2.5 Four Stroke Cycle 2.6 Two Stroke Cycle

HOLY ANGEL UNIVERSITY – Aeronautical Engineering
2.5 FOUR STROKE CYCLE

2.6 TWO STROKE CYCLE
POWERPLANT 1 – 2.5 Four Stroke Cycle and 2.6 Two Stroke Cycle
FOUR STROKE CYCLE

Has 4 strokes and 5 Events
Strokes: Intake, Compression, Power, and Exhaust
Events: Intake, Compression, Ignition, Power, and Exhaust
One complete four-stroke cycle requires two revolutions of the
crankshaft.
TWO STROKE CYCLE

Similar with the four stroke cycle that five events occur in each
operating cycle however, the five events occur in two piston strokes.
One cycle is completed in ONE Crankshaft Revolution
Strokes: Intake, Compression, Power, and Exhaust
Events: Intake, Compression, Ignition, Power, and Exhaust
TWO STROKE CYCLE OPERATION
Figure 1-62. In a two-stroke engine, the piston controls the flow of gases into and
out of the cylinder through the intake and exhaust ports. This eliminates the need
for either an intake or exhaust valve and their associated operating mechanisms.
This simplifies a two-stroke engine's construction and minimizes weight.
OPERATION
As a two-stroke cycle begins, the
piston moves up and two events occur
simultaneously.
The piston compresses the fuel/air
charge in the cylinder and creates an
area of low pressure within the
crankcase.
This low pressure pulls fuel and air
into the crankcase through a check
valve.
Once the piston is a few degrees
before top dead center, ignition
occurs and the fuel/air mixture
begins to burn.
As the piston passes top dead center

the pressure from the expanding
gases begin to force the piston
downward on the power stroke.
This downward stroke also
compresses the fuel/air charge in the
crankcase.
As the piston approaches the bottom
of the power stroke, the exhaust port
is uncovered and spent gases are
purged from the cylinder.
A split second later, the piston
uncovers the intake port and allows
the pressurized fuel/air charge in the
crankcase to enter the cylinder.
The cycle then repeats itself as the
piston compresses the fuel/air charge
in the cylinder and draws a fresh
fuel/air charge into the crankcase.
BAFFLED PISTON HEADS

To help prevent the incoming fuel/air mixture from mixing with the
exhaust gases, most two-stroke engines utilize pistons with baffled
heads that deflect the fuel/air charge upward away from exiting
exhaust gases.
Baffled heads do not, however, completely eliminate the mixing
problem. Since both the exhaust and intake events take place almost
simultaneously, some of the fuel/air charge becomes diluted by the
exhaust gases and some is discharged out the exhaust port before
being compressed and ignited. This reduces the engine's overall
efficiency
The extreme simplicity and light weight of a two-stroke cycle engine

make it useful for such applications as chain saws, lawn mowers, and
ultralight aircraft. However, the two-stroke engine's use is limited for
aviation applications because it is less efficient and more difficult to
cool than the four-cycle engine.
FOUR STROKE VS TWO STROKE
Four Stroke Two Stroke

Slower wear on moving parts Fewer moving parts to produce
compared to two stroke same output as four stroke
Fuel efficient Cheaper to maintain
More environmentally friendly; in Smaller, lighter, and simpler in
a 2-stroke engine, burnt oil is construction and design
also released into the air with the
exhaust.
2.7 WANKEL CYCLE

POWERPLANT 1 – 2.7 Wankel Cycle
HISTORY
Designed by German engineer Felix Wankel in 1954
Manufactured mainly by Mazda, currently used in Mazda RX-8
Extremely lightweight and small when compared
to engines with similar power output
Used in a lot of aircraft
Main disadvantage is fuel inefficiency

WANKEL ENGINE
Wankel Rotary engines are quite ingenious. They arose as an attempt to challenge
piston-based engines, and proved that sufficient power can be created without the
reciprocating motion of pistons. They rely on very few moving parts to produce a
power output and manage to utilize these few parts in a very clever multitasking
manner.

PARTS

WANKEL ENGINE
It is an internal combustion engine which uses the same principle of converting
pressure into rotating motion, but without the vibrations and mechanical stress at high
rotational speeds of the piston engine.
The Wankel engine works in the same 4-stroke cycle as the reciprocating piston
engine, with the central rotor successively executing the four processes of intake,
compression, ignition (combustion) and exhaust inside the trochoid chamber.

HOW DOES IT WORK?

Induction
→As the tip of the rotor passes the inlet

port, the following chamber begins to increase
in size due to the eccentric orbit of the rotor.
This causes fuel/air mixture to be sucked into
the chamber.

Compression
→As the rotor continues to revolve, the

chamber begins to decrease in size,
compressing the fuel/air mixture ready
for igniting.

