2.27.3 Twist Channel Multiangular Pressing: Plunger

Severe Plastic Deformation Methods for Bulk Samples 99
Plunger
Sample
Figure 2.52 A schematic diagram of the TCAP die with indications of sample axes
[212].
2.27.3 Twist Channel Multiangular Pressing

TCMAP has been designed to increase the efficiency of the TCAP pro-
cess. For this purpose, the TCAP conception was modified by implemen-
tation of another deformation section (multiple bending). The TCMAP
principle is depicted in Fig. 2.53 [214]. The TCMAP geometry enables
to obtain materials with a high value of the imposed strain without signif-
icant changes in the shape of the cross-section and even the end of the
extruded material.
2.27.4 Cyclic Extrusion Compression Angular Pressing

A method entitled CECAP was developed in 2017 at the University of
Tehran to introduce a new SPD technique. CECAP can resolve the lim-
itations of CEC (the need for back pressure) and ECAP (low strain per
cycle) processes while improving their efficiency. This method consists of
two subsequently integrated CEC and ECAP processes. The CECAP
process is shown schematically in Fig. 2.54. The bulk cylindrical sample is
put into the die input channel. The deformation zone in this process con-
sists of two parts. At the first part, the initial cylindrical metal is extruded
to reduce its diameter. The reduced diameter reaches the channel end
and is compressed. Then, the material is pressed into the angular channel
to be laterally extruded. The angular part of the CECAP die provides the
100 Severe Plastic Deformation
Plunger
Die
Sample
Figure 2.53 A scheme of the TCMAP process.
D
Die Plunger
Sample
d
Figure 2.54 Schematic of the CECAP process and die parameters.
required back pressure to compress the sample to increase its diameter to

the original diameter. So, the CEC process is performed without using
the dual press to provide the necessary back pressure for the compression
stage. Also, it causes the accumulation of more plastic strain into the sam-
ple compared to simple CEC and ECAP methods [8].
Due to the equivalent plastic strain in ECAP [51] and CEC [215] pro-
cesses, equivalent strain after N passes of CECAP can be achieved by:

D 1
ε tot 5 N 4ln 1 pffiffiffi 2cotðϕ=2 1 ψ=2Þ 1 ψcosecðϕ=2 1 ψ=2Þ

d 3
(2.35)
where ϕ; ψ; D, and d are shown in Fig. 2.54.
Beside the mentioned advantage of CECAP, it is worth adding that
the level of hydrostatic compressive stress achieved in CECAP is higher
than ECAP. This leads to an increase in workability and makes it
suitable for processing of the hard-to-deform metals. Besides, it enables
the capability of producing high-strength and high-ductility metals, like
Mg alloys.
Some other attempts to combine different SPD techniques have been
made, which have led to even better material properties. In Reference
[216] the combination of ECAP and cold rolling followed by HPT
resulted in an improvement of mechanical properties. In other research,
the combination of two SPD techniques, namely ECAP and HE, was
used to produce UFG materials such as an Al-Mg alloy [217] and pure
nickel [218].
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CHAPTER 3
Severe Plastic Deformation

Methods for Sheets
3.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter aims to clarify the functional and structural principles of
ultrafine grained and nanostructured sheet production processes devel-
oped over the past two decades. As mentioned in the previous chapters,
severe plastic deformation (SPD) methods are used to produce bulk mate-
rial, sheets, and tubes. In this chapter, we will only refer to the methods
that are suitable for sheet forming. Furthermore, we will consider the fea-
tures of each procedure in detail. The techniques introduced in this chap-
ter are all top-down approaches in which materials with ultrafine or
nanostructured grains are produced from coarse-grained materials by
severe plastic deformation. Table 3.1 shows a list of SPD methods pre-
sented in the last few years.
The functional structures of each of the above methods are discussed
in detail in this chapter to specify the development of severe plastic defor-
mation. In each of the presented methods, various aspects of the defor-
mation behavior are considered, so as to compare and determine the
efficiency of each method.
3.2 ACCUMULATIVE ROLL-BONDING (ARB)

Accumulative roll-bonding (ARB) was developed in 1998 by Saito et al.
and it is based on conventional rolling as one of the most useful metal
forming methods [1]. The principle of ARB is illustrated in Fig. 3.1. In
the ARB process, conventional roll bonding after stacking of the two
strips is done repeatedly. The interfaces are first degreased and wire-
brushed to enhance the bond strength. In the ARB process, for 50%
rolled sheet, the rolled metal length is cut into two halves, which are
again surface-treated, stacked, and roll-bonded. To obtain a unit of solid
metal sheet, the rolling process is not only a deformation process but also
a bonding process.
Severe Plastic Deformation © 2018 Elsevier Inc.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-813518-1.00003-5 All rights reserved. 113
Table 3.1 Various SPD methods suitable for deforming sheet samples
Process Inventors Year
Accumulative roll-bonding (ARB) Saito et al. [1] 1999

Conecone method (CCM) Bouaziz et al. [2] 2007
Constrained groove pressing (CGP) Shin et al. [3] 2002
Rubber pad-constrained groove pressing (RP-CGP) Borhani et al. [4] 2012
Constrained groove rolling (CGR) Lee et al. [5] 2002
Friction stir processing (FSP) Mishra et al. [6] 1999
Equal channel angular rolling (ECAR) Lee et al. [7] 2001
Repetitive corrugation and straightening Haung et al. [8] 2001
Repetitive corrugation and straightening by rolling Mirsepasi et al. [9] 2012
Asymmetric rolling Kim et al. [10] 2001
Continuous frictional angular extrusion (CFAE) Huang et al. [11] 2007
Continuous cyclic bending (CCB) Takayama et al. [12] 1999
Degreasing,
wire brushing
Surface treatment Cutting
Stacking
Roll bonding
Figure 3.1 Schematic representation of the accumulative roll-bonding (ARB) method.
The thickness of the sheet after n passes is [1]:

t0
t5 (3.1)
2n
where the thickness reduction per cycle is 50% and t0 is the initial thick-
ness. The total reduction, rtot , after n passes is [1]:
t 1
rtot 5 1 2 512 n (3.2)
t0 2
Severe Plastic Deformation Methods for Sheets 115
Therefore, the equivalent plastic strain ε calculated from von Mises

yield criterion is expressed by [1]:

2 1
ε 5 n pffiffiffi ln 5 0:8n (3.3)
3 2
where a plane strain condition in which no lateral spreading existence
was considered. The deformation process may be changed with different
lubrication conditions and surface brushing. Therefore, due to the
friction at the roll surfaces, a shear strain component is created in addition
to the rolling strain similar to conventional cold rolling [13,14]. The main
problem with the ARB process is that cracks can occur in the metal due
to free deformation at the free edges without enough hydrostatic
compressive stresses, and edge cracks may occur in the sheet, especially at
higher strains [15]. The ARB process requires a high-capacity rolling
machine to enhance a high-reduction ratio leading to good bonding
between sheets. In addition, performing the experiments at low tempera-
ture would result in insufficient ductility and bond strength [1,16,17],
while high temperatures facilitate grain coarsening and dynamic
recrystallization [1820].
To speed up the ARB method, accumulative roll bonding and
folding (ARBF) was developed by combining the advantages of ARB
and folding processes [21]. In the ARBF process, the multilayer
metal/composite is folded between two consecutive rolling passes
instead of cutting.
3.3 CONECONE METHOD (CCM)

Another suitable method for producing UFG and NS sheets, named
CCM, was first invented by Bouaziz et al. in 2007 [22]. CCM is based
on the use of a conical plunger and a conical die to deform a conical
sheet sample of a given material by applying a force F and a torque C on
the tool (Fig. 3.2). The force is used to impose hydrostatic pressure, and
the torque to deform the ring by shear. In many aspects, this process is
perceived to have been developed based on the high-pressure torsion
(HPT) method. If sticking between the workpiece and the tooling can be
established, very large plastic shear strains and concomitant grain refine-
ment can be achieved. The deformed workpiece can be cut and rolled to
obtain a flat product [22].
Die
F R
x ϕ
Plunger
Sample
Figure 3.2 Schematic view of a CCM design.
The effective strain in the geometry of the CCM process is as follows

[22]:
2πN:RðxÞ
ε5 pffiffiffi (3.4)
3:t
where t is the thickness of the sample, N is the number of turns, and
RðxÞ is the radius at a point on the axis from the apex. The strain
decreases linearly with distance along the central axis and toward the apex
of the cone. In the CCM process, shear strain is applied by friction forces
acting on large surfaces under a high hydrostatic stress in the deformation
zone. An inhomogeneous microstructure along the axial and radial direc-
tions has been reported. Moreover, low hydrostatic compressive stress is
observed at the free edge with unconstrained plastic flow [20]. This allows
slipping between the die/the punch and the sample in the free region and
leads to a reduction in strain at the region close to the sample edge [23].
The main benefits of CCM over the HPT technique are that much larger
workpieces can be produced and can be turned into sheet products of
sizeable dimensions [22].
3.4 CONSTRAINED GROOVE PRESSING (CGP)

Constrained groove pressing (CGP) is an intense plastic straining tech-
nique for the fabrication of plate and sheet samples with UFG structures
without changing their initial dimensions. The CGP process is shown
Figure 3.3 A schematic drawing of the different stages of the CGP process.
schematically in Fig. 3.3 [3]. In this process, the sample is placed between
a set of asymmetrically upper and lower corrugated dies constrained by a
hollow cylinder. As pressing is performed, the inclined region (hatched
area in Fig. 3.3b) is subjected to pure shear deformation under plane
strain conditions, whereas no deformation is applied at the flat region
(unhatched area). A pressing leads to a shear strain of 1 (effective strain,
εeff 5 0.58) at the deformed zone when the groove angle (θ) is designed
as 45˚. Then, the sample is pressed with a set of flat dies as shown in
Fig. 3.3c. Flat pressing applies a reverse shear deformation to the
deformed region, while the previous undeformed region remains
unchanged. The accumulative equivalent strain of the deformed zone col-
ored in Fig. 3.3c will be doubled and reaches 1.16. The specimen is then
rotated by 180˚ (Fig. 3.3d). This causes the undeformed zone to be
strained by further pressings because of the asymmetry of the grooved
dies. Therefore, the consequent pressings with grooved and flat dies yield
a homogeneous and uniform equivalent strain of 1.16 throughout the
sample. A large amount of equivalent plastic strains can be applied to the
sample without changing its initial dimensions. Thus, an ultrafine grained
structure can be obtained by repeated processing by CGP [3].
Referring to Fig. 3.4 and Eqs. (3.5)(3.9), it can be seen that the
effective strain in a single pressing is equal to 0.58 [24].
t
γ xy 5 γ 5 tanθ 5 5 1 (3.5)
t
t
θ
t
Figure 3.4 The deformed region in the groove pressed sample.
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
iffi
2 h 2 2 i 4h
εeff 5 εx -εy 1 εy -εz 1 ðεz -εx Þ 1 εxy 1 εyz 1 εzx (3.6) 2 2 2 2
9 3
γxy γ
εxy 5 5 (3.7)
2 2
εx 5 εy 5 εz 5 εyz 5 εxz 5 0 (3.8)
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2
4 γ=2 γ
ð3:6Þ; ð3:7Þ; ð3:8Þ.εeff 5 5 pffiffiffi .Uεeff 5 0:58 (3.9)
3 3
The plastic strain distributions at the end of one pass show an inho-
mogeneous distribution. The strain at the central region of the sheet
thickness is greater than that of the surface [25] due to the influence of
friction. Controlling the die parameters needs to be designed carefully. At
the larger groove angles, pressing at high cycles of CGP leads to the for-
mation of cracks at the corner of the groove, resulting in a severe stress
concentration on the metal [26]. The CGP method can be regarded as a
discontinuous and time-consuming process [27].
In CGP, the sheet specimen is tightly constrained between the lower
and upper dies. Thus, when the dies press the sheet, the sheet can move
neither in the longitudinal direction nor in the transverse direction.
When processing via unconstrained groove pressing or simply groove
pressing (GP), there is no constraint, and the sample moves freely along
the longitudinal and transverse directions as shown in Fig. 3.5 [26,28].
However, the CGP method exhibits several limitations that make this
process unsuitable for industrial applications. It is difficult to apply very
Normal Top die

direction (ND)
Longitudinal
Sample
Transverse
direction (TD) direction (LD)
Bottom die
Figure 3.5 Schematic of the groove pressing (GP) technique.
high strains because of relatively free forming of the sample during the
CGP processing. The sample surface is free, and the hydrostatic compres-
sive stress is relatively low [29]. This increases the possibility of the forma-
tion of cracks at higher strains [30]. Besides, it is hard to process large
samples using this process.
3.4.1 Semiconstrained Groove Pressing (SCGP)

