check duplicate
nodes.

Bidirectional Search
It searches forward from initial state and backward from goal state till both
meet to identify a common state.

The path from initial state is concatenated with the inverse path from the goal
state. Each search is done only up to half of the total path.

Uniform Cost Search

Sorting is done in increasing cost of the path to a node. It always expands the
least cost node. It is identical to Breadth First search if each transition has the
same cost.

It explores paths in the increasing order of cost.

Disadvantage − There can be multiple long paths with the cost ≤ C*. Uniform
Cost search must explore them all.

Iterative Deepening Depth-First Search

It performs depth-first search to level 1, starts over, executes a complete depth-
first search to level 2, and continues in such way till the solution is found.

It never creates a node until all lower nodes are generated. It only saves a stack
of nodes. The algorithm ends when it finds a solution at depth d. The number
of nodes created at depth d is bd and at depth d-1 is bd-1.

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Comparison of Various Algorithms Complexities
Let us see the performance of algorithms based on various criteria −

Interactiv
Breadth Bidirectiona Uniform
Criterion Depth First e
First l Cost
Deepening

Time bd bm bd/2 bd bd

Space bd bm bd/2 bd bd

Optimality Yes No Yes Yes Yes

Completenes
Yes No Yes Yes Yes
s

ROBOTICS

Robotics is a domain in artificial intelligence that deals with the study of

creating intelligent and efficient robots.

What are Robots

Robots are the artificial agents acting in real world environment.

Objective

Robots are aimed at manipulating the objects by perceiving, picking, moving,

modifying the physical properties of object, destroying it, or to have an effect

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thereby freeing manpower from doing repetitive functions without getting
bored, distracted, or exhausted.

What is Robotics

Robotics is a branch of AI, which is composed of Electrical Engineering,

Mechanical Engineering, and Computer Science for designing, construction,
and application of robots.

Aspects of Robotics

 The robots have mechanical construction, form, or shape designed to

accomplish a particular task.

 They have electrical components which power and control the

machinery.

 They contain some level of computer program that determines what,

when and how a robot does something

Difference in Robot System and Other AI Program

Here is the difference between the two −

AI Programs Robots
They usually operate in
They operate in real physical world
computer-stimulated worlds.
The input to an AI program is in Inputs to robots is analog signal in the form of
symbols and rules. speech waveform or images
They need general purpose They need special hardware with sensors and
computers to operate on. effectors.

Robot Locomotion

Locomotion is the mechanism that makes a robot capable of moving in its

environment. There are various types of locomotions −

 Legged
 Wheeled
 Combination of Legged and Wheeled Locomotion

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  Tracked slip/skid

Legged Locomotion

 This type of locomotion consumes more power while demonstrating

walk, jump, trot, hop, climb up or down, etc.

 It requires more number of motors to accomplish a movement. It is suited

for rough as well as smooth terrain where irregular or too smooth surface
makes it consume more power for a wheeled locomotion. It is little
difficult to implement because of stability issues.

 It comes with the variety of one, two, four, and six legs. If a robot has
multiple legs then leg coordination is necessary for locomotion.

Hence there are six possible different events −

 Lifting the Left leg

 Releasing the Left leg
 Lifting the Right leg
 Releasing the Right leg
 Lifting both the legs together
 Releasing both the legs together

Wheeled Locomotion

It requires fewer number of motors to accomplish a movement. It is little easy to

implement as there are less stability issues in case of more number of wheels. It
is power efficient as compared to legged locomotion.

 Standard wheel − Rotates around the wheel axle and around the contact

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  Castor wheel − Rotates around the wheel axle and the offset steering
joint.

 Swedish 45o and Swedish 90o wheels − Omni-wheel, rotates around the
contact point, around the wheel axle, and around the rollers.

 Ball or spherical wheel − Omnidirectional wheel, technically difficult to

implement.

Slip/Skid Locomotion

In this type, the vehicles use tracks as in a tank. The robot is steered by moving
the tracks with different speeds in the same or opposite direction. It offers
stability because of large contact area of track and ground.