Ignition
→As the chamber passes over the

spark plugs, they fire to ignite the
mixture. All modern Wankel engines have
two spark plugs to ensure that the
fuel/air mixture burns evenly throughout
the chamber.

Exhaust
→The expansion of the burning gases forces the

rotor round its cycle, passing over the exhaust port
where the gases are forced out of the chamber. This
cycle goes on in all three chambers simultaneously.

Because of the rotor’s triangular shape,

the inside space of the housing will
always be divided in three working
chambers. This is fundamentally different
from the piston engine, where the four
processes take place within each
cylinder.

DISADVANTAGES OF WANKEL
The problem lies in the pitfalls of the design.

Fuel Economy: The Wankel’s combustion chamber is long, thin, and moves with the
rotor. This causes a slow fuel burn. Engines try to combat this by using twin (leading
and trailing) spark plugs. Even with the two plugs, combustion is often incomplete,
leading to raw fuel being dumped out the exhaust port.
Emissions: The unburnt fuel, along with burned oil (described below) both result in
terrible emissions from Wankel engines.
Sealing: Rotors use seals on the faces, seals around the central port, and most
importantly apex seals.
Failing apex seals are the primary cause of rotary engines going down for overhaul.

ADVANTAGES OF THE WANKEL ENGINE

Small Size
Lightweight Construction
More Working Space For Aerodynamics Or Stowage Compartments
Better Weight Distribution.
Simple Structure
Reliability
Durability

2.8 – Valve Timing
POWERPLANT 1 – 2.0 ENGINE OPERATING FUNDAMENTALS 1

PRINCIPLES
• Most modern aircraft engines of the piston type
operate on the four-stroke-cycle principle. This
means that the piston makes four strokes during
one cycle of operation.
• During one cycle of the engine's operation, the
crankshaft makes 2 rev and the valves each
perform one operation. Therefore, the valve
operating mechanism for an intake valve must
make one operation for two turns of the
crankshaft.

PRINCIPLES
• On an opposed or in-line engine which has single
lobes on the camshaft, the camshaft is geared to
the crankshaft to produce 1 r of the camshaft for 2
r of the crankshaft.
• The cam drive gear on the crankshaft has one-half
the number of teeth that the camshaft gear has,
thus producing the 1:2 ratio.

ENGINE TIMING DIAGRAM

• To provide a visual
concept of the timing
of valves for an
aircraft engine, a
valve timing diagram
is used


• Reason suggests that
the intake valve
should open at TDC
and close at BDC.
Likewise, it seems that
the exhaust valve
should open at BDC
and close at TDC. This
would be true except
for the inertia of the
moving gases and the
time required for the
valves to open fully.


• Near the end of the
exhaust stroke, the
gases are still rushing
out the exhaust valve.
The inertia of the
gases causes a low-
pressure condition in
the cylinder at this
time.


• Opening the intake
valve a little before
TDC takes advantage
of the low-pressure
condition to start the
flow of fuel-air
mixture into the
cylinder, thus bringing
a greater charge into
the engine and
improving volumetric
efficiency.


• If the intake valve
should open too early,
exhaust gases would
flow out into the
intake manifold and
ignite the incoming
fuel-air mixture. The
result would be
backfiring.
• Backfiring also occurs
when an intake valve
sticks in the open
position.


• The exhaust valve
closes shortly after
the piston reaches
TDC and prevents
reversal of the
exhaust flow back into
the cylinder.


• The angular distance
through which both
valves are open is
called valve overlap,
or valve lap.
• When the intake valve
opens 15° before TDC
and the exhaust valve
closes 15° after TDC,
the valve overlap is
30°.


• In the diagram, the
intake valve remains
open 60° after BDC.
This is designed to
take advantage of the
inertia of the fuel-air
mixture rushing into
the cylinder, because
the mixture will
continue to flow into
the cylinder for a time
after the piston has
passed BDC.
INTAKE REMAINS OPEN


• The total period
during which the
intake valve is open is
designed to permit
the greatest possible
charge of fuel-air
mixture into the
cylinder.
INTAKE REMAINS OPEN


• The exhaust valve
opens before BDC for
two principal reasons:
• (1) more thorough
scavenging of the
cylinder and
• (2) better cooling of
the engine.


• Opening the exhaust
valve at this time
allows the hot gases
to escape early, and
less heat is
transmitted to the
cylinder walls than
would be the case if
the exhaust valve
remained closed until
the piston reached
BDC.


• The exhaust valve is
not closed until after
TDC because the
inertia of the gases
aids in removing
additional exhaust gas
after the piston has
passed TDC.


• The opening or
closing of the intake
or exhaust valves after
TDC or BDC is called
valve lag.
• The opening or
closing of the intake
or exhaust valves
before BDC or TDC is
called valve lead.


• Both valve lag and
valve lead are
expressed in degrees
of crankshaft travel.
• For example, if the
intake valve opens 15°
before TDC, the valve
lead is 15°.