To simplify performing of the CGP process, another type of groove press-
ing entitled semiconstrained groove pressing (SCGP) has been developed
[24,31]. In the SCGP process, the sheet specimen is placed between the
dies that are firmly constrained by the channel instead of a hollow con-
tainer used in the CGP. As a result, the sheet specimen is constrained
between the die outer walls and the sample cannot move in the longitudi-
nal direction [26].
3.4.2 Rubber Pad-Constrained Groove Pressing (RP-CGP)

To simplify the die, another type of CGP process named rubber pad-
constrained groove pressing (RP-CGP) has been developed [4]. Unlike
CGP, which uses a pair of grooved and flat dies, one grooved and one flat
die are used in the RP-CGP process. Both the upper grooved and flat
dies are replaced by a flexible rubber pad under a punch as illustrated in
Fig. 3.6. The rubber pad acts as both a grooved die for the corrugating
stages and a flat die for flattening [26]. This flexible rubber pad increases
the hydrostatic pressure and greatly improves the workability of the sheet
[32], increasing the maximum number of CGP passes before metal
cracking.
Figure 3.6 A schematic drawing of the RP-CGP process.
3.4.3 Constrained Groove Rolling (CGR)

To make the CGP method suitable for deforming long sheets, CGR has
been developed in which the lower and upper rolls are as shown in
Fig. 3.7. A plate-shaped workpiece is repeatedly corrugated and flattened
between the rolls. In groove passes, as the asymmetrically grooved parts of
the rolls press the workpiece, the inclined regions of the workpiece are
subjected to shear deformation, while the flat regions remain unchanged.
In flattening passes performed by the flat parts of the rolls, the deformed
regions are subjected to reverse shear deformation while the undeformed
regions remain unchanged. The workpiece is then rotated by 180˚, allow-
ing the undeformed regions to be deformed by the rolls, and the groov-
ing and flattening procedure is repeated. The CGR process seems more
practical than the CGP process since the material can be continuously
fabricated [33].
3.5 FRICTION STIR PROCESSING (FSP)

Friction stir welding (FSW) is a solid-state welding process with a simple
concept that has proven to be a useful method for joining materials with
poor fusion weldability, such as dissimilar and hard-to-weld materials
[3436]. Friction stir processing (FSP), developed by Mishra et al.
[37,38], is an effective tool for microstructural modification and produc-
ing UFG metals based on FSW [39,40]. As shown in Fig. 3.8, FSW is a
remarkably simple process in which an almost solid and rigid rotating tool
with a specially designed pin and shoulder presses into the sheets or plates
and is then moved along the sample. The two primary functions of the
Figure 3.7 Photograph showing the CGR apparatus [33].
Downward force
n
io
Tool rotation ct
dire
Shoulder
ing
Friction stir e ld
W
welded region
Pin
1st SPDed sheet 2nd SPDed sheet
Figure 3.8 Schematic of FSW/FSP.
tool are heating of the workpiece as a result of friction between the

shoulder and sample surface, and stirring the material by severe local plas-
tic deformation. The deformation of the material around the tool pin can
be quite complex because of the geometrical features of the tool [41].
During the FSP process, the material experiences severe plastic deforma-
tion at an elevated temperature. This results in the formation of fine or
ultrafine grained equiaxed recrystallized microstructures [4244]. There
are many process parameters, such as rotational tool speed, traverse speed,
tilt angle, and tool offsetting that influence the properties of the joints.
3.6 EQUAL CHANNEL ANGULAR ROLLING (ECAR)

The ECAR process is illustrated in Fig. 3.9. As shown in the figure, the
process consists of two dies at the outlet and two rolls at the inlet. The
Guide roll
Upper die
0.85 t0
t0
Feeding roll
t0
Lower die
Figure 3.9 A schematic illustration of the ECAR process.
thicknesses of the inlet and outlet channels are almost the same, while at
the deformation zone between rolls the thickness is decreased to
B0.850.95 t0 from t0. However, the sheet thickness at the outlet is
equal to the initial thickness. The diameter of the feeding and guide rolls,
their rotational speed, the frictional behavior of rolls and dies, the sheet
properties, and thickness variation are the main effective parameters of
this process. The ECAR process is a counterpart to the ECAP method,
which is suitable for processing sheets or long rods.
3.7 REPETITIVE CORRUGATION AND STRAIGHTENING (RCS)

The RCS process consists of two steps: corrugation followed by straight-
ening. This process has two variations: discontinuous (Fig. 3.10A) and
continuous (Fig. 3.10B). It is clear that the RCS process in the continu-
ous state can be easily adapted to a rolling mill which is suitable for indus-
trial production of UFG and NG metals. By pressing the corrugated
workpiece between two flat plates, the corrugated sample is straightened.
However, this stage can be done using flat cylindrical rolls in a continuous
variant of RCS [8]. At first glance, the RCS method seems to be very
simple and effective. Precise inspection may show that the hydrostatic
pressure is relatively low as a result of free deformation at the edges,
which facilitates the formation of micro- and nanocracks during the pro-
cess. This limits the capability of the process for applying very large strains
and consequently increasing the minimum saturated grain size.
Figure 3.10 (A) Schematic of the discontinuous and (B) continuous RCS process for
SPD processing of sheet materials [8].
3.8 REPETITIVE CORRUGATION AND

STRAIGHTENING BY ROLLING (RCSR)
RCSR is an SPD technique suitable for deforming sheets by accumulative
strain in the material utilizing special corrugated rolls. This method is
fairly similar to constrained groove rolling. Fig. 3.11 depicts a schematic
of the RCSR method. In a design presented by the inventors from the
University of Tehran, the width and diameter of the rolls are 200 mm and
110 mm, respectively [9]. At the first step of the RCSR process, as shown
in Fig. 3.11B, a sheet specimen is rolled between a pair of asymmetrically
corrugated rolls in which some regions of the workpiece are subjected to
the deformation. The workpiece experiences this step for five cycles. The
corrugated workpiece is then rolled between a pair of flat rolls as shown
in Fig. 3.11. The second step is repeated for up to seven cycles to make
the sheet relatively flat. At this point, half of the RCSR cycle is com-
pleted, and the workpiece is rotated 180˚, and the previous steps are
repeated so that the sample experiences one pass RCSR. This results in
the distribution of plastic strain throughout the workpiece. The repetition
of the following passes appears to produce uniform deformation in the
sample. The gap between rolls can be adjusted so that the sheet is sub-
jected to additional plastic strain during feeding which leads to decreasing
the thickness of the sample. As a result, the workpiece is expected to be
wider, thinner, and longer than its initial size. The inventors designed and
built this process on a laboratory scale, however, it can be easily adapted
for industrial-scale production. The RCSR process has several advantages,
including simplicity, continuity, and suitability for industrial-scale produc-
tion. The major drawbacks of the RCSR process are almost nonhomoge-
neous structure relative to the dimensional changes, and the possibility of
formation of micro- and nanocracks due to lower hydrostatic stresses.
Figure 3.11 Schematic illustration of the RCSR process [9].
The equivalent plastic strain at each pass can be calculated from the fol-
lowing equation [9]:
t0
ε 5 lnð1 1 Þ (3.10)
2R
3.9 ASYMMETRIC ROLLING

The differential speed rolling or asymmetric rolling process, shown in
Fig. 3.12, is very similar to the SPD method for processing sheet samples.
In contrast to conventional rolling, the rolls have a different velocity or
diameters leading to applying additional shear deformation into the metal.
The shear deformation may refine the microstructure to a greater extent
than conventional rolling.
3.10 CONTINUOUS FRICTIONAL ANGULAR

EXTRUSION (CFAE)
The CFAE technique, a method similar to ECAR, is illustrated in
Fig. 3.13. This method offers a solution to some problems of the ECAR
method and contains an ECAE-based die assembly part combined with
several innovative stages. In this approach, using a large frictional diameter
driving roll applies a normal pressure to the sample without any plastic
compression. Therefore, it is possible to carry out the continuous proces-
sing mainly by shear plastic deformation, which changes the dimension of
V1>V2
V1
V2
Figure 3.12 Schematic illustration of an asymmetric or differential speed rolling

process.
Figure 3.13 Schematic of the CFAE method: 1—driving roll, 2—sheet workpiece, 3—
workpiece support block, 4—die assembly, 5 and 6—first and second extrusion
channels, respectively [11].
the sample. The process may be repeated to apply ultrahigh plastic strains.
The CFAE technique offers several advantages, including being
suitable for processing industrial quantities of metals (mainly sheets, but
also bars and rods), and less extrusion force due to minimized die friction.
3.11 CONTINUOUS CYCLIC BENDING (CCB)

Fig. 3.14 shows a schematic of the continuous cyclic bending (CCB)
method [12]. As shown in the figure, bending and unbending procedures
offset Roll2 Roll4 t
Offset
Roll1 Roll3 Roll5
Figure 3.14 Schematic representation of a CCB machine [12].
are applied to the sample repeatedly. The strain value per pass is relatively
low (B0.1), and many passes are required to apply larger strain similar to
that of the SPD methods. The simplicity of the procedure is its main
advantage. However, several disadvantages exist in this method. Low
strain per pass, very low hydrostatic compressive stresses, and very low
shear strain may be considered critical challenges. It is therefore hard to
achieve UFG structures and achieve high-strength metals with this
method [45,46].
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CHAPTER 4
Severe Plastic Deformation