COMPONENTS OF A ROBOT
Robots are constructed with the following −

 Power Supply − The robots are powered by batteries, solar power,

hydraulic, or pneumatic power sources.

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  Actuators − They convert energy into movement.

 Electric motors (AC/DC) − They are required for rotational movement.

 Pneumatic Air Muscles − They contract almost 40% when air is sucked in
them.

 Muscle Wires − They contract by 5% when electric current is passed

through them.

 Piezo Motors and Ultrasonic Motors − Best for industrial robots.

 Sensors − They provide knowledge of real time information on the task

environment. Robots are equipped with vision sensors to be to compute the
depth in the environment. A tactile sensor imitates the mechanical properties of
touch receptors of human fingertips.

COMPUTER VISION

This is a technology of AI with which the robots can see. The computer vision plays
vital role in the domains of safety, security, health, access, and entertainment.

Computer vision automatically extracts, analyzes, and comprehends useful information

from a single image or an array of images. This process involves development of
algorithms to accomplish automatic visual comprehension.

HARDWARE OF COMPUTER VISION SYSTEM

This involves −

 Power supply
 Image acquisition device such as camera
 a processor
 a software
 A display device for monitoring the system
 Accessories such as camera stands, cables, and connectors

TASKS OF COMPUTER VISION

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  OCR − In the domain of computers, Optical Character Reader, a software to
convert scanned documents into editable text, which accompanies a scanner.

 Face Detection − Many state-of-the-art cameras come with this feature,

which enables to read the face and take the picture of that perfect expression. It
is used to let a user access the software on correct match.

 Object Recognition − They are installed in supermarkets, cameras, high-end

cars such as BMW, GM, and Volvo.

 Estimating Position − It is estimating position of an object with respect to

camera as in position of tumor in human’s body.

APPLICATION DOMAINS OF COMPUTER VISION

 Agriculture
 Autonomous vehicles
 Biometrics
 Character recognition
 Forensics, security, and surveillance
 Industrial quality inspection
 Face recognition
 Gesture analysis
 Geoscience
 Medical imagery
 Pollution monitoring
 Process control
 Remote sensing
 Robotics
 Transport
APPLICATIONS OF ROBOTICS
The robotics has been instrumental in the various domains such as −

 Industries − Robots are used for handling material, cutting, welding, color
coating, drilling, polishing, etc.

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  Military − Autonomous robots can reach inaccessible and hazardous zones
during war. A robot named Daksh, developed by Defense Research and
Development Organization (DRDO), is in function to destroy life-threatening
objects safely.

 Medicine − The robots are capable of carrying out hundreds of clinical tests
simultaneously, rehabilitating permanently disabled people, and performing
complex surgeries such as brain tumors.

 Exploration − The robot rock climbers used for space exploration,

underwater drones used for ocean exploration are to name a few.

 Entertainment − Disney’s engineers have created hundreds of robots for

movie making.

NATURAL LANGUAGE PROCESSING (NLP)

Natural Language Processing (NLP) refers to AI method of communicating with an

intelligent systems using a natural language such as English.

Processing of Natural Language is required when you want an intelligent system like
robot to perform as per your instructions, when you want to hear decision from a
dialogue based clinical expert system, etc.

The field of NLP involves making computers to perform useful tasks with the natural
languages humans use. The input and output of an NLP system can be −

 Speech
 Written Text
COMPONENTS OF NLP
There are two components of NLP as given −

NATURAL LANGUAGE UNDERSTANDING (NLU)

Understanding involves the following tasks −

 Mapping the given input in natural language into useful representations.

 Analyzing different aspects of the language.
NATURAL LANGUAGE GENERATION (NLG)
It is the process of producing meaningful phrases and sentences in the form of natural
language from some internal representation.

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It involves −

 Text planning − It includes retrieving the relevant content from knowledge

base.

 Sentence planning − It includes choosing required words, forming

meaningful phrases, setting tone of the sentence.