• Both valve lag and
valve lead are
expressed in degrees
of crankshaft travel.
• For example, if the
intake valve opens 15°
before TDC, the valve
lead is 15°.


• By using the valve
timing specifications for
the diagrams, it is
possible to determine
• (1) the rotational
distance through which
the crankshaft travels
while each valve is open
• (2) the rotational
distance of crankshaft
travel while both valves
are closed.


• Since the intake valve
opens at 15° before TDC
and closes at 60° after
BDC, the crankshaft
rotates 15° from the point
where the intake valve
opens to reach TDC, then
180° to reach BDC, and
another 60° to the point 255
where the intake valve
closes.
• The total rotational
distance of crankshaft
travel with the intake
valve open is therefore
15° + 180° + 60°, or a
total of 255°.


• By the same
reasoning, crankshaft
travel while the
exhaust valve is open
is 55° + 180° + 15°, or 250̊̊̊̊
a total of 250°.
• Valve overlap at TDC
is 15° + 15°, or 30°.


distance of
crankshaft travel
while both valves are
closed is determined
by noting when the
intake valve closes on
the compression
stroke and when the
exhaust valve opens
on the power stroke.


• It can be seen from
the diagram that the
intake valve closes 60°
after BDC and that the
crankshaft must
therefore rotate 120°
(180° - 60°) from
intake-valve closing to
TDC.


• Since the exhaust
valve opens 55° BBC,
the crankshaft rotates
125° (180° - 55°) from
TC to the point where
the exhaust valve
opens.


245 °
distance that the
crankshaft must travel
from the point where
the intake valve closes
to the point where
the exhaust valve
opens is then 120° +
125°, or 245 °.

End…

2.9 Power Calculation

WORK
• A physicist defines
work as force times
distance. Work done by
a force acting on a body
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹 × 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝐷ሻ
is equal to the
magnitude of the force
multiplied by the
distance through which
the force acts.

WORK
• The most common unit
is called foot-pound (ft-
lb).
• If a one-pound mass is
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹 × 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝐷ሻ
raised one foot, one ft-
lb of work has been
performed.
• The greater the mass is
and/or the greater the
distance is, the greater
the work performed.

HORSEPOWER
• The common unit of
mechanical power is the
horsepower (hp).
• Late in the 18th century,
James Watt, the inventor This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC
of the steam engine, BY-SA-NC
found that an English

workhorse could work at
the rate of 550 ft-lb per
second, or 33,000 ft-lb
per minute, for a
reasonable length of
time.
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

HORSEPOWER
• From his observations
came the unit of
horsepower, which is
the standard unit of
mechanical power in This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC
BY-SA-NC
the English system of

measurement.
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

HORSEPOWER
𝑂𝑛𝑒 1 ℎ𝑝 = 33,000 𝑓𝑡. 𝑙𝑏 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑂𝑛𝑒 1 ℎ𝑝 = 550 𝑓𝑡. 𝑙𝑏 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐
• Example: An amount of work performed is

29,700ft-lb per minute. How much hp is expended
in this case?
1 ℎ𝑝
29,700 𝑓𝑡. 𝑙𝑏 𝑝𝑒𝑟 min × = 𝟎. 𝟗 𝒉𝒑
33,000 𝑓𝑡. 𝑙𝑏 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛

PISTON DISPLACEMENT
• When a piston
moves from
BDC to TDC, it
displaces a
specific volume.
The volume
displaced by the
piston is known
as piston displacement and is expressed in cubic
inches for most American-made engines and
cubic centimeters for others.

PISTON DISPLACEMENT
• The piston displacement
of one cylinder may be
obtained by multiplying
the area of the cross-
section of the cylinder by
the total distance the
piston moves in the
cylinder in one stroke.
• For multicylinder
engines, this product is
multiplied by the
number of cylinders to
get the total piston
displacement of the
engine.
PISTON DISPLACEMENT
• Since the volume (V) of
a geometric cylinder
equals the area (A) of
the base multiplied by
the height (h).
𝑉 =𝐴 ×ℎ
2
𝑑
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑜𝑟 𝜋
2

PISTON DISPLACEMENT
𝑉 =𝐴 ×ℎ
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉 = 𝐴 × ℎ × 𝑛
2
2
𝑑
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝜋
2
Example: Compute the piston displacement of the PWA
14 cylinder engine having a cylinder with a 5.5 inch
diameter and a 5.5 inch stroke.
Given
d = 5.5 in
h = 5.5 in (stroke)
n = 14 cylinders

COMPRESSION RATIO
• The compression ratio of an engine is a comparison

of the volume of space in a cylinder when the
piston is at the bottom of the stroke to the volume
of space when the piston is at the top of the
stroke.
COMPRESSION RATIO
• This comparison is expressed as a ratio, hence the
term compression ratio.
• For example, if there are 140 cubic inches of space
in the cylinder when the piston is at the bottom
and there are 20 cubic inches of space when the
piston is at the top of the stroke
20 in3
140 in3

COMPRESSION RATIO
20 in3
140 in3
• The compression ratio would be 140 to 20. If this

ratio is expressed in fraction form, it would be
140/20 or 7 to 1, usually represented as 7:1.