Methods for Tubular Samples
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this chapter is to explain the functional and structural princi-
ples of ultrafine grained and nanostructured tube production processes
developed during the past decade. As mentioned in the previous chapters,
methods of severe plastic deformation (SPD) are used for producing bulk
material, sheets, and tubes. In this chapter, we will only refer to the
methods suitable for hollow tubular specimens. Furthermore, we will
consider the features of each method in detail. The techniques introduced
in this chapter are all top-down approaches in which tubular materials
with fine, ultrafine, or nanostructured grains are produced from coarse-
grained materials by SPD.
Tubular samples are used in many industrial applications. Metal tubes
made from copper, steel, aluminum, magnesium, titanium, and their
alloys are extensively used in medical, piping, petrochemical, oil and gas,
water, automotive, aerospace, military, and other industries. To enhance
their effectiveness and produce lighter structural systems, UFG and NS
tubes can be very promising materials for use in these industries due to
their high strength to weight ratio [1].
Several SPD methods for tube metal deformation have been devel-
oped for this purpose. A brief mention of the history of the various
SPD developments can be very insightful. Initially, in 2006, researchers
used the method of equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) (mainly used
for bulk materials) to produce tubular parts [2]. In 2009, ultrafine-
grained tubes were produced in France using high-pressure tube twisting
(HPTT) [3]. Later, many effective SPD processes were developed by
Iranian researchers. In 2010, a new method called accumulative spin-
bonding (ASB) for the production of UFG tubes was invented [4]. In
2011, tubular channel angular pressing (TCAP) was developed as a simple

and industrial capability method [5]. Once again, a parallel tubular

channel angular pressing (PTCAP) method was developed by researchers
at the University of Tehran in 2012 to improve the performance of
the PTCAP process [6]. Through the reform of the HPTT method,
another efficient method called high-pressure tube shearing (THPS) was
developed [7]. By introducing two new methods in 2014, tube cyclic
expansionextrusion (TCEE) and tube cyclic extrusioncompression
(TCEC), researchers were able to perform innovative steps to produce
high-strength tubes [8]. By combining PTCAP and tube backward extru-
sion, researchers have produced thinner UFG tubes [9]. Due to high
demands for thin-walled high-strength tubes, several other SPD methods
have been developed recently. Researchers have developed a new method
called cyclic flaring and sinking (CFS) by improving the performance of
PTCAP [10]. They also invented another process called rubber pad tube
straining (RPTS), which uses rubber in a plastic deformation die [11]. A
series of methods using a combination of conventional extrusion processes
has also been invented to enhance the industrial application of UFG tubes
on a relatively large scale compared to the conventional SPD process. In
these methods, the cross-section of the samples was varied during the
processes by applying an intense plastic deformation to achieve fine and
ultrafine grain size.
In this chapter, the functional structure of each method is discussed
in detail to specify the development of SPD on the material. In each
of the presented methods, various aspects of the deformation behavior
are considered to compare and determine the efficiency of the
method. The methods mentioned above are discussed in detail in the
following sections.
4.2 EQUAL CHANNEL ANGULAR PRESSING FOR HOLLOW

PARTS
In 2006, the ECAP process, originally developed for bulk samples, was
redesigned as shown in Fig. 4.1 to manufacture ultrafine grained tubular
components. In this method, the tube is pressed into the channel using a
punch from the top of the die.
After each cycle, the von Mises equivalent true strain (ε) generated in
the sample by shearing through the die depends on the channel or die
Severe Plastic Deformation Methods for Tubular Samples 133
Punch
Die
Workpiece
Figure 4.1 Schematic of the ECAP process for producing hollow nanostructure
parts [14].
angle “ϕ” and outer corner angle “ψ.” It can be represented as equivalent
plastic strain as proposed by Segal et al. [12] and can be expressed as:

2cotðφ= 2 1 ψ= 2Þ 1 ψcosecðφ= 2 1 ψ= 2Þ
ε5 pffiffiffi (4.1)
3
Due to the geometry of the intersecting channels, a plastic strain of
about 1 in each cycle is applied to the tube material. A flexible mandrel is
placed in the tube to prevent the tube from buckling. The mandrel can
be soil, rubber, polymer, or fluid pressure. This method has been experi-
mented with to produce UFG and nanostructured tubes from different
metals including Ti, Al alloys, and Cu. The intersecting channel angle
(ϕ) is typically chosen to be 90 degrees for ECAP of bulk metals.
However, in tube ECAP processes, channel angle (ϕ) is chosen to be
greater than 90 degrees such as 120, 135, or 150 degrees to prevent or
minimize folding and void defects [2]. This decreases the compressive
hydrostatic stress and consequently reduces the process efficiency of
producing ultrafine-grained size materials with high angle grain bound-

aries. This issue will be investigated in detail in subsequent chapters. This
method was applied to pure Al by changing the channel geometry. Due
to lack of hydrostatic pressure, the maximum total plastic strain that can
be applied to the material before the appearance of defects is estimated to
be about 0.9. Due to the lack of plastic strain, it has been reported that
this method cannot produce ultrafine-grained pure aluminum tubes with
a large proportion of high angle grain boundaries [13].
This method is tested using other types of mandrels, and in an innova-
tive case, compressed oil was used as a mandrel. One of the most common
problems when using oil in the forming processes is related to oil leakage
during the process. The other problems that occur due to oil compress-
ibility are heterogeneous distribution of tube thickness and reduction of
hydrostatic pressure. When using a tube metal in different industrial
applications, it is important that the tube must have uniform properties
along its peripheral direction. Many references have reported the hetero-
geneity strain in the peripheral direction of tubes manufactured by ECAP,
which can lead to heterogeneity of mechanical properties [15,16]. Hence,
this method cannot be successfully employed as a promising method for
future applications.
4.3 HIGH-PRESSURE TUBE TWISTING

With the introduction of HPTT in 2009, significant and innovative steps
were taken to produce UFG tubes. A schematic of HPTT is illustrated in
Fig. 4.2. At first, the tube with an average radius r0 and thickness t is
placed on a rigid disk. Then, an elastic mandrel is placed inside the tube,
and during the HPTT, the elastic mandrel is pressed under the axial load.
Pressure
Rotation
Rigid disk Mandrel Sample
Figure 4.2 Schematic of the HPTT process with high hydrostatic pressure [14].
As the mandrel expands elastically in the radial direction under the axial
load, the tube will be constrained internally and externally. This process
leads to the creation of proper hydrostatic pressure on the tube. Finally,
with twisting the rigid disk at specified angle β, the shear strain value
calculated from Eq. (4.2) is applied to the tube metal [3].
r0 β
γ5 (4.2)
t
The shear strain in this method should be calculated as the average
along the tube thickness. The average shear strain (γ) in the tube with
inner radius a and outer radius b is obtained using Eq. (4.3) [17].
β
γ5 (4.3)
lnðbaÞ
The microstructural characterization of aluminum tubes using an
optical microscope has shown the change in orientation of grains in the
direction of the applied shear force [3]. Note that the vertical force
exerted on the mandrel does not affect material flow and is controlled
only by the shear stress parameter. It has been proved that increasing the
shear strain (more rotation angle) increases the strength of the material
and significantly reduces the ductility [18].
The ability to apply plastic strain continuously to the sample, high
hydrostatic pressure, and pure shear strain (almost without normal strains)
are important features of the HPTT method [14]. One of the limitations
of this approach is that there is a significant difference in shear strain
values between the inside and outside of the tube. This leads to the
inhomogeneous microstructure and grain size distribution. Consequently,
mechanical properties in various regions of the tube will not be homo-
geneous [19]. On the one hand, the pressure for expansion of mandrel
and supplying the hydrostatic pressure and, on the contrary, the force for
twisting the tube that is applied to the tube by a rigid disc, makes this
method require a great deal of force. It should be noted that the modified
state of this method is used to produce a two-layer tube of copper and
aluminum [20].
4.4 TUBE HIGH-PRESSURE SHEARING

In 2012, another variant of the HPTT process was introduced and desig-
nated as the tube high-pressure shearing (THPS) process. A schematic of
the THPS process is shown in Fig. 4.3. In the THPS method, the tube is
radially restrained between the mandrel and the die. During the process,
high hydrostatic pressure is applied to prevent slipping. A simple shear is
created in the sample by rotating the cylindrical outer die while keeping
the mandrel fixed [7]. The concepts of THPS and HPTT are fairly simi-
lar. However, applying hydrostatic pressure to the tube walls is different in
the HPTT and THPS processes. In HPTT, the axial force is applied to an
elastic mandrel, and the expansion of the mandrel exerts a radial force on
the sample. In THPS, the axial pressure is applied directly to the sample
by pressure rings. In other words, the hydrostatic pressure is applied using
rings in THPS, while elastic deformation of the mandrel applies hydro-
static pressure in the HPTT process. This makes the THPS process more
user-friendly, controllable, and simpler in practice.
Fig. 4.4 illustrates the schematic occurrence of shear deformation in
the tube wall. During the THPS process, a straight line within the tube is
Cylindrical die
Sample
Mandrel
Hydrostatic
Pressure ring
pressure
Figure 4.3 Schematic of the THPS process in which the pressure rings provide
hydrostatic pressure [14].
θ
φ
R
r
r + Δr
Δθ
Ri
Figure 4.4 Schematic illustration of the shear strain occurring in THPS [7].
sheared to an inclined curve while the outer part of the tube rotates
through an angle θ. The radius r increases to (r 1 Δr) corresponding to
an angular increment of Δθ, and the local tangential shear strain is given
by [7]:
γ 5 tanϕ 5 ðrΔθÞ=Δr 5 ðrdθÞ=dr (4.4)
In order to estimate the average strain, γ, in the tube wall, it is
assumed that the strain in the wall is homogeneous, so that:
ð ðR ðR
θ 5 dθ 5 γdr=r 5 γ dr=r 5 γlnðR=Ri Þ (4.5)
Ri Ri
and
γ 5 θ=lnðR=Ri Þ 5 2 θ=lnðRi =RÞ 5 2 θ=lnβ (4.6)
where β is the ratio of the inner radius Ri over the outer radius R of the
tube.
A first-order approximation of Eq. 4.6 as Ri -R leads to
γ 5 θR=R 2 Ri which is equivalent to the strain estimated for HPTT
[3,7].
4.5 MODIFIED HIGH-PRESSURE TUBE TWISTING

According to the idea of THPS, the modified HPTT method has been
designed to address the drawbacks of the HPT methods mentioned
above for tube manufacturing. A schematic of a modified HPTT is
shown in Fig. 4.5. Unlike HPTT and THPS, which consist of
Axial direction
Pressure
Shear stress
direction
Normal vector
Rotational mandrel of shear plane
Tube
Fixed mandrel
Figure 4.5 Schematic of a modified HPTT process [14].

complicated apparatus, the modified HPTT consists of two rotational

and one fixed mandrels. This design makes the modified HPTT process
effective and simple from a manufacturing viewpoint [19]. The modi-
fied HPTT is so far the best HPT-based tube SPD method from a
processing point of view. However, from the property point of view, it
needs further investigations.
4.6 ACCUMULATIVE SPIN BONDING