 Text Realization − It is mapping sentence plan into sentence structure.

The NLU is harder than NLG.

DIFFICULTIES IN NLU
NL has an extremely rich form and structure.

It is very ambiguous. There can be different levels of ambiguity −

 Lexical ambiguity − It is at very primitive level such as word-level.

 For example, treating the word “board” as noun or verb

 Syntax Level ambiguity − A sentence can be parsed in different ways.

 For example, “He lifted the beetle with red cap.” − Did he use cap to lift the
beetle or he lifted a beetle that had red cap

 Referential ambiguity − Referring to something using pronouns. For

example, Rima went to Gauri. She said, “I am tired.” − Exactly who is tired

 One input can mean different meanings.

 Many inputs can mean the same thing.

NLP Terminology
 Phonology − It is study of organizing sound systematically.

 Morphology − It is a study of construction of words from primitive

meaningful units.

 Morpheme − It is primitive unit of meaning in a language.

 Syntax − It refers to arranging words to make a sentence. It also involves

determining the structural role of words in the sentence and in phrases.

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 Semantics − It is concerned with the meaning of words and how to combine
words into meaningful phrases and sentences.

 Pragmatics − It deals with using and understanding sentences in different

situations and how the interpretation of the sentence is affected.

 Discourse − It deals with how the immediately preceding sentence can affect
the interpretation of the next sentence.

 World Knowledge − It includes the general knowledge about the world.

Steps in NLP
There are general five steps −

 Lexical Analysis − It involves identifying and analyzing the structure of

words. Lexicon of a language means the collection of words and phrases
in a language. Lexical analysis is dividing the whole chunk of txt into
paragraphs, sentences, and words.

 Syntactic Analysis (Parsing) − It involves analysis of words in the

sentence for grammar and arranging words in a manner that shows the
relationship among the words. The sentence such as “The school goes to
boy” is rejected by English syntactic analyzer.

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  Semantic Analysis − It draws the exact meaning or the dictionary
meaning from the text. The text is checked for meaningfulness. It is done
by mapping syntactic structures and objects in the task domain. The
semantic analyzer disregards sentence such as “hot ice-cream”.

 Discourse Integration − The meaning of any sentence depends upon the

meaning of the sentence just before it. In addition, it also brings about
the meaning of immediately succeeding sentence.

 Pragmatic Analysis − During this, what was said is re-interpreted on

what it actually meant. It involves deriving those aspects of language
which require real world knowledge.

Implementation Aspects of Syntactic Analysis

There are a number of algorithms researchers have developed for syntactic
analysis, but we consider only the following simple methods −

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  Context-Free Grammar
 Top-Down Parser
Let us see them in detail −

Context-Free Grammar
It is the grammar that consists rules with a single symbol on the left-hand side
of the rewrite rules. Let us create grammar to parse a sentence − “The bird
pecks the grains”

Articles (DET) − a | an | the

Nouns − bird | birds | grain | grains

Noun Phrase (NP) − Article + Noun | Article + Adjective + Noun

= DET N | DET ADJ N

Verbs − pecks | pecking | pecked

Verb Phrase (VP) − NP V | V NP

Adjectives (ADJ) − beautiful | small | chirping

The parse tree breaks down the sentence into structured parts so that the
computer can easily understand and process it. In order for the parsing
algorithm to construct this parse tree, a set of rewrite rules, which describe
what tree structures are legal, need to be constructed.

These rules say that a certain symbol may be expanded in the tree by a
sequence of other symbols. According to first order logic rule, if there are two
strings Noun Phrase (NP) and Verb Phrase (VP), then the string combined by
NP followed by VP is a sentence. The rewrite rules for the sentence are as
follows −

S → NP VP

NP → DET N | DET ADJ N

VP → V NP

Lexocon −

DET → a | the
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ADJ → beautiful | perching

N → bird | birds | grain | grains

V → peck | pecks | pecking

The parse tree can be created as shown −

Now consider the above rewrite rules. Since V can be replaced by both, "peck"
or "pecks", sentences such as "The bird peck the grains" with wrong subject-
verb agreement are also permitted.

