DEPARTMENT OF PROSTHODONTICS

SRM DENTAL COLLEGE AND HOSPITAL

RAMAPURAM, CHENNAI

SEMINAR

DENTURE BASE RESINS

PRESENTED BY

AKSHAYAA.B

PG I- YEAR

DATE OF PRESENTATION

27-11-2019

GUIDED BY

DR.K. MURUGESAN, MDS DR .MUTHUKUMAR MDS

PROFESSOR PROFESSOR & HOD

DR.S.SUGANYA, MDS

READER
CONTENTS:

1) INTRODUCTION
2) HISTORY
3) REQUIREMENTS OF DENTURE BASE RESINS
4) HEAT ACTIVATED DENTURE BASE RESIN
5) CHEMICALLY ACTIVATED DENTURE BASE RESIN
6) LIGHT ACTIVATED DENTURE BASE RESIN
7) PROPERTIES OF DENTURE BASE RESINS
8) MISCELLANEOUS RESINS
9) CONCLUSION
INTRODUCTION
The denture base is that part of the denture which rests on the soft tissues and so does not
include the artificial teeth. Prior to 1940 vulcanite was the most widely used denture base
polymer. This is a highly cross-linked natural rubber which was difficult to pigment and
tended to become unhygienic due to the uptake of saliva.

Nowadays acrylic resin is used almost universally for denture base construction.
Although individual denture bases can be formed from metals, the majority of denture bases
are fabricated using common polymers. Such polymers are chosen based on availability,
dimensional stability, handling characteristics, color, and compatibility with oral tissues.

Although dental implants are increasingly used in the treatment of edentulous patients, in
many cases a conventional complete denture is still the treatment of choice for medical and
financial reasons. An ideal denture base material should have adequate mechanical and
physical properties, besides biocompatibility and aesthetics. Poly(methyl methacrylate)
(PMMA) is frequently used to fabricate denture bases due to its various advantages, including
low cost, biocompatibility, ease of processing, stability in the oral environment, and
acceptable aesthetics. However, it is not considered an ideal material because of its inferior
physical and mechanical properties.

Several studies have been conducted with the goal of enhancing the properties of PMMA by
using different curing methods and/or incorporating fillers in its composition. Addition of
fillers and fibers to PMMA is a commonly used method to improve both its physical and
mechanical properties.
Reinforcement of acrylic resin with fibers has been reported to improve the flexural and
impact strength as well as the fatigue resistance of the resin. Several studies have been
conducted using different types of fibers, such as nylon, polyethylene, polyamide fiber, and
particularly glass fiber, due to their biocompatibility and superior aesthetics and mechanical
properties

It has several advantages such as an excellent esthetic characteristic, low water sorption and
solubility, adequate strength, low toxicity, easy repair, and a simple molding processing
technique. Nonetheless, it has some problems such as polymerization shrinkage, weak
flexural, lower impact strength, and low fatigue resistance. [1-4] These often lead to denture
failure during chewing or when fall out of the patient’s hand. In order to enhance some
properties of PMMA, various efforts have been taken including addi tion of metal wires or
plates, fibers, [5-8] metal inserts, [9] and modification of chemical structure.

HISTORY:
MATERIALS USED IN 17TH CENTURY:
1.Wood 2. Bone 3. Ivory By the 8th century the Japanese were masters of the art of
woodcarving and it was possible that the earliest wooden denture was made at that time.
Dentures were carved from a single piece of wood, usually sweet smelling species such as
box and cherry. Natural teeth were fixed with the help of screws. George Washington also
had a set of dentures made from wood. The drawbacks were that the denture bases warped
and cracked in the presence of moisture and posed esthetic and hygienic challenges.[3]
Further progress was slow until the 17th century. Modern dentistry had been said to begin
with Pierre Fauchard (1678-1761) who developed many prosthetic techniques. He used
human teeth or teeth made from hippopotamus or elephant ivory in the denture. He carved
dentures from a single piece of ivory or bone. Although bone displayed better dimensional
stability than wood, esthetic and hygienic concerns remain. Whereas ivory was stable in the
oral environment, and offered significant esthetics but its drawbacks were that it was not
readily available, and was relatively expensive. Fauchard fabricated a denture by measuring
individual arches with a compass and cutting bone to fit these arches. In other methods a
lump of wax was partly carved and partly molded to the desired shape, so it reproduced
missing teeth and fit snugly against ridge and palate. This model was then used by craftsman
for reproducing a denture in bone or ivory. It was very time-consuming, taking six weeks to
carve a denture from bone or ivory. According to Guerini, Pfaff (1756), Frederick the Great’
s dentist, developed a more effective impression technique. His method was to take, in two
pieces, wax impressions of entire jaw. The pieces were separately removed, thus minimizing
distortion and reassembled outside the mouth and plaster casts were made from them. This
technique appears to have been unknown even to Fauchard, whose methods Pfaff otherwise
closely followed. With a reasonably accurate and dimensionally stable cast available, the
carver could then adapt the denture to it without frequent recourse to the patient. A block of
ivory was shaped with a drill and engraving blade, using a pigment to detect high spots as a
base was made to fit the casts. Tomes described a patented machine of his own invention
which, he claimed, obviated the use of pigment

MATERIALS USED IN 18TH CENTURY

1.Gold 2. Porcelain
Gold denture base One of most important Fauchard followers was French dentist Etienne
Bourdet (1775) who made the first reference to the use of a gold base punctuated with small
holes much like the sockets of teeth.[5] Projecting upward in these sockets were pins onto
which ivory or natural teeth are attached. The gold base did not sit on the crest of the ridge as
the denture base does today but was formed as a shallow cup. After invention of the
impression technique using softened wax and plaster of Paris, models were fabricated and
gold plates could be hammered and swaged to achieve more accurate adaptation.
Porcelain Although the art of firing porcelain was practised in China in the 9th and 10th
centuries, it was not until 1774 that Alexis Duchateau, a Parisian apothecary, dissatisfied with
his own stained hippopotamus ivory denture, was inspired to attempt to use porcelain for
denture fabrication. Seeking a solution, he attempted to make a denture from porcelain at the
Guerhard porcelain factory. Since he was not a dentist and was unfamiliar with taking
impressions, his efforts failed.[3] He teamed up with Parisian dentist Nicholas Dubois De
Chemant. After a number of early failures the two eventually made a baked porcelain
complete denture in a single block in 1788. In due course he improved its dimensional
stability-a very difficult achievement because the one-piece
denture had to resist distortion during firing, for which he was granted the British patent in
1791.