As mentioned in previous chapter, one of the most important SPD methods
for sheets is accumulative roll bonding (ARB). Iranian researchers from
Sharif University of technology have developed an ARB-based method
suitable for deforming tubes which is called accumulative spin bonding
(ASB). The concept of this process is similar to the conventional flow
forming process in which the thickness of a rotating tube mounted on
a mandrel is gradually reduced by the roller. ASB is almost flow forming of a
bilayer stacked tubes. A schematic illustration of the ASB method is shown
in Fig. 4.6. To perform this procedure, two stacked tubes are placed on a
mandrel. The mandrel is mounted on the lathe’s three-chuck, and the roller
with a degree of freedom about its own axis is mounted on the lathe’s feed
support. As the mandrel and tube rotate, the roller comes into contact
with the tube and moves along the tube axis. This process leads to a
reduction in the thickness of the stacked tube, which in turn leads to
bonding between the tubes [4].
Rotational roller End of fixture

tube mandrel tube
mandrel
3-chuck
Surface contacts of Connection with

tubes rotation Rotational roller
Figure 4.6 (A) Tube bonding process by flow forming, (B) arrangement of the
ASB [4].
From the reduction in thickness and the angle of tool inclination θ

(Fig. 4.6) at each thickness location of the tube, the redundant shear strain
γ can be calculated by following equation [21]:
2ð12rÞ2 1
γ5 tanθ:ln (4.7)
rð2 2 rÞ 12r
where
r 5 1 2 ðt1 =t0 Þ (4.8)
Here, the rolling strain εr , which is the equivalent strain correspond-
ing to the reduction in thickness, is equal to:
2 1
εr 5 pffiffiffi ln (4.9)
3 1 2 r
Also, the equivalent strain can be calculated as:
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
4 1 2 γ2
ε5 ðln Þ 1 (4.10)
3 12r 3
From Eqs. (4.9) and (4.10), the equivalent strain can be rewritten as
follows:
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
γ2
ε 5 εr 2 1 (4.11)
3
The important point to be considered in this method is that tubes
with the same dimensions cannot be used as starting materials. Therefore,
to carry out the procedure for a higher number of passes, the mandrel
diameter should be carefully calculated for each cycle. This process is
done for up to several consecutive cycles to increase the applied plastic
strain to the metal tube. However, it requires careful calculation of the
thickness reduction and mandrel diameters in each cycle.
The ASB design for four cycles with different mandrels size is illus-
trated in Fig. 4.7. It is clear that the number of required mandrels is equal
to the number of cycles. For example, four mandrels with different dia-
meters are required to process up to four cycles. After the first cycle, a
two-layer tube produced by mandrel #1 is selected as an inner tube and
the tube produced by mandrel #2 is selected as an outer tube for the sec-
ond cycle. Consequently, a four-layer pipe is produced at the end of the
second cycle and a 16-layer tube is produced at the end of four cycles. As
shown in Fig. 4.8, the thickness of the outer tube that is in direct contact
Mandrel 1 Mandrel 2 Mandrel 3 Mandrel 4

d = 47.4 mm d = 49.2 mm d = 51 mm d = 52.8 mm
1 cycle 1 cycle 1 cycle 1 cycle

(2 layers) (2 layers) (2 layers) (2 layers)
2 cycles 2 cycles 2 cycles

(4 layers) (4 layers) (4 layers)
3 cycles 3 cycles
(8 layers) (8 layers)
4 cycles
(16 layers)
Figure 4.7 The ASB design with four different mandrels for four cycles [4].
Figure 4.8 Photographs taken from axial sections of tubes in different cycles of
ASB [4].
with the roller may be thinner than the inner tube. Hence, the micro-
structure and hardness along the tube wall may be heterogeneous. The
hardness of the outer surface of the tubes is higher than the rest, and this
may be attributed to high shear deformation occurring in the collision
between the roller and tube [22]. However, increasing the number of
cycles may reduce the heterogeneity of the microstructure and hardness

along the tube thickness [4].
The ASB method has the ability to produce long nanostructured
tubes, which is an important advantage for SPD methods. However, the
interlayer defects shown by arrows can be represented as a disadvantage in
the ASB method [23]. In order to reduce defects, careful cleaning of both
inner and outer surfaces of the stacked tubes at each cycle is required.
4.7 TUBULAR CHANNEL ANGULAR PRESSING

In 2011, an efficient SPD process, called the TCAP process, was pre-
sented for deforming tubular hollow shaped samples by researchers at the
University of Tehran in collaboration with POSTECH researchers. The
TCAP process [5,24,25], based on the ECAP process, was used to pro-
duce UFG tubes where shear stress plays an important role [26]. This
method is based primarily on applying a shear strain similar to the HPTT
process. The fundamentals of this method and its components are sche-
matically illustrated in Fig. 4.9. The tube is placed in the die with a
triangular-shaped geometry and extruded into the angular channel by
pressing the cylindrical hollow punch. By traversing the tube in the angu-
lar channel, the tube is subjected to severe plastic strains in three areas. In
case of the deformation area, three different geometries of triangular
[2729], semicircular [30], and trapezoidal [31] geometries were mainly
Cylindrical punch
I ϕ1
Die ψ1
II
ϕ2 ψ2
Tube
ψ3 III
ϕ3
Mandrel R0
R
(A) (B)
Figure 4.9 (A) Schematic of TCAP, (B) deformation zones and geometric parameters [5].
used in various studies investigating deformation behavior. The results

indicated reduced force for deformation, better strain homogeneity, and
reduced hydrostatic pressure are observed in the semicircular sample [32].
Increasing the die angle (ϕ1 or ϕ2) in a triangular geometry will have the
same effect as the semicircular die [33].
The exact value of total accumulated strain (εT ) after N passes of
TCAP processing can be calculated by Eq. 4.12, which results from com-
mon engineering plasticity formulae and the die geometry [5].
( )
X3
2cotðϕi = 2 1 ψi = 2Þ 1 ψi cosecðϕi = 2 1 ψi = 2Þ 4 R
εT 5 N pffiffiffi 1 pffiffiffi ln
i51 3 3 R0
(4.12)
It has also been shown that increasing the die angle can lower the
strain level, the required force [28], and the hydrostatic pressure on the
sample. This may reduce the strength and ductility of the processed tubes.
In the first part of this process, the tube thickness is reduced slightly
(Fig. 4.10). This is due to tensile peripheral strain resulting from the
increase in tube diameter. After the second shear zone, the compressive
peripheral strain due to the reduction in tube diameter and back pressure
effects of shear zone II have compensated the tube thinning at an early
stage. In other words, when the tube passes from shear zone II to III, the
compressive peripheral strain increases the tube thickness and restores it
to its initial value.
Figure 4.10 FEM variations of deformation geometry changes during TCAP proces-
sing with channel angles of 90 degrees [28].
Over the last few years, researchers have come to believe that reducing
the force required for deformation is one of the most important issues
faced. In order to achieve this objective, ultrasonic waves can have a posi-
tive effect. Researchers have been able to significantly reduce the force
required by applying ultrasonic vibrations to the die or punch. This is
due to a reduction in the coefficient of friction between the contact sur-
faces [34]. It has been shown that ultrasonic vibration in the direction of
tube axis has less of an influence on the strain and required force than the
radial vibration.
Other attempts to reduce the force required in the TCAP process
have led to the development of other SPD methods based on TCAP.
4.8 PARALLEL TUBULAR CHANNEL ANGULAR PRESSING

This process consists of two half-cycles that are shown schematically in
Fig. 4.11. In the first half-cycle, the initial tube was extruded into a cylin-
drical angular channel with two coaxial shear zones using a cylindrical
punch. The original tube diameter increases to the maximum amount for
its design. In the second half-cycle, the tube metal with an increased
diameter was extruded into the angular channel with similar shear zones
where the tube diameter returns to its original size. This method has
been successfully tested with pure copper tubes, and the results
First punch
Die
Tube
Mandrel
Second punch
(A) (B) (C)
Figure 4.11 Schematic of the PTCAP process: (A) initial state, (B) after the first half-
cycles, (C) after the second half-cycle [14].
comprehensively describe this method as an effective and innovative way

to solve the problems of previous methods [6].
Finite element analysis showed that the strain applied to the tube in
this method has very good homogeneity compared to TCAP. Therefore,
the mechanical properties of the tube are expected to become more
homogeneous [35]. After one PTCAP pass, the hardness values along the
tube thickness are almost equal. This is the first advantage of PTCAP
compared to TCAP. Another advantage is that this method requires less
force, as shown in Fig. 4.12.
It is noteworthy that the total equivalent strain after N passes of
PTCAP can be expressed in a general form by the following relationship
[6]:
( )
X 2
2cotðφi = 2 1ψi = 2Þ1 ψi cosecðφi = 2 1ψi = 2Þ 2 R2
εTN 52N pffiffiffi 1 pffiffiffi ln
i51 3 3 R1
(4.13)
where R1 and R2 are the initial radius of tube and after half-cycle, respec-
tively. Die parameters are ϕ and ψ as the channel and curvature angles.
The maximum amount of force in TCAP and PTCAP is 470 and 200
KN, respectively. This shows that PTCAP requires 57.5% less force than
TCAP [6]. One of the limitations of the TCAP process is that production
of UFG tubes with a long length (l/d .B2.5) is almost impossible.
Increasing the length of the tube increases the contact area between the
tube and the die, which in turn increases the force required to push the
500
450 TCAP
400 PTCAP
350
Force (KN)
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Distance from tube inner surface (mm)
Figure 4.12 Calculated force by finite element analysis in PTCAP and TCAP
methods [6].
tube into the die. On the other hand, the length of cylindrical punch
should be increased, which will reduce the buckling strength of the punch.
Therefore, increasing the required force and reducing the buckling
strength of the punch to produce long tubes can pose a significant risk of
buckling. The reduced required force in PTCAP provides a solution to
produce longer tubes than TCAP. It should be noted that the maximum
length of UFG tubes that can be produced by SPD methods depends on
different factors, such as the tube material, die geometry, thickness, diame-
ter, forming parameters (strain, strain rate, temperature, etc.), and lubri-
cant. For example, in the case of a magnesium alloy AZ91 and with the
terms expressed in Ref. [5], the hollow punch will buckle when the length
of the tube increases by more than 40 mm, the hollow punch will buckle.
The problem increases dramatically when processing thin-walled tubes.
A combined process to solve this problem is presented in Section 4.9.
If the mechanical properties change with different directions, it
indicates a strong anisotropy in the ultrafine-grained samples. Although the
strength and hardness of Cu30% Zn alloy increases in both directions,
the mechanical properties in the peripheral and axial directions are quite
different [36]. Besides excellent room temperature properties, large plastic-
ity or superplastic behavior of UFG Mg tubes processed by PTCAP could
be obtained at elevated temperatures [3739]. Also, excellent semisolid
forming capability was seen in 7075Al tubes processed via PTCAP [40].
4.9 COMBINED PTCAP