Merit − The simplest style of grammar, therefore widely used one.

Demerits

 They are not highly precise. For example, “The grains peck the bird”, is a
syntactically correct according to parser, but even if it makes no sense,
parser takes it as a correct sentence.

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  To bring out high precision, multiple sets of grammar need to be
prepared. It may require a completely different sets of rules for parsing
singular and plural variations, passive sentences, etc., which can lead to
creation of huge set of rules that are unmanageable.

Top-Down Parser
Here, the parser starts with the S symbol and attempts to rewrite it into a
sequence of terminal symbols that matches the classes of the words in the input
sentence until it consists entirely of terminal symbols.

These are then checked with the input sentence to see if it matched. If not, the
process is started over again with a different set of rules. This is repeated until
a specific rule is found which describes the structure of the sentence.

Merit

It is simple to implement.

Demerits

 It is inefficient, as the search process has to be repeated if an error occurs.

 Slow speed of working.

FUZZY LOGIC SYSTEM

Fuzzy Logic Systems (FLS) produce acceptable but definite output in response to
incomplete, ambiguous, distorted, or inaccurate (fuzzy) input.

WHAT IS FUZZY LOGIC

Fuzzy Logic (FL) is a method of reasoning that resembles human reasoning. The
approach of FL imitates the way of decision making in humans that involves all
intermediate possibilities between digital values YES and NO.

The conventional logic block that a computer can understand takes precise input and
produces a definite output as TRUE or FALSE, which is equivalent to human’s YES or
NO.

The inventor of fuzzy logic, Lotfi Zadeh, observed that unlike computers, the human
decision making includes a range of possibilities between YES and NO, such as −

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 CERTAINLY
YES
POSSIBLY YES
CANNOT SAY
POSSIBLY NO
CERTAINLY NO
The fuzzy logic works on the levels of possibilities of input to achieve the definite
output.

Implementation
 It can be implemented in systems with various sizes and capabilities ranging
from small micro-controllers to large, networked, workstation-based control
systems.

 It can be implemented in hardware, software, or a combination of both.

WHY FUZZY LOGIC

Fuzzy logic is useful for commercial and practical purposes.

 It can control machines and consumer products.

 It may not give accurate reasoning, but acceptable reasoning.
 Fuzzy logic helps to deal with the uncertainty in engineering.
Fuzzy Logic Systems Architecture

It has four main parts as shown −

 Fuzzification Module − It transforms the system inputs, which are crisp

numbers, into fuzzy sets. It splits the input signal into five steps such as –

LP x is Large Positive
MP x is Medium Positive
S x is Small
MN x is Medium Negative
LN x is Large Negative
 Knowledge Base − It stores IF-THEN rules provided by experts.

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  Inference Engine − It simulates the human reasoning process by making
fuzzy inference on the inputs and IF-THEN rules.

 Defuzzification Module − It transforms the fuzzy set obtained by the

inference engine into a crisp value.

Application Areas of Fuzzy Logic

The key application areas of fuzzy logic are as given −

Automotive Systems

 Automatic Gearboxes
 Four-Wheel Steering
 Vehicle environment control
Consumer Electronic Goods

 Hi-Fi Systems
 Photocopiers
 Still and Video Cameras
 Television
Domestic Goods

 Microwave Ovens
 Refrigerators
 Toasters
 Vacuum Cleaners
 Washing Machines
Environment Control

 Air Conditioners/Dryers/Heaters
 Humidifiers
Advantages of FLSs
 Mathematical concepts within fuzzy reasoning are very simple.

 You can modify a FLS by just adding or deleting rules due to flexibility of
fuzzy logic.

 Fuzzy logic Systems can take imprecise, distorted, noisy input information.
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  FLSs are easy to construct and understand.

 Fuzzy logic is a solution to complex problems in all fields of life, including

medicine, as it resembles human reasoning and decision making.