MATERIALS USED IN THE 19TH CENTURY

1. Tortoise Shell (1850)
2. Gutta Percha (1851)
3. Vulcanite (1851)
4. Cheoplastic (1856)
5. Rose Pearl (1860)
6. Aluminum (1867)
7. Celluloid (1870)
John Wesley Hyatt (1868) was credited with preparing the first organic plastic molding
compound, which was cellulose nitrate, popularly known as celluloid. In 1870 it was first
used as denture base material. The advantages of celluloid were its translucence and pink
color. Celluloid provided a less expensive alternative to the high cost of purchasing a
vulcanite license. It was extensively used for a time during and after the world war I because
of shortage of rubber. But celluloid gradually turns black and green with age and distorts in
service. Thirty percent camphor was added as a plasticizer, producing an unpleasant taste and
odor. This drawback significantly reduced its application. Thereafter various modifications of
cellulose nitrate such as acetate and ethyl cellulose were produced but they all showed
distortion and warping. Although cellulose plastic was soon discarded, it served a real
purpose in the search for resin with more desirable esthetic qualities than vulcanite rubber.

MATERIALS USED IN 20TH CENTURY

1. Bakelite (1909)
2. Stainless steel (1921)
3. Cobalt Chromium (1930)
4. Vinyl Resin (1932)
5. Acrylic Resin (1937)
6. Self cure Acrylic Resin
7. Epoxy Resin (1951)
8. Polystyrene (1951)
9. Nylon (1955)

In 1901 Otto Rohm produced the commercial compound of acrylic acid as part of a PhD
thesis and produced a solid transparent polymer of acrylic acid. Rohm and Hass in 1936
introduced PMMA in the form of a transparent sheet and in 1937 Du Dout De Nemours
introduced it in powder form. The first acrylic type plastic was available under the name of
vernonite. In 1937 methyl methacrylate was clinically evaluated by Wright and found to
fulfill virtually all the requirements of an ideal denture base material.[10,11] The acrylic resin
represented such significant improvement in its application that by 1946 it was estimated that
95% of all dentures were fabricated using methylmethacrylate polymers. Initially acrylic
resins were polymerized by heat. In Germany in 1947, acrylic resins were developed using
chemical accelerators for polymerization and termed as self-cure or auto polymerization
resins. The PMMA and its copolymers continue to be the most popular non-metallic
materials. Its advantages were economy, simple processing technique, stable colors, optical
properties, adequate strength and other physical properties which make them ideal materials
of choice, free from toxicity and easily pigmented.[12] In 1942, vinyl acrylic copolymer
(Luxene 44) and in 1948 polystyrene (Jectron), a styrene polymer developed by Charles
Dimmer, were introduced as denture base materials. Both materials had greater transverse
and high residual stresses. Since 1937 when acrylic resins were introduced, the plastics
industry has undergone a lot of changes in search of new materials. Nylon was introduced in
London in the 1950s as a denture base material, proving to be entirely unsatisfactory owing to
its poor ability to resist oral conditions, thus resulting in swelling of the denture base due to
absorption of moisture. Earl Pound in 1951 described the tinting of acrylic resin denture base
materials. The Austenal company in 1955 introduced the fluid resin technique advocating the
use of self-cured acrylic resins as denture bases, which offered the advantages of improved
adaptation, dimensional stability, reduced cost and simple procedure, but the disadvantages of
low strength, higher solubility, high residual monomer levels, poor bond strength between
denture base material and resin teeth never made selfcure acrylic a material of choice as
permanent denture base materials. Different denture base materials like epoxy resin, high
impact methacrylate and polypropylene were used from 1951-1967, but could not be used as
absolute substitutes of PMMA. Masamishinishi (1968) first reported the use of microwave
energy to polymerize acrylic denture base material in a 400 watt microwave oven for 2.5
minutes and later Kimura et al., (1983) carried out research on the effects of microwave
energy in denture base resins. Stress contributed to the withdrawal of polystyrene from the
market in 1971. A research development of an entirely new thermoset epoxy resin denture
base at the University of Washington (1958) was thought of as an alternative to resin acrylics,
but the high rate of water sorption, fracture and loss of posterior teeth, heavy deposition of
stains and calculus prevented further use in the field of denture base materials

REQUIREMENTS OF DENTURE BASE RESINS:

The requirements of a denture base material can be conveniently listed under the headings of
physical,mechanical, chemical, biological and miscellaneous properties.
Physical properties: An ideal denture base material should be capable of matching the
appearance of the natural oral soft tissues. The importance of this requirement varies
considerably, depending on whether the base will be visible when the patient opens his
mouth. A polymer which is used to construct a denture base should have a value of glass
transition temperature (Tg) which is high enough to prevent softening and distortion during
use. Although the normal temperature in the mouth varies only from 32ºC to 37ºC, account
must be taken of the fact that patients take hot drinks at temperatures up to 70ºC and, despite
advice, sometimes clean dentures in very hot or even boiling water.
The base should have good dimensional stability in order that the shape of the denture does
not change over a period of time. In addition to distortions which may occur due to thermal
softening, other mechanisms such as relief of internal stresses, continued polymerisation and
water absorption may contribute to dimensional instability.
The material should, ideally, have a low value of specifi c gravity in order that dentures
should be as ‘light’ as possible. This reduces the gravitational displacing forces which may
act on an upper denture.
A high value of thermal conductivity would enable the denture wearer to maintain a healthy
oral mucosa and to retain a normal reaction to hot and cold stimuli. If the base is a thermal
insulator it is possible that the patient may take a
drink which he would normally detect as being ‘too hot to bear’, and undergo a painful
experience as the drink reaches the throat and gut.
The denture base should, ideally, be radiopaque. It should be capable of detection using
normal diagnostic radiographic techniques. Patients occasionally swallow dentures and may
even inhale fragments of dentures if involved in a violent accident, such as a car crash. Early
radiological detection of the denture or fragment of denture is
of immense help in deciding the best course of treatment.