COMPRESSION RATIO
• Without going into great detail, it has been shown that
the compression event magnifies the effect of varying
the manifold pressure, and the magnitude of both
affects the pressure of the fuel charge just before the
instant of ignition. If the pressure at this time becomes
too high, pre-ignition or detonation occur and produce
overheating.
• Pre-ignition is when the fuel air charge starts to burn
before the spark plug fires.
• Detonation occurs when the fuel air charge is ignited
by the spark plug, but instead of burning at a controlled
rate, it explodes causing cylinder temperatures and
pressures to spike very quickly.

INDICATED HORSEPOWER
• The indicated horsepower produced by an engine is
the horsepower calculated from the indicated
mean effective pressure and the other factors
which affect the power output of an engine.
• Indicated horsepower is the power developed in
the combustion chambers without reference to
friction losses within the engine. This horsepower
is calculated as a function of the actual cylinder
pressure recorded during engine operation.

• The indicated horsepower for a four-stroke cycle
engine can be calculated from the following
formula, in which the letter symbols in the
numerator are arranged to spell the word “PLANK”
to assist in memorizing the formula:
𝑃𝐿𝐴𝑁𝐾
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
33,000

𝑃𝐿𝐴𝑁𝐾
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
33,000

Compute the indicated horsepower for a six-cylinder

engine that has a bore of five inches, a stroke of five
inches and is turning at 2750 rpm with a measured
imep of 125 psi per cylinder
POWERPLANT 1 – 2.0 ENGINE OPERATING FUNDAMENTALS

BRAKE HORSEPOWER
• The indicated horsepower calculation discussed in
the previous slides is the theoretical power of a
frictionless engine. The total horsepower lost in
overcoming friction must be subtracted from the
indicated horsepower to arrive at the actual
horsepower delivered to the propeller.

BRAKE HORSEPOWER
• The power delivered to the propeller for useful
work is known as brake horsepower (bhp). The
difference between indicated and brake
horsepower is known as friction horsepower,
which is the horsepower required to overcome
mechanical losses, such as the pumping action of
the pistons, the friction of the pistons, and the
friction of all other moving parts.

BRAKE HORSEPOWER
• The measurement of an engine’s bhp involves the
measurement of a quantity known as torque or
twisting moment. Torque is the product of a force
and the distance of the force from the axis about
which it acts, or

BRAKE HORSEPOWER
• Torque is a measure of load and is properly

expressed in pound-inches (lb-in) or pound-feet (lb-
ft). Torque should not be confused with work,
which is expressed in inch-pounds (in-lb) or foot-
pounds (ft-lb).

BRAKE HORSEPOWER
• Once the torque is known, the work done per
revolution of the propeller shaft can be computed
without difficulty by the equation:
• If work per revolution is multiplied by the rpm, the

result is work per minute, or power. If the work is
expressed in ft-lb per minute, this quantity is
divided by 33,000. The result is the brake
horsepower of the shaft.

BRAKE HORSEPOWER

BRAKE HORSEPOWER
bhp =
hp
FRICTION
HORSEPOWER
• Friction horsepower is the
indicated horsepower minus
brake horsepower. It is the
horsepower used by an engine in
overcoming the friction of moving
parts, drawing in fuel, expelling
exhaust, driving oil and fuel
pumps, and other engine
accessories.
• On modern aircraft engines, this
power loss through friction may be
as high as 10 to 15 percent of the
indicated horsepower.

FRICTION HORSEPOWER
• To compute the friction loss and net power output,
the indicated horsepower of a cylinder may be
thought of as two separate powers, each
producing a different effect. The first power
overcomes internal friction, and the horsepower
thus consumed is known as friction horsepower.
The second power, known as brake horsepower,
produces useful work at the propeller.

BRAKE MEAN EFFECTIVE

PRESSURE
• That portion of indicated mean effective pressure
(IMEP) that produces brake horsepower is called
brake mean effective pressure (BMEP). The
remaining pressure used to overcome internal
friction is called friction mean effective pressure
(FMEP).


PRESSURE


PRESSURE

THRUST HORSEPOWER
• Thrust horsepower can be considered the result of
the engine and the propeller working together. If a
propeller could be designed to be 100 percent
efficient, the thrust and the bph would be the
same.
• However, the efficiency of the propeller varies with
the engine speed, attitude, altitude, temperature,
and airspeed. Thus, the ratio of the thrust
horsepower and the bhp delivered to the
propeller shaft will never be equal.