Disadvantages of FLSs

 There is no systematic approach to fuzzy system designing.

 They are understandable only when simple.
 They are suitable for the problems which do not need high accuracy.

ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS (ANNS)

The inventor of the first neuro computer, Dr. Robert Hecht-Nielsen, defines a neural
network as −".a computing system made up of a number of simple, highly
interconnected processing elements, which process information by their dynamic state
response to external inputs.”

BASIC STRUCTURE OF ANNS

The idea of ANNs is based on the belief that working of human brain by making the
right connections, can be imitated using silicon and wires as living neurons and
dendrites.

The human brain is composed of 100 billion nerve cells called neurons. They are
connected to other thousand cells by Axons. Stimuli from external environment or
inputs from sensory organs are accepted by dendrites. These inputs create electric
impulses, which quickly travel through the neural network. A neuron can then send the
message to other neuron to handle the issue or does not send it forward.

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ANNs are composed of multiple nodes, which imitate biological neurons of human
brain. The neurons are connected by links and they interact with each other. The nodes
can take input data and perform simple operations on the data. The result of these
operations is passed to other neurons. The output at each node is called its activation
or node value.

TYPES OF ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS

There are two Artificial Neural Network topologies – Feed Forward and Feedback.

Feed Forward ANN

The information flow is unidirectional. A unit sends information to other unit from
which it does not receive any information. There are no feedback loops. They are used
in pattern generation/recognition/classification. They have fixed inputs and outputs.

Feed Back ANN

Here, feedback loops are allowed. They are used in content addressable memories.

Machine Learning in ANNs

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ANNs are capable of learning and they need to be trained. There are several learning
strategies −

 Supervised Learning − It involves a teacher that is scholar than the ANN

itself. For example, the teacher feeds some example data about which the teacher
already knows the answers.

For example, pattern recognizing. The ANN comes up with guesses while
recognizing. Then the teacher provides the ANN with the answers. The network
then compares it guesses with the teacher’s “correct” answers and makes
adjustments according to errors.

 Unsupervised Learning − It is required when there is no example data set

with known answers. For example, searching for a hidden pattern. In this case,
clustering i.e. dividing a set of elements into groups according to some unknown
pattern is carried out based on the existing data sets present.

 Reinforcement Learning − This strategy built on observation. The ANN

makes a decision by observing its environment. If the observation is negative,
the network adjusts its weights to be able to make a different required decision
the next time.

APPLICATIONS OF NEURAL NETWORKS

They can perform tasks that are easy for a human but difficult for a machine −

 Aerospace − Autopilot aircrafts, aircraft fault detection.

 Automotive − Automobile guidance systems.

 Military − Weapon orientation and steering, target tracking, object

discrimination, facial recognition, signal/image identification.

 Electronics − Code sequence prediction, IC chip layout, chip failure

analysis, machine vision, voice synthesis.

 Financial − Real estate appraisal, loan advisor, mortgage screening,

corporate bond rating, portfolio trading program, corporate financial analysis,
currency value prediction, document readers, credit application evaluators.

 Industrial − Manufacturing process control, product design and analysis,

quality inspection systems, welding quality analysis, paper quality prediction,
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 chemical product design analysis, dynamic modeling of chemical process
systems, machine maintenance analysis, project bidding, planning, and
management.

 Medical − Cancer cell analysis, EEG and ECG analysis, prosthetic design,
transplant time optimizer.

 Speech − Speech recognition, speech classification, text to speech

conversion.

 Telecommunications − Image and data compression, automated information

services, real-time spoken language translation.

 Transportation − Truck Brake system diagnosis, vehicle scheduling, routing

systems.

 Software − Pattern Recognition in facial recognition, optical character

recognition, etc.

 Time Series Prediction − ANNs are used to make predictions on stocks and
natural calamities.

 Signal Processing − Neural networks can be trained to process an audio

signal and filter it appropriately in the hearing aids.

 Control − ANNs are often used to make steering decisions of physical

vehicles.