Mechanical properties:
Although opinion varies slightly, most clinicians consider that the denture base should be
rigid. A high value of modulus of elasticity is therefore advantageous.
A high value of elastic limit is required to ensure that stresses encountered during biting and
mastication do not cause permanent deformation. A combination of a high modulus and high
value of elastic limit would have the added advantage that it would allow the base to be
fabricated in relatively thin section.
Fractures of upper dentures invariably occur through the midline of the denture, due to fl
exing The denture base should have sufficient fl exural strength to resist fracture. Fracture
of the denture base in situ often occurs by a fatigue mechanism in which relatively small fl
exural stresses, over a period of time, eventually lead to the formation of a small crack which
propagates through the denture, resulting in fracture.
The base material should therefore have an adequate fatigue life and a high value of fatigue
limit.
When patients remove dentures for cleaning or overnight soaking, there is a danger of
fracture if the denture is accidentally dropped onto a hard surface. The ability of a denture
base to resist such fracture is a function of the impact strength of the material. Impact fracture
of the denture may occur in situ if the patient is involved in a violent accident involving the
facial region, for example, of the head hits a windscreen during a motor accident. The
fragments of denture may then become embedded into soft tissue or may be inhaled.
Denture base materials should have suffi cient abrasion resistance to prevent excessive wear
of material by abrasive denture cleansers or foodstuffs. Wear is a complex phenomenon
which may depend on many material properties. For abrasive wear it is thought that surface
hardness of the substrate is of primary importance.

Chemical properties: A denture base material should be chemically inert. It should, naturally,
be insoluble in oral fluids and should not absorb water or saliva since this may alter the
mechanical properties of the material and cause the denture to become unhygienic.

Biological properties: In the unmixed or uncured states the denture base material should not
be harmful to the technician involved in its handling. The ‘set’ denture base material should
be nontoxic and non-irritant to the patient. It should be impermeable to oral fl uids and this
would certainly be an ideal property. If a degree of absorption occurs however, the base
should not be able to sustain the growth of bacteria or fungi.

Miscellaneous properties: An ideal denture base material should be relatively inexpensive

and have a long shelf life so that material can be purchased in bulk and stored without
deteriorating. The material should be easy to manipulate and fabricate without having to
resort to using expensive processing equipment. If fractures do occur they should be easy to
repair.

HEAT ACTIVATED DENTURE BASE RESINS:

Heat-activated materials are used in the fabrication of nearly all denture bases. The thermal
energy required for polymerization of such materials can be provided using a water bath or
microwave oven.

COMPOSITION:

The powder consists of prepolymerized spheres of polymethyl methacrylate and a small

amount of benzoyl

peroxide, termed the initiator, which is responsible for starting the polymerization process.
The liquid is predominantly nonpolymerized methyl methacrylate monomer with small
amounts of hydroquinone. Hydroquinone is added as an inhibitor, which prevents
undesirable polymerization or “setting” of the liquid during storage. Inhibitors also retard the
curing process and thereby increase working time.
A cross-linking agent can also be added to the liquid. Glycol dimethacrylate is used
commonly as a cross-linking agent in polymethyl methacrylate denture base resins. Glycol
dimethacrylate is chemically and structurally similar to methyl methacrylate. Therefore, it
can be incorporated into growing polymer chains
One should note that methyl methacrylate possesses one carbon-carbon double bond per
molecule and glycol dimethacrylate possesses two double bonds per molecule. As a result, an
individual molecule of glycol dimethacrylate can participate in the polymerization of two
separate polymer chains that unites the two polymer
chains. If sufficient glycol dimethacrylate is included in the mixture, several interconnections
can be formed and solvent swelling may occur, such as that caused by exposure to ethanol in
alcoholic beverages. These interconnections yield a netlike structure that provides increased
resistance to deformation. Cross-linking agents are incorporated into the liquid component at
a concentration of 1% to 2% by volume.