THRUST HORSEPOWER
• For example, if an engine develops 1,000 bhp, and
it is used with a propeller having 85 percent
efficiency, the thrust horsepower of that engine-
propeller combination is 85 percent of 1,000 or 850
thrust hp.
• Of the four types of horsepower discussed, it is the
thrust horsepower that determines the
performance of the engine-propeller combination.

End…

3.1 INDUCTION SYSTEM Holy Angel University
INDUCTION SYSTEM
The primary purpose of an induction system in a reciprocating engine is to provide
air in sufficient quantity to support normal combustion.
Reciprocating engine induction systems can be broadly classified as normally
aspirated, supercharged, and turbocharged.
POWERPLANT 1 – 3.1 Induction System General

NORMALLY ASPIRATED SYSTEM

A typical induction system on a normally aspirated engine consists of four major
components, or sections: an air intake, an induction air filter, a fuel delivery system,
and an induction manifold.
Additional subsystems such as an alternate air source, an ice removal or prevention
system, and a temperature indicating system are typically included to support the
operation of the four primary components.

EXHAUST
MUFF l
AIR-HEATER
CA
PIPE-~ --- HEAT OF
0 CARBURETOR
AIR
SCOOP ----~~------c:=={)
r,-,,P""V"""V"~--------~ CAB
HEA
CARBURETOR
HEATCO TROL
AIR I TAKE
AlR FILTER DU,CT ALTER ATE
Al VA V C TVA V

AIR SCOOP/ AIR INTAKE

Designed to direct outside air into a carburetor or other
fuel metering device.
This scoop receives ram air, usually augmented by the
propeller slipstream. The effect of the air velocity is to
“supercharge” (compress) the air a small amount, thus
adding to the total weight of air received by the engine.
Ducting is made from either solid molded parts or flexible
hose used to seal and direct the intake air through the
various components of the induction system.

AIR FILTERS
The induction air filter is installed at or near the air scoop for
the purpose of removing dirt, abrasive particles, sand, and
even larger foreign materials before they are carried into the
engine.
The efficiency of any filtration system depends upon proper
maintenance and service. Periodic removal, cleaning, or
replacement of filter elements is essential to ensure proper
engine performance.

3 TYPES OF INDUCTION AIR FILTERS
1. Wetted-type mesh filters - usually consists of a mat of metal filaments encased in

a frame and dipped into oil. The oil film on the metal mesh filaments catches and
holds dust and sand particles.
2. Dry paper filters- is similar to an automotive air filter. It is made of a pleated
layer of paper filter elements through which the air must pass. The edges are sealed
to prevent foreign material from entering the engine. The paper filter is usually
replaced on a time-in-service basis, but if it becomes damaged or clogged, it should
be replaced immediately.
3. Polyurethane foam filters- The most effective filter available today is a
polyurethane foam filter impregnated with a glycol solution. The glycol solution makes
the filter sticky so dust and dirt stick to the element

ALTERNATE AIR VALVE

The alternate air valve is designed to allow air to flow to the engine if the air filter
or other parts of the induction system should become clogged.
This valve can be manually controlled from the cockpit or be automatic in its
operation. The alternate air source used may be unfiltered warm air or outside
unfiltered air.
If the induction system becomes blocked or clogged, the alternate air source is then
used. The alternate air valve source is also useful when the aircraft is flying through
heavy rain; the protected air from the nacelle, being free of rain, enables the engine
to continue operation in a normal manner.
In some cases, the alternate air valve is labeled and serves as a carburetor heat
valve which allows warm air to enter the engine’s induction system to prevent
carburetor ice build-up.

FUEL CONTROL
AIR FILTER
UNIT t
NACELLE
! UNHEATED AIR
TEMPERATURE
AIR
BULB
INTAKE
DUCT ALTERNATE
AIR VALVE
ALTERNATE
Carburetor
AIR ~ Carburetor air valve
RAM a
FILTEAED AIR
Temperature bulb
Warm air
Cold air Cold air actuator lever

CARBURETOR HEAT VALVE AND HEATER MUFF

The carburetor heat air valve is operated by means of the carburetor heat control in
the cockpit.
The valve is simply a gate which closes the main air duct and opens the duct to the
heater muff when the control is turned on.
During normal operation, the gate closes the passage to the heater muff and opens
the main air duct. The gate is often provided with a spring which tends to keep it in
the normal position.

HEATER MUFF
The heater muff is a shroud placed around a section of the exhaust pipe. The shroud
is open at the ends to permit air to flow into the space between the exhaust pipe and
the wall of the shroud.
Gehm
heel
oo:rntrol
T-D
· cabin
Ram
Bi

INTAKE MANIFOLD
An intake manifold typically consists of ducting that goes from the fuel
metering device to the individual cylinders.
.,
INTAKE MANIFOLD ON OPPOSED ENGINES

The typical opposed-type (or flat-type) aircraft engine has
an induction system with an individual pipe leading to each
cylinder.
Two methods of assembling intake pipes are employed.
One method employs a plain end intake pipe and
connections in the oil sump. The second method employs a
flanged end which is assembled directly into the oil sump or
induction housing.