Although TCAP and PTCAP have created an effective method to pro-
duce ultrafine-grained thick-walled tubes, these methods cannot be used
for tubes with less thickness. When a thin tube is deformed by the
PTCAP process, the maximum possible length is greatly reduced since
the cross-section of the punch must be the same as that of the tube. Note
that reducing the cross-section of the punch (according to the cross-
section of the thin tube) reduces the load-bearing capacity of the punch
and increases the risk of its yielding or buckling. Consequently, there is a
serious limitation in the production of thin-walled tubes by PTCAP and
TCAP methods. To solve this problem, a combined approach was pre-
sented at the University of Tehran that consists of two steps. At the first
step, the multipass PTCAP process is performed, and then, at the second
step, a tube back-extrusion (TBE) process is carried out as shown in
Fig. 4.13. In this combined process, the PTCAP process is carried out
First punch
Die
Die
Punch
Tube
Tube
Mandrel
Second
punch
(A) (B) (C)
Figure 4.13 (A) The first half-cycle and (B) the second half-cycle, of the PTCAP pro-
cess (C) tube backward extrusion [9].
first to produce ultrafine-grained thick-walled tubes, and then the TBE

process is carried out to reduce the thickness of the ultrafine-grained
tubes. This method has been successfully tested on magnesium alloy
AZ31, and an ultrafine-grained tube with a thickness of 0.75 mm has
been achieved using extrusion [9].
Fig. 4.14 shows the geometric parameters of PTCAP and TBE. Since
this process consists of two stages, PTCAP and TBE, all of the applied
strain values must be considered. The equivalent strain achieved from N
passes of the PTCAP stage can be estimated using Eq. (4.13). Assuming a
uniform deformation, the following equation can be used for the equiva-
lent strain in the TBE stage of the combined process:
A0 R2 2 r 2
εTBE 5 ln 5 ln 02 02 (4.14)
R R0 2 rf
The total equivalent strain at the end of the combined process is equal
to the sum of these as follows [9]:
8 2 3 9
<X 2
2cotðφ = 2 1ψ = 2Þ1 ψ cosecðφ = 2 1ψ = 2Þ 2 R =
εTot 52N 4 i i
pffiffiffii i i 5 1 pffiffiffi ln 2
: i51 3 3 R1 ;
R02 2r02
1ln
R02 2rf2
(4.15)
R1 rf
ϕ1 I
ψ2
II ϕ2 ψ1
r0
R2
R0
Figure 4.14 Geometric parameters: (A) PTCAP, (B) TBE stages [9].
4.10 TUBE CHANNEL PRESSING

The method of tube channel pressing (TCP) is shown in Fig. 4.15. This
process involves a cylindrical channel with an intermediate neck that is
smaller in diameter than the initial diameter. The mandrel controls the
inner diameter of the tube. The mandrel diameter is reduced in coher-
ence with the necking zone; so that the distance between the necking
zone and mandrel is always equal to the initial thickness of the tube.
With a hollow punch from the top of the die, the tube is pressed into the
channel. During this process, the tube diameter reduces as it passes
through the necking zone and returns to the initial diameter as the tube
continues to move in the channel.
A small square element at the channel inlet (abcd) is distorted into a
0 0 0 0
parallelogram (a b c d ) as it passes through the theoretical shear plane
(Fig. 4.16). According to the Misses criterion, Eq. 4.16 estimates [41,42]
the equivalent strain in the ECAP die with equal fillet radius, and it is
also capable of roughly calculating the equivalent strain for each region of
the TCP die [43]:
2 ϕ
εvon2mises 5 pffiffiffi cotð Þ (4.16)
3 2
Since the tube is deformed back to its initial diameter after reducing
its diameter, the related homogeneous strain must be doubled. Hence, the
homogeneous strain can be calculated as follows [44]:
Punch
Tube
Necking
zone
180⁰
rotation
mandrel
(A) (B) (C)
Figure 4.15 Schematic of TCP: (A) the beginning of the first cycle, (B) the end of the
first cycle, (C) the beginning of the second cycle [14].
Figure 4.16 Two types of deformation channel: (A) Segal design, (B) Luis Design [33].
4 Dm
εHom 5 pffiffiffi lnð Þ (4.17)
3 dm
where, Dm is the average diameter of the inner and outer sides of the
channel and dm is the average diameter of the inner and outer sides of the
neck zone, respectively. Therefore, total effective strain achieved after one
pass is:
ε 5 εvon2mises 1 εHom (4.18)
And after N passes:

( )
X3
2 4 Dm
ε5N pffiffiffi cotðΦi = 2Þ 1 pffiffiffi lnð Þ (4.19)
i51 3 3 dm
Two different channels with different geometrical parameters designed

by Segal [45] and Luis [41] for the ECAP process are shown in Fig. 4.16.
The difference between the TCP and TCAP methods can be represented
by these two types of channels. TCAP uses the Segal channel, and TCP
uses the Luis channel with an arc on its die. The TCP process applies
fewer shear strains and more bending normal strains (tensile or compres-
sive) to the tube than TCAP [33]. In addition, the TCP process is an
inward-forming (smaller diameter in the forming zone) tube, while the
TCAP is outward-forming (larger diameter in the forming zone). Since
the shear strain plays a key role in reforming the ultrafine grain structures,
it is expected that a finer microstructure will be achieved in the TCAP
method while applying an equivalent plastic strain similar to TCP. Segal
showed that the creation of sharp corners and arc free die can improve
the performance of the ECAP method. Unfortunately, many studies have
not considered this important point. Spending money on producing dies
with an arc reduces the hydrostatic pressure and workability of material
and also increases the heterogeneity of the material properties in the final
product. The minimum saturated grain size from the TCAP method is
expected to be smaller than that of TCP. The minimum saturated grain
size determines the best possible mechanical properties from an SPD sys-
tem, including die and process parameters. This issue will be elaborated
on in the following chapters.
4.11 CYCLIC FLARING AND SINKING

Researchers introduced the CFS method in 2015 to produce long thin
ultrafine-grained tubes. As is shown in Fig. 4.17, this method is similar to
PTCAP. However, the outer die of the first half cycle and the inner
punch of the second half-cycle are eliminated from the process to reduce
friction. This process consists of flaring and sinking stages. Fig. 4.18 shows
the finite element predicted applied force during both the CFS and
PTCAP processes in the same situations. It is important to note that a
tube with 1 mm thickness and 50 mm length cannot be processed experi-
mentally via PTCAP. As is evident, the force required for CFS is about
Sinking die R2
Tube
ϕ2 ψ2
ϕ1 ψ1
Flaring punch
R1
(A) (B) (C) (D)
Figure 4.17 Schematic of the CFS process: (A) initial state, (B) first half-cycle (diame-
ter increasing), (C) the second half-cycle (diameter reduction), (D) geometric
parameters [14].
1.4
1.2
1
Force (KN)
0.8
0.6
0.4 PTCAP
0.2 CFS
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Displacement (mm)
Figure 4.18 Finite element calculated force for the CFS and PTCAP methods [46].
80 percent lower than that of PTCAP, which is due to a reduction in fric-

tion forces by eliminating the extra frictional contacts. When processing
long or thin-walled tubes, the friction force takes up a significant fraction
of the total force. Thus, reducing the frictional force is a critical feature of
the SPD method when processing thin-walled UFG tubes in which the
fraction of friction force is very large.
The CFS method can reduce a significant amount of force required
for processing by reducing the extra surface contact. Consequently, it is
possible to produce longer and thinner ultrafine-grained tubes by using
the CFS method. The finite element simulation results show that the
plastic strain at low channel angles (ϕ) is relatively low. Therefore, this
method is applicable to high channel angles. Otherwise, required hydro-

static pressure cannot be introduced to force the material to the die walls
[10]. The lack of sufficient hydrostatic pressure of CFS also results in
insufficient mechanical properties that can be regarded as a major disad-
vantage of this process.
In this process, the equivalent strain is similar to the PTCAP method
introduced previously with ψ 5 0 degree:
( )
X 2
2cotðϕi = 2 Þ 2 R2
εTot 5 2N pffiffiffi 1 pffiffiffi ln (4.20)
i51 3 3 R1
4.12 TUBE CYCLIC EXTRUSIONCOMPRESSION

In 2014, the TCEC method was introduced to produce UFG tubes by
applying SPD. A schematic of this process in two configurations based on
the CEC process is shown in Fig. 4.19. In terms of deformation, the
inside of the tube of the first design and the outside of the tube of the
second design are mainly deformed.
In terms of die configuration, in the first design (Fig. 4.19A), the tube
is placed between the mandrel, container, and upper and lower fixtures.
Mandrel Upper fixture

Upper fixture
Tube
Tube Container
Mandrel
Container
Die
Lower fixture
Lower fixture
(A) (B)
Figure 4.19 A schematic of the TCEC process: (A) the first design, (B) the second
design [14].
The tube maintains volume constancy during plastic deformation.

Pressing the mandrel with a barreled zone applies the required plastic
strain along the tube length [8]. In the second design (Fig. 4.19B), a fixed
set of the tube is pressed into a container with a barreled zone by the
mandrel with two upper and lower fixtures. As a result, the entire tube
length is gradually deformed as it passes through the barreled zone. In
each pass of TCEC, a plastic strain of about 2 is applied, and hence a
good grain refinement is expected from this process.
The TCEC method applies a large strain deformation while preserv-
ing the original shape of the sample after N cycles. Thus, the total equiv-
alent strain after N cycles of TCEC can be expressed in a general form by
the following equation [8]:
2
R0 2 r0 2 4 φ
εTot 5 2N ln 1 pffiffiffi cot (4.21)
R2 2 r2 3 2
The TCEC method has been applied to the tube with three different
materials: Al1050, AZ91 magnesium alloy, and pure copper. Although
tubes produced in this approach may have a longer length than the meth-
ods of TCP, TCAP, and PTCAP, it is not possible to produce ultrafine-
grained tubes with very long lengths for two reasons. The first reason is
that increasing the length of the tube (increasing the surface contact
between the tube and mandrel) increases the friction and may cause
buckling or yielding of the mandrel due to the limitations in cross-section
of the mandrel. Secondly, increasing frictional force also reduces the
hydrostatic pressure in some regions of the tube and can cause some pro-
blems in the deformation process [14].
4.13 TUBE CYCLIC EXPANSIONEXTRUSION

TCEE was developed by the same researchers who developed the TCEC
process. The TCEE process is similar to TCEC and has a slight advantage
over TCEC, because unlike TCEC, the TCEE process does not require
back pressure [8]. As shown in Fig. 4.20, the constrained metal tube
between the container and mandrel expands at a middle point of the
setup to endure plastic deformation. At the same time, the tube material
is pressed to fill the expansion zone and is gradually deformed plastically.
After the expansion, there is no need to lower punch, and the tube is
driven into the expansion zone by a cylindrical punch to produce UFG
tubes by expansion and then extrusion. This method was successfully
Cylindrical
punch
Mandrel
container
1st
L
α
container
2nd
Tube
2r
2r0
2R
2R0
Figure 4.20 A schematic of the TCEE process and geometric parameters of the die [14].
tested on magnesium alloy tube AZ91 [8], and the desired results were
achieved. Another achievement that has been introduced for this
approach is an improvement in the ductility of the tube, which is one of
the advantages of SPD methods that has always been an interesting subject
for researchers.
The accumulated effective strain resulting from the TCEE process,
which is imposed on the material, is equal to TCEC and obtained from
Eq. 4.21.
The main advantage of this method is that it doesn’t require back
pressure during the process. However, the possibility of buckling or
yielding of cylindrical hollow punch limits the production of long tubes
compared to its TCEC counterpart. This limitation in the manufacture
of long tubes which applies to most SPD methods makes these methods
unsuitable for industrial applications. Nevertheless, smaller UFG tubes
may have other special applications.
4.14 RUBBER PAD TUBE STRAINING