COMPRESSION MOLDING TECHNIQUE

Before mold preparation, prosthetic teeth must be selected and arranged in a manner that will
fulfill both esthetic and functional requirements. In turn, the completed tooth arrangement is
sealed to the master cast.
At this stage, the master cast and completed tooth arrangement are removed from the dental
articulator . The master cast is coated with a thin layer of separator to prevent adherence of
dental stone to the master cast during
the flasking process. The lower portion of a denture flask is filled with freshly mixed dental
stone, and the master cast is placed into this mixture. The dental stone is contoured to
facilitate wax elimination, packing, and deflasking procedures Upon reaching its initial set,
the stone is coated with an appropriate separator.
The upper portion of the selected denture flask is then positioned atop the lower portion of
the flask. A surface tension reducing agent is applied to exposed wax surfaces and a second
mix of dental stone is prepared. The dental stone is poured into the denture flask. Care is
taken to ensure that the investing stone achieves intimate contact with all external surfaces of
the mounted teeth. The investing stone is added until all surfaces of the tooth arrangement
and denture base are completely covered. Incisal and occlusal surfaces are minimally exposed
to facilitate subsequent deflasking procedures . The stone is permitted to set and is coated
with separator. At this point an additional increment of dental stone is mixed and the
remainder of the flask is filled. The lid of the
flask is gently seated and the stone is allowed to harden.
After the stone has hardened, the record base and wax must be removed from the mold. To
accomplish this task, the denture flask is immersed in boiling water for 4 min. The flask is
then removed from the water and the appropriate segments are separated. The record base
and softened wax remain in the lower portion of the denture flask while the prosthetic teeth
remain firmly embedded in the investing stone of the remaining segment The record base and
softened wax are carefully removed from the surface of the mold. Residual wax is removed
from the mold cavity using wax solvent. The mold cavity is subsequently cleaned with a mild
detergent solution and rinsed with boiling water.
POLYMER-MONOMER RATIO:
Proper polymer-to-monomer ratio is of considerable importance in the fabrication of well-
fitting denture bases with desirable physical properties. Unfortunately, most discussions of
polymer-to-monomer ratio provide little practical information for dental personnel.
In practice, the prepolymerized fraction is encountered as a powder, and is commonly
referred to as polymer. The nonpolymerized fraction is supplied as a liquid, and is termed a
monomer. When the powder and liquid components are mixed in the proper proportions, a
doughlike mass results. Commercial products generally use a polymer-to-monomer ratio of
approximately 3 : 1 by volume. This ratio provides sufficient monomer to thoroughly wet the
polymer particles but does not contribute excess monomer that would produce increased
polymerization shrinkage. Using a 3 : 1 ratio, the volumetric shrinkage can be limited to
approximately 7%.
The initial setting expansion of the gypsum mold and swelling of the polymerized acrylic
resin after exposure to water in the denture flask and later, further compensate this shrinkage.
POLYMER MONOMER INTERACTION:
When monomer and polymer are mixed in the proper proportions, a workable mass is
produced. Upon standing,
the resultant mass passes through five distinct stages. Thesestages can be described as
(1) sandy, (2) stringy, (3) doughlike, (4) rubbery or elastic, and (5) stiff.
During the sandy stage, little or no interaction occurs on a molecular level. Polymer beads
remain unaltered, and the consistency of the mixture can be described as “coarse” or
“grainy.”
Later, the mixture enters a stringy stage. During this stage, the monomer attacks the surfaces
of individual polymer beads and is absorbed into the beads. Some polymer chains are
dispersed in the liquid monomer. These polymer chains uncoil, thereby increasing the
viscosity of the mix. This stage is characterized by “stringiness” or “stickiness” when the
material is touched or drawn apart.
Subsequently, the mass enters a doughlike stage. On a molecular level, an increased number
of polymer chains enter the solution. Thus, monomer and dissolved polymer are formed. It is
important to note that a large quantity of swollen, but undissolved polymer also remains.
Clinically, the mass behaves as a pliable dough. It is no longer tacky and does not adhere to
the surfaces of the mixing vessel or spatula. The physical and chemical characteristics
exhibited during the later phases of this stage are ideal for compression molding.
As a result, the material should be introduced into the mold cavity during the latter phases of
the doughlike stage.
Following the doughlike stage, the mixture enters a rubbery or elastic stage. This is because
monomer is dissipated by evaporation and by further penetration into remaining polymer
beads. The mass rebounds when compressed or stretched. Because the mass no longer flows
freely to assume the shape of its container, it cannot be molded by conventional compression
techniques.
Upon standing for an extended period, the mixture becomes stiff. This can be attributed to
continued evaporation of unreacted monomer. From a clinical standpoint, the mixture appears
very dry and is resistant to mechanical deformation.
PACKING
The placement and adaptation of denture base resin within the mold cavity are termed
packing. This process represents one of the most critical steps in denture base fabrication. It
is essential that the mold cavity be properly filled at the time of polymerization. The
placement of too much material yields a denture base that exhibits excessive thickness and
resultant malpositioning of prosthetic teeth. Conversely, the use of too little material leads to
noticeable denture base voids or porosity.
To minimize these difficulties, the mold cavity is packed in a well-defined sequence. While
in a doughlike state, the resin is removed from its mixing container and rolled into a ropelike
form. Monomer is painted over the necks of the denture teeth to promote bonding to the
denture base. Subsequently, the resin form is bent into a horseshoe shape and placed into the
portion of the flask that houses the prosthetic teeth . A thin polyethylene separator sheet is
placed over the master cast, and the flask is reassembled.
The flask assembly is placed into a specially designed press and pressure is applied
incrementally . Slow
application of pressure permits the resin dough to flow uniformly throughout the mold space.
Excess material is displaced eccentrically. The application of pressure is continued until the
denture flask is fully closed. Next the flask is opened and the polyethylene packing sheet is
removed from the surface of the resin with a rapid, continuous tug. Excess resin will be found
on the relatively flat areas surrounding the mold cavity. This excess resin is called flash.
Using a gently rounded instrument, the flash is carefully teased away from the body of resin
that occupies the mold cavity . Care is taken not to chip the gypsum surfaces of the mold.
Pieces of gypsum that have become
dislodged must be removed so that they are not incorporated into the processed denture base.
A fresh polyethylene sheet is placed between the major portions of the flask, and the flask
assembly is once again placed in the press. Trial closures are repeated until no flash is
observed.
When flash is no longer apparent, the mold is closed for the last time with no polyethylene
sheet interposed. The mold sections are properly aligned and placed in the flask press. Again,
pressure is incrementally applied. Following definitive closure, the flask is transferred to a
flask carrier . The flask carrier maintains pressure on the flask assembly during denture base
processing.

POLYMERISATION:

When heated above 60 °C, molecules of benzoyl peroxide decompose to yield electrically
neutral species containing unpaired electrons. These species are termed free radicals. Each
free radical rapidly reacts with
an available monomer molecule to initiate chain-growth polymerization. Since the reaction
product also possesses an unpaired electron, it remains chemically active. Consequently
additional monomer molecules become attached to individual polymer chains. This process
occurs very rapidly and terminates by either (1) the direct connection of two growing chains
(i.e., combination) or (2) the transfer of a single hydrogen ion from one chain to another.
Heat is required to cause decomposition of benzoyl peroxide molecules. Therefore, heat is
termed the activator. Decomposition of a benzoyl peroxide molecule yields two free radicals
that are responsible for the initiation of chain growth. Hence, benzoyl peroxide is termed the
initiator.
During denture base fabrication, heat is applied to the resin by immersing a denture flask and
flask carrier in a water bath. The water is heated to a prescribed temperature and maintained
at that temperature for a period suggested by the manufacturer.
As the denture base resin attains a temperature slightly above 70 °C, the temperature of the
resin begins to increase rapidly. In turn, the decomposition rate of benzoyl peroxide is
significantly increased. This sequence of events leads to an increased rate of polymerization
and an accompanying increase in the exothermic heat of reaction. Because resin and dental
stone are relatively poor thermal conductors, the heat of reaction cannot be dissipated.
Consequently, the temperature of the resin rises well above the temperatures of the investing
stone and surrounding water. This can cause the monomer to boil and produce porosity
within the processed resin.