INTAKE MANIFOLD ON RADIAL ENGINES

The type of induction system used on a radial-type engine
principally depends on the horsepower output desired from the
engine.
On a small radial engine of low output, the air is drawn through
the carburetor, mixed with fuel in the carburetor, and then
carried to the cylinders through individual intake pipes.
In some engines, an intake manifold section is made a part of
the main engine structure. The fuel-air mixture is carried from
the outer edge of the manifold section to the separate engine
cylinders by individual pipes, which are connected to the engine
by a slip joint. The purpose of the slip joint is to prevent
damage which would otherwise result from the expansion and
contraction caused by changes in temperature.

IMPORTANCE OF GAS TIGHT-SEAL

When the manifold absolute pressure (MAP) is below atmospheric pressure, which is
always the case with unsupercharged (naturally aspirated) engines, an air leak in the
manifold system will allow air to enter and thin the fuel-air mixture. This can cause
overheating of the engine, detonation, backfiring, or complete stoppage. Small
induction system leaks will have the most noticeable effect at low rpm because the
pressure differential between the atmosphere and the inside of the intake manifold
increases as rpm decreases.

INDUCTION SYSTEM ICING

Induction system icing is an operating hazard because it can cut off the flow of the
fuel-air charge or vary the fuel-air ratio. Ice can form in the induction system while an
aircraft is flying in clouds, fog, rain, sleet, snow, or even clear air that has a high
moisture content (high humidity). Induction system icing is generally classified in three
types: (1) impact ice, (2) fuel evaporation ice, and (3) throttle ice.

IMPACT ICE
Impact ice is caused by visible moisture striking an aircraft and then freezing.
impact ice can also collect at points in an induction system where the airflow changes
direction, or where dents and protrusions exist.

FUEL EVAPORATION ICE

Fuel evaporation ice, sometimes referred to as carburetor ice, is a result of the
temperature drop that occurs when fuel is vaporized.
In a carburetor, as fuel is released into the airstream, it turns into a vapor and
absorbs heat from the surrounding air. Because of this phenomenon, a carburetor
typically accumulates ice before any other part of an aircraft in flight.
In a fuel injection system, fuel is injected and vaporized at or near the intake port of
each cylinder. In this case, the heat of combustion offsets the temperature drop
caused by fuel vaporization. Therefore, fuel evaporation icing is typically not a
concern in fuel injected engines.

THROTTLE ICE
Throttle ice is formed on the rear side of the throttle, or butterfly valve when it is in a
partially closed position. The reason for this is that, as air flows across and around the
throttle valve, a low pressure area is created on the downstream side. This has a
cooling effect on the fuel/air mixture which can cause moisture to accumulate and
freeze on the backside of the butterfly valve.

CARBURETOR AIR TEMPERATURE (CAT) GAUGE

This instrument reads the temperature of the air as it enters the carburetor and makes
it possible to detect the existence of icing conditions.
If the CAT is below 32°F [0°C] and there is a loss of engine power, it can be assumed
that icing exists and that carburetor heat should be applied.
The formation of ice in an induction system is prevented by the use of carburetor
heat.
For small aircraft, the air is often heated by means of a muff around the exhaust
manifold; the heat of the exhaust raises the temperature of the air before it flows to
the carburetor.

TURBOCHARGING AND Holy Angel University
SUPERCHARGING
OVERVIEW
The higher an airplane climbs, the less oxygen is available to the engine for
combustion.
Therefore, as a reciprocating engine powered aircraft climbs, the power output of the
engine decreases. To help prevent this loss of engine power, more oxygen must be
forced into an engine.
These systems are used to regain the air pressure lost by the increase in altitude
POWERPLANT 1 – 3.2 Supercharging and Turbocharging

PRINCIPLES OF TURBOCHARGING AND

SUPERCHARGING
Allows an engine to develop maximum power when operating at high altitudes or to
boost its power on takeoff.
At high altitude, an unsupercharged (normally aspirated) engine will lose power
because of the reduced density of the air entering the induction system of the engine.
To increase an engine’s horsepower, manufacturers have developed forced induction
systems called supercharger and turbosupercharger systems. They both compress the
intake air to increase its density.

SUPERCHARGER
A supercharger is an engine-driven air pump or compressor that provides compressed
air to the engine to provide additional pressure to the induction air so the engine can
produce additional power.
A typical supercharger is capable of boosting manifold pressure above 30 inches
while producing a volumetric efficiency in excess of 100 percent.
Superchargers can be driven either by gearing from the crankshaft or by exhaust
gases. A supercharger is typically driven by an engine's crankshaft through a gear
train at one speed, two speeds, or variable speeds.
The components in a supercharged induction system are similar to those in a normally
aspirated system, with the addition of a supercharger between the fuel metering
device and intake manifold.