Several attempts to develop SPD methods suitable for deforming long
and thin-walled tubes have led to the development of the RPTS process.
This process is similar to the TCAP method with semicircular channel

geometry, but hyperelastic rubber is used as a die for the RPTS method
instead of a rigid die. This has led to the possible use of a solid mandrel
instead of a hollow one, and the problem of buckling or yielding of the
punch can be largely solved when producing long nanostructured tubes.
Researchers from the University of Tehran have shown that a tube with a
length of about 100 mm and thickness of 1 mm can be processed by their
RPTS process, while this is not possible using other methods such as the
TCAP, PTCAP, TCP, or TCEE processes [11]. A schematic of this pro-
cess is shown in Fig. 4.21. At the start of the process, the tube is placed
inside a cylindrical rubber and then placed inside a rigid die. Then the
solid mandrel with a convex region is placed inside the system, and both
sides are fixed to eliminate material slipping and generate sufficient hydro-
static stress for deformation. Thus, the tube and rubber are deformed
locally, and moving the mandrel moves the deformation zone along the
tube length. The energy stored in the rubber causes the tube to deform
back to its original dimensions [11].
Mandrel
tube
rubber
Die
Lower fixture
(A) (B) (C) (D)
Figure 4.21 A schematic of the RPTS process: (A) the initial state, (B) in the process,
and (C) the end of the process. (D) The arrangement of the process components
[11].
Considering two shear deformations and the existence of circumferen-

tial strains, the exact amount of the overall strain εT after each pass of the
RPTS process can be calculated from the following equations [11]:
X 2
4cotðϕi = 2 Þ
ευ 5 pffiffiffi (4.22)
i51 3

2 R0 1 R
εθ 5 pffiffiffi ln (4.23)
3 r0 1 R0
X2
4cotðϕi = 2 Þ
εT 5 pffiffiffi 1 2εθ (4.24)
i51 3
The die parameters are shown in Fig. 4.21. It is clear that the total equiv-
alent strain after N passes can be calculated by multiplying Eq. 4.24 with N.
It is very important to choose the proper rubber material. Incorrect
rubber selection can cause problems with tube deformation and can lead
Figure 4.22 (A) Shrinkage of aluminum tubes tested with soft polyurethane,
(B) wrinkling of the tube into the silicone rubber [11].
to defects such as wrinkling. A poor choice of rubber material with low

hardness like silicon or soft polyurethane rubbers for deforming Al-1100
tube resulted in wrinkling and nonuniform thickness distribution as
shown in Fig. 4.22.
4.15 OTHER COMBINED METHODS

One of the most critical challenges in SPD methods is that there is almost
no effective way to produce industrial components on a large scale [14].
Recently, several methods have been proposed which are a combination
of existing conventional SPDs. The cross-section of the sample before
and after the SPD method should be the same so that a high plastic strain
can be applied. Although this criterion is not addressed in the combined
process, relatively large strain is applied compared to the conventional
metal forming processes. Some of these combined processes are discussed
below.
Radial backward extrusion was patented by researchers at the
University of Tehran in 2015 for producing fine-grained tubes. This pro-
cess applies larger shear strains to the tube metal with low process force
compared to conventional backward extrusion [47]. As shown in
Fig. 4.23, this method consists of three main parts: container, moving
punch, and a fixed punch. Initially, the billet is placed inside the fixed
punch and then by the moving punch to pass through two deformation
Movable
punch
Fixed punch
Container
Figure 4.23 Schematic of a backward extrusion method to produce nanostructured

tubes [47].
zones at an angle of 90 degrees. The most important advantage of this

method over the conventional back-extrusion process is that the required
force for deformation is low (due to a lower cross-section of initial billet
than normal) and generation of a high strain of about 3.5. This approach
has been successfully tested for producing commercial pure aluminum
tube from a smaller diameter billet. The results demonstrated better grain
refinement and strength enhancement of the final tube [48]. Although
the development of this method had made great progress in producing
large-diameter tubes, the length of the processed tubes is limited. To
overcome this limitation, a hydrostatic version of this process, named
hydrostatic backward extrusion, using fluid was developed in 2016
(Fig. 4.24). The material flow geometry of this process is similar to the
radial backward extrusion process, but the high-pressure fluid is used to
eliminate friction between the die and billet. Consequently, the required
force is significantly reduced and the process can produce long tubes [49].
This method is also suitable for manufacturing tubes of brittle metals due
to higher hydrostatic stresses that improve the workability of the metal.
Then, the same researchers patented the hydrostatic radial forward tube
extrusion (HRFTE) process in 2016 (Fig. 4.25), which was successfully
applied to produce relatively long Al tubes with a large diameter [50].
Though the conventional radial forward extrusion process could apply
higher shear strains and could produce UFG tubes [51], it has a limitation
in processing large and long tubes because of friction effects. The friction
force leads to yielding and buckling of punch and limits the final tube
dimensions. However, the hydrostatic version of this process has no
Plunger
O-RING
Fix punch
B Seal location
Edge height
Container
Outer radius
Detail B
Container radius Scale: 3:2
Inner radius
Figure 4.24 Schematic of hydrostatic backward extrusion [49].

(A) (B) (C)

Punch
PTFE seal
Metal seal
Die
Pressure Fluid
container
Movable Initial
punch hollow billet
Tube
Mandrel
Figure 4.25 Schematic of the HRFTE process at: (A) the start of the process, (B) dur-
ing the process, and (C) the end of the process [50].
limitations in tube length and diameter compared to conventional radial

backward extrusion. Besides, as described earlier, the ability to process brit-
tle metals is achieved due to high hydrostatic pressure. However, another
problem arises during the sealing of high-pressure fluid—this issue will be
crucial when processing high-strength metals and at high temperatures.
In another process similar to the HRFTE process, using a solid billet
as a starting material, the billet is extruded to produce tubes with a rela-
tively larger diameter using a hydrostatic extrusion process integrated
with the circular ECAP method (Fig. 4.26) [52]. Although there are lim-
itations in tube length and diameter compared with the HRFTE method,
this process is also considered to be effective. Moreover, the level of plas-
tic strain is also smaller compared to HRFTE process. Therefore, the
HRFTE process is more efficient in grain refinement and achieving high-
strength metal tubes.
In 2012, friction stir back extrusion (FSBE) was developed to produce
UFG tubular parts [53]. A schematic illustration of FSBE is shown in
Fig. 4.27. In this process, the axial and rotational motion of an end conic
stirring tool induces a three-dimensional spiral motion path of the solid
billet materials. In FSBE, a rotating stirring tool is plunged into a cylindrical
specimen at a selected axial feed and rotational speed. The axial feed of the
tool forces the material radially outward, similar to back extrusion, while
Extrusion container
Castor oil
1st pass
Sample
ECAP
γ ϕ
Conical mandrel
2nd pass
Castor oil
Figure 4.26 A schematic illustration of hydrostatic extrusion integrated with the

circular equal channel angular pressing process [52].
Rotational speed
Axial
feed
Stirring
tool
Die
Tube
Specimen
Figure 4.27 A schematic demonstration of the FSBE process [53].
friction at the sampledie interface generates sufficient heat to soften the

metal and facilitate its deformation. In addition, stirring at relatively high
pressure is expected to refine the microstructure by subjecting the material
to severe plastic strain [53]. Moreover, the heat generated during the stirring
process results in equiaxed grains with high angle boundaries. Thus, the
combined peripheral/radial metal deformation results in producing tubes
with a grain size smaller than the starting metal.
Though FSBE is an effective method, its application is limited to rela-
tively small diameter and length. In 2016, another version of the FSBE
process called the friction stir tube back extrusion process (FSTBE) was
developed. The FSTBE process uses thick tubes as a starting sample
instead of a solid one. The FSTBE process is shown schematically in
Fig. 4.28. Firstly, a thick tubular sample is placed into the die, and then a
rotating stirring tool is penetrated into the specimen. However, to preheat
the sample, the tool has no axial feed, and the specimentool interface
friction generates the heat. After preheating, the tool is fed into the soft-
ened specimen so that SPD occurs due to the combination of rotational
and axial motion of the tool. At the same time, the movement of the tool
extrudes the material upwards. The tool movement can be continued as
long as the length of the specimen reaches the desired value. The tube
wall thickness depends on the die and tool design. The required load is
smaller than the FSBE process, and FSTBE could produce longer and
thinner tubes with fine grain size structure.
Tool
Tool guide
Die
Final
Initial tube
tube
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)

Figure 4.28 A schematic illustration of the FSTBE method stages: (A) the tube speci-
men entering the die, (B) contacting the edge of the sample with the tool, (C) axial
feeding of tool and material extruding, (D) the end of the process, (E) removing of
the tool [54].
4.16 GENERAL LIMITATIONS OF UFG TUBE

MANUFACTURING METHODS
Although the research on the production of strong tubes with ultrafine-
grained structure has improved significantly over the past few decades, it
should be noted that the achievement of an industrial long-length ultra-
fine-grained tube requires still more research.
The above-mentioned methods were generally successful in
small-length laboratory samples. The most important limitation of these
methods is that when increasing the length of the tube, the possibility of
buckling and failure of the die components also increases and the desired
outcome is not achieved.
The following are major limitations in tube manufacturing:
• The difficulties associated with the production of large-scale industrial
UFG and nanostructured tube;
• Heterogeneity of applied strain and consequently the nonuniformity
of mechanical properties;
• High required force for deformation;
• Complicated and expensive equipment;
• Time-consuming processes.
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Transactions of the Indian Institute of Metals:18.
CHAPTER 5
Severe Plastic Deformation for

Industrial Applications
5.1 INTRODUCTION
As mentioned earlier, one of the major challenges encountered in severe
plastic deformation (SPD) is the industrial production of ultrafine-grained
(UFG) and nanograined (NG) metals [1]. This chapter reviews SPD pro-
cesses that have been developed for the industrial-scale production of
UFG metals. However, some processes, such as accumulative roll bond-
ing, continuous frictional angular extrusion, asymmetric rolling, continu-
ous repetitive corrugation, and straightening, which are suitable for
industrial production of sheet samples, were discussed in chapter 3. Other
SPD methods suitable for industrial production of UFG metals are dis-
cussed in this chapter. It is worth mentioning that most of the developed
industrial methods may not be considered as SPD processes because they
are a combination of conventional metal forming methods and modern
SPD processes. In this combined approach, the cross-section of the sam-
ples changes during processing.
5.2 INTEGRATED EXTRUSION AND EQUAL CHANNEL