INTERNAL POROSITY
Because resin is an extremely poor thermal conductor, the heat generated in a thick segment
of resin cannot be dissipated. When heating is poorly controlled, the peak temperature of this
resin can rise well above the boiling point of monomer (100.8 °C). This causes boiling of
unreacted monomer and produces porosity within the processed denture base.

POLYMERISATION CYCLE
The heating process used to control polymerization is termed the polymerization cycle or
curing cycle. This process should be carefully regulated to avoid the effects of uncontrolled
temperature rise. Rapid heating of the resin mass may cause the monomer to boil, producing
porosity within the polymerized denture base. Fortunately this process can be controlled by
heating the resin more slowly during the polymerization cycle.
One technique involves processing the denture base resin in a constant-temperature water
bath at 74 °C (165 °F) for 8 h or longer, with no terminal boiling treatment. A second
technique consists of processing in a 74 °C water bath for 8 h and then increasing the
temperature to 100 °C for 1 h. A third technique involves processing the resin at 74 °C for
approximately 2 h and increasing the temperature of the water bath to 100 °C and processing
for 1 h.
Following completion of the chosen polymerization cycle, the denture flask should be cooled
slowly to room temperature. Rapid cooling can result in distortion of the denture base
because of differences in thermal contraction of resin and investing stone. To minimize
potential difficulties, the flask should be removed from the water and bench cooled for 30
min. Subsequently, the flask should be immersed in cool tap water for 15 min. The denture
base can then be deflasked and prepared for delivery. To decrease the probability of
unfavorable dimensional changes, the denture should be stored in water until it is placed in
the oral cavity.

CHEMICALLY ACTIVATED DENTURE BASE RESINS:

Chemical activators can also be used to induce denture base polymerization. Chemical
activation does not require the application of thermal energy. Therefore, it can be completed
at room temperature. As a result, chemically activated resins often are referred to as cold-
curing, self-curing, or autopolymerizing
resins.

Chemical activation is accomplished through the addition of a tertiary amine, such as

dimethyl-para-toluidine, to the denture base liquid (i.e., monomer). Upon mixing of the
powder and liquid components, the tertiary amine causes decomposition of benzoyl peroxide.
As a result, free radicals are produced and polymerization is initiated. Polymerization
progresses in a manner similar to that described for heat-activated systems.

It should be noted that the fundamental difference between heat-activated resins and
chemically activated resins is the method by which benzoyl peroxide is divided to yield free
radicals.
The degree of polymerization achieved using chemically activated resins is not as complete
as that achieved using heat-activated systems. This indicates there is a greater amount of
unreacted monomer in denture bases fabricated via chemical activation. This unreacted
monomer creates two major difficulties. First, it acts as a plasticizer, resulting in decreased
transverse strength of the denture resin. Second, the residual monomer serves as a potential
tissue irritant, thereby compromising the biocompatibility of the denture base.

The color stability of chemically activated resins generally is inferior to the color stability of
heat-activated resins. This property is related to the presence of tertiary amines within the
chemically activated resins. Such amines are susceptible to oxidation and accompanying
color changes that affect the appearance of the resin. Discoloration of these resins can be
minimized via the addition of stabilizing agents that prevent such oxidation.
From a physical standpoint, chemically activated resinsdisplay slightly less shrinkage than
their heat-activated counterparts. This imparts greater dimensional accuracy to chemically
activated resins.
The color stability of chemically activated resins generally is inferior to the color stability of
heat-activated resins. This property is related to the presence of tertiary amines within the
chemically activated resins. Such amines are susceptible to oxidation and accompanying
color changes that affect the appearance of the resin. Discoloration of these resins can be
minimized via the addition of stabilizing agents that prevent such oxidation.

The polymerization of chemically activated resins is never as complete as the polymerization

of heat-activated materials. Resins polymerized via chemical activation generally display 3%
to 5% free monomer, whereas heat-activated resins exhibit 0.2% to 0.5% free monomer.
Therefore, it is important that the polymerization of chemically activated resins be as
complete as possible. Failure to achieve a high degree of polymerization will predispose the
denture base to dimensional instability and can lead to tissue irritation.

LIGHT ACTIVATED DENTURE BASE RESINS:

These materials have been described as resin-based composites having matrices of urethane
dimethacrylate
microfine silica, and high-molecular-weight acrylic resin monomers. Acrylic resin beads are
included as organic fillers. Visible light is the activator, while a photosensitizing agent such
as camphorquinone serves as the initiator for polymerization.
Single-component denture base resins are supplied in sheet and rope forms and are packed in
lightproof pouches
to prevent inadvertent polymerization As might be expected, denture base fabrication using a
light-activated resin is significantly different from denture base fabrication using a heat-
activated or chemically activated
resin. A light-activated resin cannot be flasked in a conventional manner since the opaque
investing media prevent the penetration of light. Instead, the denture base is molded on an
accurate cast and subsequently the teeth are positioned. In turn, the denture base is exposed to
a high intensity visible light source for an appropriate period . Following polymerization, the
denture is removed from the cast, finished, and polished in a conventional manner.
The most recent generation of light-activated denture base resins consists of three resins.
These include (1) a baseforming resin, (2) a tooth-setting resin, and (3) a contouring resin.
The base-forming resin is adapted to the dental cast. The cast and denture base are placed into
a high-intensity light chamber to induce polymerization. Subsequently, the tooth-setting resin
is used to attach the prosthetic teeth to the polymerized base. A high-intensity light source is
used to polymerize the tooth-setting resin, thereby maintaining prosthetic teeth in the desired
positions. Next, a contouring resin is used to generate the desired final surface form. The
resultant
prosthesis is placed into the light chamber to complete the denture base fabrication process.
The denture is then
removed from the cast, finished, and polished in a conventional manner.