Supercharger Diagram
Thottle Body
Intake Man ·told Compressor
Exhaust Manifold
Exhaust Pipe

SUPERCHARGED INDUCTION SYSTEMS

Internally driven superchargers compress the fuel/air mixture after it leaves
the carburetor, while externally driven superchargers (turbochargers)
compress the air before it is mixed with the metered fuel from the carburetor.
The key difference lies in the power supply. A supercharger relies on an
engine-driven air pump or compressor, while a turbocharger gets its power
from the exhaust stream that runs through a turbine, which in turn spins the
compressor. Aircraft with these systems have a manifold pressure gauge, which
displays MAP within the engine’s intake manifold.

INTERNALLY DRIVEN SUPERCHARGERS

Internally-driven superchargers were used almost exclusively in high
horsepower radial reciprocating engines and are engine driven through a
mechanical connection.
Power for the supercharger can be provided mechanically by means of a belt,
gear, shaft, or chain connected to the engine's crankshaft.

Intake air duct
Manifold pressure
Garb retor heat valve
Carburetor air temperature bulb
Throttle valve
Supercharger
Internally-driven supercharger induction system

SINGLE SPEED SUPERCHARGER

Single-speed superchargers are found on many
high-powered radial engines and use an air INTAKE
INTAKE PIPE
intake that faces forward so the induction AIR DUCT, _____,_..._

system can take full advantage of the ram air. --+-~ CARBURETOR
HEAT VALVE
The drawback, however, is that with this type of
supercharger, engine power output still
decreases with an increase in altitude in the
same way that it does with a normally CARBURETOR
aspirated engine THROTTLE
VALVE
SUPERCHARGER
IMPELLER

TWO SPEED SUPERCHARGER

Used by some of the large radial engines developed during World War II .
With this type of supercharger, a single impeller may be operated at two speeds.
The low impeller speed is often referred to as the low blower setting, while the high
impeller speed is called the high blower setting. On engines equipped with a two-
speed supercharger, a lever or switch in the flight deck activates an oil-operated
clutch that switches from one speed to the other.

TURBOCHARGER
An exhaust-driven air compressor used to increase the power of
a reciprocating engine.
Uses the engine’s exhaust gases to drive an air compressor to
increase the pressure of the air going into the engine through
the carburetor or fuel injection system to boost power at higher
altitude.
The most efficient method of increasing horsepower in an
engine because it recovers energy from hot exhaust gases that
would otherwise be lost.
They are commonly called turbosuperchargers or turbochargers.

Turbocharger Diagram
Thottle Body Shaft
Intake Manifold Compressor
Exhaust Pipe


TURBOSUPERCHARGER
The typical turbosupercharger composed of three main parts:
1. Compressor assembly
2. Turbine wheel assembly
3. A full floating shaft bearing assembly

Turbile wheel assembly
Compressor wheel assembly
Compressor Housing
Full floating shaft bearing assembly
Compressor Outlet
A typical turbosupercharger and its main parts

TURBOSUPERCHARGER
The compressor assembly is made up of an impeller, a diffuser, and a casing.

The air for the induction system enters through a circular opening in the center
of the compressor casing, where it is picked up by the blades of the impeller,
which gives it high velocity as it travels outward toward the diffuser.
The diffuser vanes direct the airflow as it leaves the impeller and also converts
the high velocity of the air to high-pressure.

NORMALIZER TURBOCHARGER
Some engines used in light aircraft are equipped with an externally driven
normalizing system. These systems are powered by the energy of exhaust gases
and are usually referred to as “normalizing turbocharger” systems.
They compensate for the power lost due to the pressure drop resulting from
increased altitude.
On many small aircraft engines, the turbocharger (normalizing) system is designed
to be operated only above a certain altitude, 5,000 feet for example, since
maximum power without normalizing is available below that altitude.

Throttle and mixture control
Control system
Exhaust system
Intake manifold
Air intake Alternate air intake Induction system Turbocharger
Typical location of the air induction and exhaust systems of a

normalizing turbocharger system.
GROUND-BOOSTED TURBOSUPERCHARGER SYSTEM
Some ground-boosted (sea level) turbosupercharged systems are designed to

operate from sea level up to their critical altitude.
These engines, sometimes referred to as sea level-boosted engines, can
develop more power at sea level than an engine without turbosupercharging.
An engine must be boosted above 30 "Hg to truly be supercharged. This type
of turbocharger accomplishes this by increasing the manifold pressure above
30 "Hg to around 40 "Hg.