ANGULAR PRESSING
The main obstacle to a broader use of equal channel angular pressing
(ECAP) in industrial manufacturing is low productivity, because the pro-
cess is performed in batches rather than a continuous process [2]. ECAP
usually involves many steps and is not easily adaptable from a laboratory
scale to an industrial manufacturing environment. The possibility of pro-
ducing long UFG bars with excellent mechanical properties by a “semi-
continuous” process is promising for the transfer of SPD processing to
industrial manufacturing scale [3]. Orlov et al. demonstrated an integrated
process that combines ECAP and conventional extrusion into a single
processing step [4]. The as-received bars are extruded through a die
shown schematically in Fig. 5.1. It consists of two sections: (1) a conical
section (where conventional extrusion takes place) and (2) a section with
Conical section PC section
Φ1
d0
d1 Φ2 K
Extrusion ECAP
Figure 5.1 Schematic illustration of the integrated extrusion and ECAP process.
two parallel channels—the PC section (where two consecutive ECAP

events take place). The main parameters of the die geometry, which influ-
ence both the flow pattern and the stress and strain state of the ECAP-
related part of the process, are the distance, K, between the axes of the
two parallel channels and the angle, ϕ, at which they intersect the con-
necting channel [4].
5.3 ECAPCONFORM
The conform extrusion process was developed in the 1970s for the con-
tinuous extrusion of wire products [5,6], but, in 2004, it was conveniently
combined with ECAP and named the ECAPconform process [7]. In
this process, the principle used to generate the frictional force to push a
workpiece through an ECAP die is similar to the conform process [5],
but a modified ECAP die design is used so that the workpiece can be
repetitively processed to produce UFG structures [8]. The design and
ECAPconform setup are schematically illustrated in Fig. 5.2. As shown
in the figure, a rotating shaft in the center consists of a groove, and the
workpiece is fed into this groove. The workpiece is driven forward by
frictional forces at the three contact interfaces with the groove so that the
workpiece rotates with the shaft. However, the workpiece is constrained
within the groove by a stationary constraint die, which also stops the
workpiece and forces it to turn at an angle by shear as in a regular ECAP
process. In the current set-up, the angle is close to 90 degrees, which is
the most commonly used channel intersection angle in ECAP. This set-
up effectively makes the ECAP process continuous. Other ECAP para-
meters, such as the die angle and the strain rate, can also be incorporated
into the facility [7,8].
Severe Plastic Deformation for Industrial Applications 167
Stationary constraint die
Rotating die Out
Sample
In
Figure 5.2 A schematic illustration of an ECAPconform set-up: the arrow marks the
transition to a rectangular cross-section.
When a wire sample enters the ECAPconform die, the rectangular

cross-section is formed shortly after the wire enters the groove (marked
by an arrow in Fig. 5.2). This change in cross-section is driven by the
frictional force between the groove wall and the workpiece. Thus,
the frictional force pushes the wire forward and deforms the wire to the
groove shape. After changing cross-section of the wire into a square
shape, the frictional force per unit of wire length becomes larger because
of the larger contact area between the groove and the wire. The total fric-
tional force pushes the wire into the stationary die channel that intersects
the groove at an angle of 90 degrees. This latter part of the straining pro-
cess is therefore similar to the conventional ECAP process [7,8].
5.4 EQUAL CHANNEL ANGULAR DRAWING

Equal channel angular drawing (ECAD), potentially suitable for continu-
ous SPD processing, has been introduced for the processing of UFG sam-
ples [9,10]. Subsequent experiments and calculations revealed that ECAD
reduces the cross-sectional area of the sample by .15% and hence it can-
not be used effectively for multipass processing [8,11]. However, low
hydrostatic stresses may influence the structure and properties of the final
product [12,13]. This process involves pulling the workpiece through the
die. The ECAD die consists of two square channels intersecting at an
angle of 135 degrees as shown in Fig. 5.3. The overall forming force will
be reduced during the drawing operation by eliminating friction between
the workpiece and the entrance channel of the die. However, several
Load
Gripper
Sample
Die
Figure 5.3 Principal scheme of processing by ECAD.
Plunger
Die
Figure 5.4 Principal scheme of sheet processing by ECADS.
limitations arose in the drawing process. First, the applied stress for the
drawing of material should not exceed the strength of the drawn sample.
Second, tensile stress may initiate damage, nanocracks, and defects leading
to lower mechanical properties [14,15].
Equal channel angular drawing of sheet metals (ECADS) was proposed
by Zisman and colleagues (Fig. 5.4). The principal deformation mode is
simple shear supplemented by some elongation along the drawing direc-
tion and consequently thickness reduction. The plunger position can be
adjusted to the desired sheet thickness by special screws. ECADS has
been used for pure Al at room temperature on a strip of 40 mm width
and 1 mm thickness [16,17].
5.5 ECAP WITH ROLLS

Some facilities based on the ECAP method have been schematically sug-
gested to achieve the bulk UFG and NS material for industrial
(A) (B) (C)

Figure 5.5 Schematic of different design for the use of rotating tools: (A) single large
work roller, (B) small work roller with a cluster of support rolls, and (C) single row of
work rollers in the conventional planetary arrangement.
applications. The first of these is a variation of ECAP in which a portion

of the conventional fixed die is substituted by rotating tools [18]. The
rotating tool can be a single roller or a series of smaller rollers. The rolling
tool is positioned so that the thickness of the final product is (nominally)
the same as the initial thickness. In the first design, the rotating tool is a
single large-diameter roller as shown in Fig. 5.5A. The sample is fed
down toward the large roller which coerces the sample to change direc-
tion, and the shear stress is applied to the material. In the second version,
the single roller is replaced by a cluster of small work rolls as shown in
Fig. 5.5B. In the other case, a single layer of small rolls is arranged around
the central support roll in a conventional planetary arrangement
(Fig. 5.5C) [18].
These designs for the ECAP method have not been experimentally
performed, but only suggested to the researcher to enhance greater
volumes of UFG and NS materials with respect to conventional ECAP.
The designer mentioned many potential benefits of these designs such
as possible industrial applications, including alternate and larger work-
piece geometries, lower tooling loads, ease of lubrication, automated
or reduced part handling, and, in some cases, potentially continuous
operation [18].
The “pushpull” arrangement for a continuous severe plastic deforma-
tion (CSPD) is shown schematically in Fig. 5.6. Rollers are shown for
illustrative purposes, though several other mechanisms could be used for
both pushing and pulling. Furthermore, several such stages can be
sequenced to cause deformation on different shear planes to achieve any
of the processing routes used in standard ECAP [19].
From previous stage
Draw
rolls
Push
rolls
To next stage
ECAP die
Draw Push
rolls rolls
Figure 5.6 Schematic of a “pushpull” arrangement in the CSPD process.
5.6 INCREMENTAL ECAP

The industrial production of long UFG billets is a major challenge. The
friction increases dramatically with the length of a billet and the possibil-
ity of punch buckling increases in the conventional ECAP process.
Rosochowski and Olejnik proposed a solution to this problem by separat-
ing the stages of feeding and plastic deformation [20,21]. Incremental
ECAP (I-ECAP) was presented in 2007 to reduce forces and process rela-
tively large billets or plates. Unlike conventional ECAP, I-ECAP is per-
formed in small steps in which the deformation and feeding are affiliated
with two different tools acting synchronously [22].
A schematic of I-ECAP is shown in Fig. 5.7. The fixed die and holder
establish the input channel, while the fixed die and the moving punch
play as the output channel. The moving punch has the duty of applying
deformation, which actuates cyclically at an appropriate angle to the
billet. By doing that, it periodically comes into contact with the billet
and deforms it. Feeding of the billet takes place during withdrawal of the
moving punch when there is no contact. When the billet contacts the
moving punch and becomes fixed in position, the moving punch
advances and deforms the billet plastically in the “shaded” zone (Fig. 5.7).
This operation is carried out continuously on the billet, and consecutive
shear zones result in a uniform strain distribution along the billet. The
mode of deformation is simple shear, and the feeding stroke (distance “a”
in Fig. 5.7) is not excessive. Separation of the feeding and deformation
Moving punch
Holder
Fixed die
Material feeding
Figure 5.7 Schematic illustration of I-ECAP.
Moving punch
Fixed die Fixed die
Material feeding
Figure 5.8 Schematics of double-billet I-ECAP.
stages reduces or eliminates friction during feeding, and this enables the
processing of long billets [23,24].
A double-billet version of I-ECAP was developed in 2008 by the
same presenters of I-ECAP [23]. The process configuration is illus-
trated in Fig. 5.8. Compared to I-ECAP, the holder is replaced with
another fixed die. The moving punch is positioned in the top of the
fixed dies and creates two output channels. According to this configu-
ration, with feeding the material, two zones of simple shear are estab-
lished in the shaded mode as shown in Fig. 5.8. Compared to the
I-ECAP method, the shear zones increase from one to two, increasing
the process force [23].
Bearing die ECAP channel

container
Tube P-ECAP die Initial billet Ram
Extrusion direction
Figure 5.9 Schematic of the P-ECAP process.
5.7 PORTHOLE-EQUAL CHANNEL ANGULAR PRESSING

In recent years, several techniques have been developed based on a combi-
nation of conventional and SPD methods, some of which will be discussed
here. The method of porthole-equal channel angular pressing (P-ECAP)
with four portholes has been introduced as a combination of extrusion
and quad-channel ECAP to produce UFG tubes with four-seam welding
[25]. The P-ECAP method is schematically shown in Fig. 5.9. The pro-
duction of UFG tubes by the P-ECAP process consists of four stages: (1)
dividing stage: the initial billet is split into four parts, (2) ECAP stage:
divided parts are driven into four channels with the same cross-sectional
area, (3) welding stage: divided parts are driven to the welding die to weld
the connection lines at high pressure and solid state, and (4) production
stage: UFG tube is exited from the bearing part of the die.
The tube that was fabricated using a P-ECAP die showed significant
refinement in microstructure with improved mechanical properties out-
side the seam joint portion. In conventional extrusion, the dimension of
the billet is greater than that of the product. However, the P-ECAP was
applied to manufacture a tube with a diameter greater than the initial bil-
let. Thus, the extrusion loads using porthole die are lower than the load
in the conventional extrusion because of the reduced billet dimension or
extrusion ratio [25].
5.8 CONTINUOUS CONFINED STRIP SHEARING

A metal forming technique called the continuous confined strip shearing
(C2S2) process based on ECAP was introduced by Lee et al. [26] in
2001. The characteristics of ECAP can be utilized as a basis for introduc-
ing a forming technique through to producing UFG and NS materials
with tailored properties [27]. This process is also referred to as dissimilar
channel angular pressing (DCAP) in some works [2830] or equal-

channel angular rolling (ECAR) [31].
The concept of the developed process that was designed to introduce
the shear deformation into metallic strips in a continuous manner is
shown in Fig. 5.10. A specially designed feeding roll and a guide roll are
used as a feeding apparatus. Nulls were machined on the surface of the
feeding roll so that it can deliver the power required to feed the metal
strip through the ECAP channel. Before feeding, a commercial synthetic
oil was applied to the surface of the strip to reduce the friction between
the die wall and the strip during forming. The feeding speed is dependent
on the dimensions of the workpiece and the angle of the channel, but it
is normally in the range from 5 to 50 m/min. The forming die is
equipped with two channels; whose thicknesses are dissimilar to each
other such that the thickness of the outlet channel is slightly larger than
that of the inlet channel. The oblique angle (Φ) of the channel, which is
the intersecting angle of the inlet and the outlet channel, can be adjusted
from 100 to 140˚ with a fixed curvature angle (ψ) of 0˚. When the strip
with the larger initial thickness (t0 ) is fed through the feeding rolls, the
strip thickness is reduced (t) upon escaping the roll gap and proceeds
along the die gap toward the forming zone. Once the strip passes through
the forming zones, where the inlet and the outlet channels intersect, and
exits through the outlet channel, it retains its initial thickness (t0 ). The
fact that the thickness of the metal strip retains its initial thickness upon
exiting the die makes the multipass operation possible in a continuous
manner [27]. However, a specially designed feeding roller with grooves is
used in the C2S2 process that causes surface defects on the workpiece.
Eq. (5.1) gives the effective strain attainable from DCAP, which was
introduced for the C2S2 process [27]. The equation is expressed in terms
Figure 5.10 The concept of the C2S2 process for continuous confined strip shearing
with the details of the ECAP channel.
of the oblique angle (Φ), the passage ðN Þ, and thickness ratio ðK Þ, which
is defined as the inlet thickness divided by the outlet thickness [27,30].