PROPERTIES OF DENTURE BASE:

POLYMERISATION SHRINKAGE
When methyl methacrylate monomer is polymerized to form polymethyl methacrylate, the
density of the mass changes from 0.94 to 1.19 g/cm3. This change in density results in a
volumetric shrinkage of 21%. When a conventional heatactivated resin is mixed at the
suggested powder-to-liquid ratio, about one third of the mass is liquid monomer. The
remainder of the mass is prepolymerized polymethyl methacrylate.
Consequently, the volumetric shrinkage exhibited by the polymerized mass should be
approximately 7%. This
figure is in agreement with values observed in laboratory and clinical investigations. There
are several possible reasons why materials exhibiting such high volumetric shrinkages can be
used to produce clinically satisfactory denture bases. It appears the shrinkage exhibited by
these materials is distributed uniformly to all surfaces. Hence the adaptation of denture bases
to underlying soft tissues is not significantly affected, provided the materials are manipulated
properly.
In addition to volumetric shrinkage, one also must consider the effects of linear shrinkage.
Linear shrinkage exerts significant effects upon denture base adaptation and cuspal
interdigitation.
By convention, the magnitude of linear shrinkage is determined by measuring the distance
between two predetermined reference points in the second molar regions of a completed tooth
arrangement. Following polymerization of the denture base resin and removal of the
prosthesis from the master cast, the distance between these reference points is measured once
again. The difference between pre- and postpolymerization
measurements is recorded as linear shrinkage. The greater the linear shrinkage, the greater is
the discrepancy observed in the initial fit of a denture.
Based on a projected volumetric shrinkage of 7%, an acrylic resin denture base should exhibit
a linear shrinkage of approximately 2%. In reality, linear shrinkage rarely exceeds 1%
Examination of the polymerization process indicates thermal shrinkage of resin is primarily
responsible for the
linear changes observed in heat-activated systems. During the initial stages of the cooling
process, the resin remains relatively soft. Consequently, the resin mass contracts at about the
same rate as the surrounding dental stone. As cooling proceeds, the soft resin approaches its
glass transition temperature, Tg The glass transition temperature is a thermal range in which
the polymerized resin passes from a soft, rubbery state to a rigid, glassy state. Cooling the
denture base resin beyond the glass transition temperature yields a rigid mass. As might be
expected, this rigid mass contracts at a rate different from that of surrounding dental stone.
The shrinkage occurring below the glass transition temperature is thermal in nature and varies
according to the composition of the resin.
POROSITY
The presence of surface and subsurface voids can compromise the physical, esthetic, and
hygienic properties of a processed denture base. It has been noted that porosity is likely to
develop in thicker portions of a denture base. Such porosity results from the vaporization of
unreacted monomer and low-molecular-weight polymers when the temperature of a resin
reaches or surpasses the boiling points of these species.
Nonetheless, this type of porosity may not occur equally throughout the affected resin
segments. Porosity can also result from inadequate mixing of powder and liquid components.
If this occurs, some regions of the resin mass will contain more monomer than others. During
polymerization, these regions shrink more than adjacent
regions, and the localized shrinkage tends to produce voids The occurrence of such porosity
can be minimized by ensuring the greatest possible homogeneity of the resin. Proper
polymer-to-monomer ratios and well-controlled mixing procedures are essential. Because the
material is more homogeneous in the doughlike stage, it is wise to delaypacking until this
consistency has been reached.
A third type of porosity can be caused by inadequate pressure or insufficient material in the
mold during polymerization . Voids resulting from these inadequacies are not spherical; they
assume irregular shapes. These voids may be so abundant that the resultant resin appears
significantly lighter and more opaque than its intended color.
A final type of porosity is most often associated with fluid resins. Such porosity results from
air entrapment during mixing and pouring procedures. If air inclusions are not removed,
sizable voids may be produced in the resultant denture bases. Therefore careful mixing,
spruing, and venting are essential.

WATER ABSORPTION
Polymethyl methacrylate absorbs small amounts of water when placed in an aqueous
environment. This water exerts significant effects on the mechanical and dimensional
properties of the processed polymer.
Although absorption is facilitated by the polarity of polymethyl methacrylate molecules, a
diffusion mechanism is primarily responsible for the ingress of water. As water molecules
penetrate the polymethyl methacrylate mass, they occupy positions between polymer chains.
Consequently, the affected polymer chains are forced apart. The introduction of water
molecules produces two important effects. First, it causes a slight expansion of the
polymerized mass. Second, water molecules interfere with the entanglement of polymer
chains and thereby act as plasticizers
Polymethyl methacrylate exhibits a water sorption value of 0.69 mg/cm2. Although this
amount of water may seem inconsequential, it produces significant effects in polymerized
resins. It has been estimated that for each 1% increase in weight produced by water
absorption, acrylic resin exhibits a linear expansion of 0.23%. Laboratory trials indicate the
linear expansion caused by water absorption is approximately equal to the
thermal shrinkage encountered as a result of the polymerization process. Hence, these
processes very nearly offset one another. As previously noted, water molecules can also
interfere with entanglement of polymer chains and thereby change the physical characteristics
of the resultant polymer. When this occurs, polymer chains generally become more mobile.
This permits the relaxation of stresses incurred during polymerization.
As stresses are relieved, polymerized resins may undergo changes in shape. Fortunately,
these changes are relatively minor and do not exert significant effects on the fit or function of
the processed bases.
Because the presence of water adversely affects the physical and dimensional properties of
denture base resins, diffusion coefficients also warrant consideration. The diffusion
coefficient (D) of water in representative heat-activated denture acrylic resin is 0.011 × 10−6
cm2/s at 37 °C. For a representative chemically activated resin, the diffusion coefficient is
0.023 × 10−6 cm2/s. Since the diffusion coefficients of water in representative
denture resins are relatively low, the time required for a denture base to reach saturation can
be considerable.
This is dependent upon the thickness of the resin as well as the storage conditions. A typical
denture base may require a period of 17 days to become fully saturated with water.
Results of laboratory investigations indicate there are very slight differences in the
dimensions of heat-activated and chemically activated denture bases following prolonged
storage in water. Compression-molded heat-activated denture bases are slightly undersized
when measured from second molar to second molar. Conversely, compression-molded
chemically activated denture bases are slightly oversized when measured in the same regions.
The clinical significance of this difference is negligible. ANSI/ADA Specification No. 12
identifies guidelines regarding the testing and acceptance of denture base resins.