The turbosupercharger air induction system consists of a filtered ram-air intake

located on the side of the nacelle. An alternate air door within the nacelle
permits compressor suction automatically to admit alternate air (heated engine
compartment air) if the induction air filter becomes clogged.
Almost all turbocharger systems use engine oil as the control fluid for controlling
the amount of boost (extra manifold pressure) provided to the engine.
The waste-gate actuator and controllers use pressurized engine oil for their
power supply. The turbocharger is controlled by the waste gate and waste gate
actuator.
The waste gate actuator, which is physically connected to the waste gate by
mechanical linkage, controls the position of the waste gate butterfly valve.
The waste gate bypasses the engine exhaust gases around the turbocharger
turbine inlet. By controlling the amount of exhaust gases that pass through the
turbine of the turbocharger, the speed of the compressor and the amount of
intake boost is controlled.

IPli!2m -
---►.... IPli!2m ilte'leia -
lnducti --- ►... Oampres:sedl <l2ir
lrir-
Turbochar
e gate contro
egate
A turbocharger air induction system.

Exhaust manifold
Fuel injector
Oil return
Density controller cran
Turbocharger
Exhaust gases
Exhaust gas discharge
- -111111 Compresso
- - -111111 discharge pressure
In et manifofd
pressure
---- 0-1
Air Oil ..,.. Exhaus gas
Sea level booster turbosupercharger system


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HOLY ANGEL UNIVERSITY – Aeronautical Engineering

2.5 FOUR STROKE CYCLE

FOUR STROKE CYCLE

TWO STROKE CYCLE

TWO STROKE CYCLE OPERATION

As the piston passes top dead center

BAFFLED PISTON HEADS

The extreme simplicity and light weight of a two-stroke cycle engine

FOUR STROKE VS TWO STROKE

Four Stroke Two Stroke

2.7 WANKEL CYCLE

POWERPLANT 1 – 2.7 Wankel Cycle

POWERPLANT 1 – 2.7 Wankel Cycle

POWERPLANT 1 – 2.7 Wankel Cycle

POWERPLANT 1 – 2.7 Wankel Cycle

HOW DOES IT WORK?

→As the tip of the rotor passes the inlet

POWERPLANT 1 – 2.7 Wankel Cycle

→As the rotor continues to revolve, the

POWERPLANT 1 – 2.7 Wankel Cycle

→As the chamber passes over the

POWERPLANT 1 – 2.7 Wankel Cycle

→The expansion of the burning gases forces the

POWERPLANT 1 – 2.7 Wankel Cycle

Because of the rotor’s triangular shape,

POWERPLANT 1 – 2.7 Wankel Cycle

The problem lies in the pitfalls of the design.

POWERPLANT 1 – 2.7 Wankel Cycle

ADVANTAGES OF THE WANKEL ENGINE

POWERPLANT 1 – 2.7 Wankel Cycle

2.8 – Valve Timing

POWERPLANT 1 – 2.0 ENGINE OPERATING FUNDAMENTALS 1

POWERPLANT 1 – 2.0 ENGINE OPERATING FUNDAMENTALS 2

POWERPLANT 1 – 2.0 ENGINE OPERATING FUNDAMENTALS 3

ENGINE TIMING DIAGRAM

POWERPLANT 1 – 2.0 ENGINE OPERATING FUNDAMENTALS 4

ENGINE TIMING DIAGRAM

POWERPLANT 1 – 2.0 ENGINE OPERATING FUNDAMENTALS 5

ENGINE TIMING DIAGRAM

POWERPLANT 1 – 2.0 ENGINE OPERATING FUNDAMENTALS 6

ENGINE TIMING DIAGRAM

POWERPLANT 1 – 2.0 ENGINE OPERATING FUNDAMENTALS 7

ENGINE TIMING DIAGRAM

POWERPLANT 1 – 2.0 ENGINE OPERATING FUNDAMENTALS 8

ENGINE TIMING DIAGRAM

POWERPLANT 1 – 2.0 ENGINE OPERATING FUNDAMENTALS 9

ENGINE TIMING DIAGRAM

POWERPLANT 1 – 2.0 ENGINE OPERATING FUNDAMENTALS 10

ENGINE TIMING DIAGRAM

POWERPLANT 1 – 2.0 ENGINE OPERATING FUNDAMENTALS 11

ENGINE TIMING DIAGRAM

INTAKE REMAINS OPEN

POWERPLANT 1 – 2.0 ENGINE OPERATING FUNDAMENTALS 12

ENGINE TIMING DIAGRAM

POWERPLANT 1 – 2.0 ENGINE OPERATING FUNDAMENTALS 13

ENGINE TIMING DIAGRAM

POWERPLANT 1 – 2.0 ENGINE OPERATING FUNDAMENTALS 14

ENGINE TIMING DIAGRAM

POWERPLANT 1 – 2.0 ENGINE OPERATING FUNDAMENTALS 15