 Anomaly Detection − As ANNs are expert at recognizing patterns, they can

also be trained to generate an output when something unusual occurs that misfits
the pattern.

Artificial Intelligence – Issues

AI is developing with such an incredible speed, sometimes it seems magical.

There is an opinion among researchers and developers that AI could grow so
immensely strong that it would be difficult for humans to control.

Humans developed AI systems by introducing into them every possible

intelligence they could, for which the humans themselves now seem
threatened.

Threat to Privacy
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An AI program that recognizes speech and understands natural language is
theoretically capable of understanding each conversation on e-mails and
telephones.

Threat to Human Dignity

AI systems have already started replacing the human beings in few industries.
It should not replace people in the sectors where they are holding dignified
positions which are pertaining to ethics such as nursing, surgeon, judge, police
officer, etc.

Threat to Safety
The self-improving AI systems can become so mighty than humans that could
be very difficult to stop from achieving their goals, which may lead to
unintended consequences.

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Pattern Recognition & Biometrics
Pattern recognition deals with identifying a pattern and confirming it again. In
general, a pattern can be a fingerprint image, a handwritten cursive word, a
human face, a speech signal, a bar code, or a web page on the Internet.

The individual patterns are often grouped into various categories based on their
properties. When the patterns of same properties are grouped together, the
resultant group is also a pattern, which is often called a pattern class.

Pattern recognition is the science for observing, distinguishing the patterns of

interest, and making correct decisions about the patterns or pattern classes.
Thus, a biometric system applies pattern recognition to identify and classify the
individuals, by comparing it with the stored templates.

Pattern Recognition in Biometrics

The pattern recognition technique conducts the following tasks −

 Classification − Identifying handwritten characters, CAPTCHAs,

distinguishing humans from computers.

 Segmentation − Detecting text regions or face regions in images.

 Syntactic Pattern Recognition − Determining how a group of math

symbols or operators are related, and how they form a meaningful
expression.

The following table highlights the role of pattern recognition in biometrics −

Pattern Recognition Task Input Output

Character Recognition
Optical signals or Strokes Name of the character
(Signature Recognition)

Speaker Recognition Voice Identity of the speaker

Fingerprint, Facial image,

Image Identity of the user
hand geometry image

Components of Pattern Recognition

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Pattern recognition technique extracts a random pattern of human trait into a
compact digital signature, which can serve as a biological identifier. The
biometric systems use pattern recognition techniques to classify the users and
identify them separately.

The components of pattern recognition are as follows −

Popular Algorithms in Pattern Recognition

The most popular pattern generation algorithms are −

Nearest Neighbor Algorithm

You need to take the unknown individual’s vector and compute its distance
from all the patterns in the database. The smallest distance gives the best
match.

Back-Propagation (Backprop) Algorithm

It is a bit complex but very useful algorithm that involves a lot of mathematical
computations.

Biometric System Security

The operations of a biometric system depend heavily on the input devices that
are subjected to operational limitations. At times, the devices themselves may

51
fail to capture the necessary input samples. They may not capture the sample
sufficiently. This makes the system unreliable and vulnerable.

The more vulnerable a biometric system is, the more insecure it is.

Biometric System Vulnerability

There are the two major causes of biometric system vulnerability −

System Failures
There are two ways in which a biometric system can fail to work −

 Intrinsic failures − They are failures such as non-working sensors,

failure of feature extraction, matching, or decision making modules, etc.

 Failures due to attacks − They are due to loopholes in the biometric

system design, availability of any computations to the attackers, insider
attacks from unethical system administrators, etc.

Non-secure Infrastructure
The biometric system can be accessible to malicious users if its hardware,
software, and user data are not safeguarded.

Risks with Biometric System Security

The security of a biometric system is important as the biometric data is not
easy to revoke or replace. There are following prominent risks regarding
security of biometric systems −

Risk of User Data Being Stolen

If the biometric system is vulnerable, the hacker can breach the security of it
and collect the user data recorded in the database. It creates more hazards to
privacy.