SOLUBILITY
Although denture base resins are soluble in a variety of liquids, they are virtually insoluble in
the fluids commonly encountered in the oral cavity. ANSI/ADA Specification No. 12
prescribes a testing regimen for the measurement of resin solubility. This procedure is a
continuation of the water sorption test described in the preceding section. Following the
required water immersion, the test disk is permitted to dry and is reweighed. This value is
compared with the baseline value to determine weight loss. According to the specification,
weight loss must not be greater than 0.04 mg/cm2. Such a loss is negligible from a clinical
perspective. Non-cross-linked polymethyl methacrylate dentures made in the 1940s swelled
and warped when exposed to ethanol in the diet.

PROPERTIES OF DENTURE BASE MATERIALS

Property Value ( approx)

 Tensile strength
55 MPa
 Compressive strength
76 MPa
 Proportional limit
26 MPa
 Elastic modulus
3800 MPa
 Hardness
18 to 20 KHN
- Heat activated resin
16 to 18 KHN
- Auto polymerizing resin
1cm. Kg / cm
 Impact strength
2% Vol
 Elongation

Property Value ( approx)

 Transverse deflection 2mm

 at 3500g

at 500g 4mm

 Fatigue strength
17 MPa
at 25000 lb/in2

 Knoop hardness 15 kg / mm2

 Thermal Conductivity 0.0006 Cap/Sec/cm2

 Heat distortion temperature 950C

 Polymerization shrinkage
6% Vol.
- Volumetric

- Liner 0.53%

 Water sorption (24 hrs) 0.6 mg/cm2

PROCESSING STRESSES
Whenever a natural dimensional change is inhibited, the affected material sustains internal
stresses. If stresses are relaxed, distortion of the material can occur. This principle has
important ramifications in the fabrication of denture bases, since stresses are always induced
during processing.
For purposes of this discussion, consider the events that occur during denture base
polymerization. A moderate amount of shrinkage occurs as individual monomers are linked
to form polymer chains. During this process, it is possible that friction between the mold
walls and soft resin may inhibit normal shrinkage of these chains. As a
result, the polymer chains are stretched and tensile stresses exist within the material.
Stresses also are produced as the result of thermal shrinkage. As a polymerized resin is
cooled below its glass transition temperature, the resin becomes relatively rigid. Further
cooling results in thermal shrinkage. The clinician must remember that a denture base resin
generally is encased in a rigid investing medium, such as dental gypsum, during this process.
Since denture base resins and dental stone contract at markedly different rates, a contraction
differential is established. This disparity in contraction rates also yields stresses within the
resin. Additional factors that may contribute to processing stresses include improper mixing
and handling of the resin and poorly controlled heating and cooling of the flask assembly.

CRAZING
Although dimensional changes can occur during relaxation of processing stresses, these
changes generally do not cause clinical difficulties. In contrast, stress relaxation can produce
small surface flaws that may adversely affect the esthetic and physical properties of a
denture. The production of such flaws, or microcracks, is termed crazing.
In a clinical setting, crazing is evidenced by small linear cracks that appear to originate at a
denture’s surface. Crazing in a transparent resin imparts a “hazy” or “foggy” appearance. In a
tinted resin, crazing imparts a whitish appearance. In addition to esthetic effects, these surface
cracks predispose a denture resin to fracture.
From a physical perspective, crazing may result from stress application or from partial
dissolution by a solvent. Tensile stresses are most often responsible for crazing in denture
base applications. It is believed that crazing is produced by mechanical separation of
individual polymer chains that occurs upon application of tensile stresses.
Crazing generally begins at the surface of a resin and is oriented at right angles to tensile
forces. Microcracks formed in this manner subsequently progress internally.

STRENGTH
The strength of an individual denture base resin is dependent on many factors. These factors
include composition of the resin, processing technique, and conditions presented by the oral
environment.
To provide acceptable physical properties, denture base resins must meet or exceed the
standards presented in ANSI/ ADA Specification No. 12. A transverse test is used to evaluate
the relationship between the applied load and resultant deflection in a resin specimen of
prescribed dimensions.
Perhaps the most important determinant of resin strength is the degree of polymerization
exhibited by the material. As the degree of polymerization increases, the strength of the resin
also increases. In this regard, the polymerization cycle employed with a heat-activated resin
is extremely important.
In comparison with heat-activated resins, the chemically activated resins generally display
lower degrees of polymerization. As a result, chemically-activated resins exhibit increased
levels of residual monomer as well as decreased strength and decreased stiffness. Despite
these characteristics, heat- and chemically activated resins display similar elastic moduli.

CREEP
Denture resins display viscoelastic behavior. In other words, these materials act as rubbery
solids. When a denture base resin is subjected to a sustained load, the material may exhibit
deformation with both elastic (recoverable) and plastic (irrecoverable) components. If this
load is not removed, additional plastic deformation can occur over time. This additional
deformation is termed creep.
The rate at which this progressive deformation occurs is termed the creep rate. This rate can
be elevated by increases in temperature, applied load, residual monomer, and the presence of
plasticizers. Although creep rates for heatactivated and chemically activated resins are very
similar at low stresses, creep rates for chemically activated resins increase more rapidly as
stresses are raised

MISCELLANEOUS PROPERTIES
The Charpy impact strength for a heat-activated denture resin can range from 0.98 to 1.27 J,
whereas that for a chemically activated resin is somewhat lower (0.78 J). The impact strength
of high-impact resins such as Lucitone 199 can be twice as high as the values reported for
conventional polymethyl methacrylate resins. Increased impact strength of these products is
associated with the addition of a rubbery,
branched comonomer such as butyl acrylate. Clinicians should recognize that these figures
are useful only for comparison of products, since the energy absorbed by an individual
specimen is dependent on specimen size and geometry, distance between specimen supports,
and the presence orabsence of notching.
The Knoop hardness for heat-activated resins may be as high as 20, whereas chemically
activated resins generally display a Knoop hardness between 16 and 18.