Risk of User Data Getting Compromised

After acquiring the biometric sample, the hacker can present a fake sample to
the system. If user data is compromised, it remains compromised forever. The
obvious reason is, user has only a limited number of biometrics and they are
difficult to replace, unlike passwords or ID cards.

Though biometric data is encrypted and stored, it needs to be decrypted for

matching purpose. At the time of matching a hacker may breach the security.

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Biometric System Security
A number of solutions are proposed to address the biometric system security
issue. Biometric templates are never stored in the raw form. They are
encrypted; sometimes even twice.

In the case of biometrics, there are various resources involved such as humans
(subjects or candidates), entities (system components or processes), and
biometric data (information). The security requirements of confidentiality,
integrity, authenticity, non-repudiation, and availability are essential in
biometrics. Let us go through them briefly −

Authenticity
It is the quality or the state of being pure, genuine, or original, rather than being
reproduced. Information is authentic when it is in the same state and quality
when it was created, stored, or transferred.

There are two authenticities in a biometric system − entity authenticity and

data origin authenticity. Entity authenticity confirms that all entities involved
in the overall processing are the ones they claim to be. Data origin authenticity
ensures genuineness and originality of data. For example, the biometrics data is
captured with sensor devices. The captured data that came from a genuine
sensor is not spoofed from a previous recording.

Confidentiality
It is limiting information access and disclosure to authorized users and
preventing access by or disclosure to unauthorized people. In cases of a
biometric system, it mainly refers to biometric and related authentication
information when it is captured and stored, which needs to be kept secret from
unauthorized entities.

The biometric information should only be accessible completely to the person

it belongs. During identification and variation, the accessing candidate needs to
be restricted with appropriate security measures.

Integrity
It is the condition of being complete and unaltered that refers to its consistency,
accuracy, and correctness. For a biometric system, the integrity should be high.
Any malicious manipulations during operation and storage should be kept
away or detected earliest by including its notification and correction.

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Non-repudiation
It is identification of involved resources such as entities and components. It is
also seen as accountability. For example, it prohibits a sender or a recipient of
biometric information from denying having sent or received biometric
information.

Availability
A resource has the property of availability with respect to a set of entities if all
members of the set can access the resource. An aspect called reachability
ensures that the humans or system processes either can or cannot be contacted,
depending on user interests.

Attackers can make the system unusable for genuine users, thus preventing
them from using authenticated applications. These attackers target the
availability of the information.

Criteria for Generating Biometric Templates

Here are the criteria for generating biometric templates −

 Ensuring that the template comes from a human candidate and is

captured by a genuine sensor and software.

 Securing a biometric template by encryption with irreversibility

properties. This makes it difficult for hackers to compute the original
biometric information from secure template.

 Creating an unlikable (unique) biometric template. A biometric system

should not be able to access the template of the same candidate recorded
into another biometric system. In case if a hacker manages to retrieve a
biometric template from one biometric system, he should not be able to
use this template to gain access through another biometric system even
though both verifications may be based on the same biometric template
of the candidate. Further, an unlinkable biometric system should make it
impossible to derive any information based on the relation between two
templates.

 Creating a cancellable and renewable template. It emphasizes on the

ability to cancel or deactivate the compromised template and reproduce
another one, in a similar manner that a lost or stolen smartcard can be
reproduced.

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 The ‘renewable’ and ‘unlinkable’ characteristics are achieved through
salting techniques. Salting adds randomly generated unique data known
as ‘salt’ to the original information to make it distinct from the others.

 Designing a biometric system accuracy with respect to both FAR and

FRR.

 Selecting a suitable encryption algorithm carefully. Some algorithms

may amplify even small variations inherent in an individual’s biometric
data, which can lead to higher FRR.

 Using an important encryption technique such as hashing method,

which is effective when a different permutation is applied with each
template generation. Different permutations ensure the uniqueness of
each template despite using the same input biometric data.

 Employing an effective protection scheme to elevate the performance of

the system.

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