MISCELLANEOUS RESINS
REPAIR RESINS
Despite the favorable physical characteristics of denture base resins, denture bases sometimes
fracture. In most instances, these fractures can be repaired using compatible resins. Repair
resins may be light-, heat-, or chemically activated. To accurately accomplish repair of a
fractured prosthesis, the clinician must realign and lute components together using an
adherent wax or modeling plastic. When this has been accomplished, a repair cast is
generated using dental gypsum. The denture is then removed from the cast and the luting
medium is eliminated.Then, the fracture surfaces are trimmed to provide sufficient room for
repair material. The gypsum cast is coated with separating medium to prevent adherence of
repair resin, and the denture base sections are
repositioned and affixed to the cast.
At this point a repair material is chosen. Chemically activated resins are generally preferred
over heat- and lightactivated resins despite the fact that chemically activated resins display
lower transverse strengths. The principal advantage of chemically activated resins is that they
can be polymerized at room temperature. Heat- and light-activated repair materials must be
placed in water baths and light chambers, respectively. Heat generated by water baths and
light chambers often causes stress release and distortion of previously polymerized denture
base segments.
The following sequence is employed to accomplish denture base repair using a chemically
activated resin. A small amount of monomer is painted onto prepared surfaces of the denture
base to soften and swell the old resin and thereby facilitate bonding of the repair material.
Increments of monomer and polymer are added to the repair area using a small sable-hair
brush or suitable substitute. A slight excess of material is placed at the repair site to account
for polymerization shrinkage. The assembly is placed in a pressure chamber and allowed
to polymerize. The repair site is then shaped, finished, and polished using conventional
techniques.
The minimum requirements for chemically activated resins used in repair applications are
identified in ANSI/ADA Specification No. 13.

DENTURE RELINERS
Because ridge contours change during denture service, it is sometimes necessary to alter
tissue surfaces of prostheses to ensure proper fit. In some instances, this can be achieved by
selective grinding procedures. In other instances, tissue surfaces must be replaced by relining
or rebasing existing dentures.
Relining involves replacement of the tissue surface of an existing denture, whereas rebasing
involves replacement of the entire denture base except for the denture teeth. In both instances
an impression of the soft tissues is made using the existing denture as an impression tray. A
gypsum cast is generated in the impression, and the resultant assembly is invested in a brass
denture flask. Subsequently, the flask is opened and prepared for the introduction of resin. If
the denture is to be relined, the impression material is removed from the denture. The tissue
surface is cleaned to enhance bonding between the existing denture base and the reline
material. Next, an appropriate resin is introduced and shaped using a compression molding
technique. For relining, a low polymerization temperature is desirable to minimize distortion
of the remaining denture base. Hence, a chemically activated resin is usually chosen. The
selected material is mixed according to the manufacturer’s recommendations, placed into the
mold, compressed, and permitted to polymerize. Finally, the denture is recovered,
finished,and polished.
If a chemically activated resin is selected for relining the existing denture, a specialized
mounting assembly may be used in lieu of flasking. This assembly maintains the correct
vertical and horizontal relationships between the cast and the denture while eliminating the
need to encase the remaining denture base in dental gypsum. This facilitates recovery of the
denture at the end of the relining process. Several manufacturers offer chemically activated
resins for relining dentures intraorally. Unfortunately many of these materials generate
enough heat to injure oral tissues. To receive ADA approval, materials must comply with
ANSI/ADA Specification No. 17, which places limits on the rate of temperature rise and
maximum acceptable temperature.
Relining can also be accomplished using resins that are activated by heat, light, or microwave
energy. In all of these instances, significant heat can be generated and distortion of the
existing denture base will be more likely.
Some materials are manufactured for repair as well as relining purposes. Practitioners should
be extremely cautious in using such products. Some of these materials comply with
ANSI/ADA Specification No. 13 for repairs but fail to meet temperature requirements set
forth in ANSI/ADA Specification No. 17. Other materials comply with SpecificationNo. 17
but fail to meet the requirements of SpecificationNo. 13. Such materials often discolor,
harbor microorganisms,and separate from underlying denture bases.
Similar materials are marketed for home use. Unfortunately,the majority of patients do not
possess adequate
knowledge to manipulate these materials correctly; therefore the use of such products can
result in damage to the oral tissues. Thus, the purchase and use of such products should be
discouraged.

REBASING RESIN DENTURES

An accurate impression of the soft tissues is made using the existing denture as a custom
tray.Subsequently, a gypsum cast is fabricated in the impression. The cast and denture are
mounted in a device designed to maintain the correct vertical and horizontal relationships
between the stone cast and surfaces of the prosthetic teeth.

The resultant assembly provides indices for the occlusal surfaces of the prosthetic teeth. After
these indices have been established, the denture is removed and the teeth are separated from
the existing denture base. The teeth are repositioned in their respective indices and held in
their original relationships to the cast while they are waxed to a new baseplate.
At this point, the denture base is waxed to the desired form. The completed tooth
arrangement is sealed to the cast, and the assembly is invested as previously described.
Following elimination of the wax and removal of the baseplate, resin is introduced into the
mold cavity. The material subsequently is processed. After processing, the denture is
recovered, finished, and polished. The completed prosthesis consists of a new denture base in
conjunction with teeth from the patient’s previous denture.

Material Advantages Disadvantages

 Good appearance
Low flexural strength
High glass transition temp.
Heat cured PMMA Fatigue life is short
Ease of Fabrication
Radiolucency
Good surface finish

High impact strength

High Stiffness
Heat Cure
High impact strength Reduced Stiffness
 Rubber
Good fatigue life Poor color
 Fiber
Good surface finish and
Translucency

Material Advantages Disadvantages

Increased Creep

Easy fabrication Free monomer content

Auto Cured Dimensional Stability Poor color stability

High flexural strength Decreased stiffness

Poor surface finish

No Free Monomer Content

Light Cured Decreased shrinkage Decreased elastic modulus

Time saving

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