2N 2 Φ
ε 5 pffiffiffi K cot (5.1)
3 2
5.9 CONSHEARING
The conshearing method was proposed for use with metal strips in 1997
[3234]. This process employs a continuous rolling mill and is schemati-
cally illustrated in Fig. 5.11. In this procedure, the material is fed into the
mill between satellite rollers and a large central roller, and all of these roll-
ers rotate at the same peripheral speed to generate a large extrusion force.
The strip passes between the rollers and ultimately passes from the mill
through an abutment where it is displaced through an angle φ. Detailed
experiments with commercial-purity aluminum strips showed that opti-
mum conditions for ECAP were achieved when the angle within the
abutment was given by φ 5 65 degrees [34].
This process is not only productive but also applicable to coiled mate-
rials. Given that simple shear deformation is continuously imposed on
coiled strips, the process can be used as a texture-control method. This
process was successfully applied to an aluminum alloy [35], and the for-
mation of shear textures was reported [34]. However, the conshearing
process uses a large number of rollers to impose a high-friction force on
the workpiece which is one of disadvantages of this method.
Guide shoe
Satellite roll
Cover
φ
ECA-die
θ
Abutment
Strip material
Central roll
Figure 5.11 Schematic illustration of the conshearing process.

Flattening
roll Bending
roll
Material
feeding
Advance direction
Figure 5.12 Roll-driven CCB machine.
5.10 CONTINUOUS CYCLIC BENDING

Continuous cyclic bending (CCB) has been proposed as a straining tech-
nique for sheet materials that can produce high strain on the surface and
low strain on the inside [36]. This cyclic deformation straining technique
leads to a definite difference in stored strain energy between the surface
and central layers. Thus, the CCB process and the subsequent annealing
make it possible to produce the gradient microstructure with the coarse-
grained surface layer and the fine-grained central layer. For the aluminum
alloy sheet consisting of such layers, an improvement in the fatigue prop-
erties was reported in 2004 [37]. Takayama et al. used roll-driven CBC,
illustrated in Fig. 5.12, where true strain on the surface after a single pass
is calculated as 0.05463 [38]. The lower strain, lower hydrostatic pressure,
lower shear strain, and high possibility of cracking at multipass processing
are the main disadvantages of this process.
5.11 CALIBER ROLLING

Recently, the multipass caliber rolling process has attracted particular
attention due to its ability to produce bulk UFG rods in large quantities
[3]. In contrast to the conventional flat rolling, the rolls in this process
have several calibers with various diameters to fabricate long metallic
rods. A large strain can be accumulated by gradually reducing the diame-
ter of the metal using a repetitive deformation [39].
An ideal illustration of caliber rolling (CAROL) is schematically
shown in Fig. 5.13. The upper roll and the counterpart lower roll have
channels of identical dimensions. However, the roll diameter is smaller at
the bottom portion than the top portion of the caliber roll. Therefore,
the outer rolling speed is slower at the bottom (Vbtm ) than at the top
Figure 5.13 The scheme of the CAROL process: (A) first pass and (B) subsequent
pass.
(Vtop ). When a billet is subjected to rolling, the material becomes

deformed plastically for a certain duration. The cross-sectional area of the
billet is reduced at a fixed ratio, while the discrepancy of Vtop and Vbtm
creates a certain shear strain after passing the roll, as illustrated in
Fig. 5.13A. After the first rolling pass, the rolled billet is rotated 90˚
clockwise around the rolling axis to enhance more uniform strain. The
billet is then subjected to rolling in the same way as the former pass.
The cross-section is reduced again with the same reduction ratio;
however, the shear direction is opposite to that of the former pass, as
illustrated in Fig. 5.13B. The actual deformation may be more compli-
cated due to factors such as lateral extension during the processing [40].
Long UFG carbon steel bars of over several kilometers are manufac-
tured by the warm continuous caliber rolling and cooling process, from
which micro bolts are manufactured [41].
5.12 RING HIGH-PRESSURE TORSION

Three main limitations of the HPT process are the sample shape (disk),
the sample size (small), and an inhomogeneous distribution of microstruc-
ture across the diameter [42]. To overcome the sample shape and inho-
mogeneity limitations, the HPT using a ring shape, which is more
appropriate for industrial applications than a disk shape, was introduced
by Harai et al. [43] in 2008. Using ring HPT, it is possible not only to
eliminate a less strained and coarse-grained center part [4345] but also
to scale up the sample, e.g., up to 100 mm in diameter [46,47]. A sche-
matic illustration of the HPT with a ring sample is given in Fig. 5.14.
Two advantages of ring HPT were explored with respect to disk HPT.
First, the ring diameter is increased by the amount corresponding to the
hollow inner area. Second, the whole area of the ring sample can be
usable because of the homogeneous strain and thus of homogeneous
microstructure throughout the ring [46].
5.13 HIGH-PRESSURE SLIDING

As another attempt to enhance the opportunity for scaling-up the HPT
process, high-pressure sliding (HPS) was developed for producing metallic
sheet materials with 0.8 mm thickness, 5 mm width, and 100 mm length
[48]. As schematically illustrated in Fig. 5.15, the HPS process consists of
one plunger and two U-shaped anvils. The upper and lower surfaces of the
plunger are grooved. Also, each of the lower and upper U-shaped anvils is
grooved on the inner bottom surface. The sheet samples are then placed
Upper anvil
Load
Ring sample
Load
Lower anvil
Rotation
Figure 5.14 Schematic illustration of ring HPT.

Pressure
Upper anvil
Plunger
Sample
Lower anvil
Pressure
Figure 5.15 Schematic illustration of HPS.
into the grooves, and a load is applied to the anvils. The plunger is then
pressed, and shear strain is applied to the sheet under high pressure from
the U-shaped anvils. It is different from HPT such that the HPS no longer
requires rotation of the anvils but sliding between the anvils. The equiva-
lent plastic strain applied in this process, ε, is given by Eq. (5.2) [48]:
x
ε 5 pffiffiffi (5.2)
3t
where t is the sample thickness, and x is the sliding length.
5.14 CONTINUOUS HIGH-PRESSURE TORSION

In both HPS and ring HPT, the size of the sample is still limited because
the pressure is sacrificed with the increase in size of the sample. For
example, the HPT processing of a ring with 3 mm width and 500 mm
outer diameter under a pressure of 2 GPa requires a compression load of
9400 KN. For HPS processing of a sheet with 5 mm width and 500 mm
length under a pressure of 2 GPa, the compression load should be 5000
KN. Therefore, an alternative SPD process was developed in 2010 for
processing of metallic sheets with HPT in a continuous manner, which
Edalati et al. called continuous high-pressure torsion (CHPT) [47].
The facility for CHPT, schematically illustrated in Fig. 5.16, consists
of two anvils: upper and lower anvils. The lower anvil has a flat surface
with a roughened ring-shaped area which is rotated during the process,
and the upper anvil has a half ring-shaped groove on the surfaces.
Sample
Upper anvil
In
Load
Groove
Roughened
Out Load
Lower anvil
Upper anvil Lower anvil

(Fix) (Rotate) Rotation
Figure 5.16 Schematic illustration of CHPT [47].
To induce continuous flow of the material due to the difference in

slippage, the surface roughness of the upper anvil is reduced with respect
to the surface roughness of the lower anvil. A U-shaped sample is placed
between the anvils, and pressure is applied to the sample by raising the
lower anvil to make a rigid contact with the upper anvil. The lower anvil
is then rotated while the upper anvil no longer rotates. A shear strain is
applied to the sample under high pressure, and the material starts to flow
in the direction of rotation [47].
The equivalent strain induced by CHPT, ε, is calculated as follows [47]:
πR
ε 5 ð1-sÞ pffiffiffi (5.3)
3t
where s is the fraction of sample slippage, and R is the mean radius of the
U-shaped sample. The slippage was evaluated by measuring the discrepancy
of the markers made on both surfaces of the sample after rotating by a quar-
ter revolution (90 degrees). It has been found that the slippage was negligi-
bly small for the first quarter revolution for all of Al, Cu, and Fe. However,
the revolution by 180 degrees led to the disappearance of the markers, indi-
cating that slippage occurred during another 90 degrees revolution [47].
5.15 SEVERE TORSION STRAINING

The principles of the severe torsion straining (STS) process developed by
Nakamura et al. are represented schematically in Fig. 5.17 [49]. The pro-
cess consists of producing a locally heated zone and creating torsional
strain in the zone by rotating one end. The rod-shaped sample is moved
along the longitudinal axis while creating the local straining. The torsion
Induction coil for

Water spray local heating
for cooling
Rod
Shearing
Rotation
Continuous movement
Figure 5.17 Schematic illustration of STSP.
straining (TS) zone is localized by making the zone softer than the other
two portions by local heating and cooling. Therefore, a severe plastic
strain is induced continuously throughout the rod. To create a torsional
strain efficiently, the rotation of the rod should be fast with respect to the
movement of the rod, and the locally heated zone should be narrow.
Moreover, the cooling system is modified so that the heated zone is more
localized to create torsion strain [41].
The STS method is different from the conventional torsion testing
procedure for measurement of mechanical properties [50] as STS consists
of the creation of a localized soft zone with respect to the other portions
of the rod and movement of the zone along the longitudinal direction of
the rod. Similar to other SPD processes like ECAP, HPT, and ARB, an
important feature of STS is that the cross-section of the rod remains
unchanged during straining. Also, unlike the other processes, STSP
requires no die (may be considered as a dieless SPD process) and imparts
severe strain to samples continuously. It is expected that STSP will be a
potential process for the continuous processing of tubes and possibly wires
[49]. However, heating may enhance the grain growth mechanism and
consequently increase the grain size, leading to lower mechanical proper-
ties [51,52]. It seems that it would be hard to achieve UFG and NG
microstructures using STSP.
5.16 INTEGRATING FORWARD EXTRUSION

AND TORSION DEFORMATION
Lu et al., in 2014, demonstrated that applying the integrating forward
extrusion and torsion deformation process would greatly improve the effi-
ciency of processing of Mg alloys and promote the up-scaling processing
Figure 5.18 Sketch of the integrated extrusion die illustrating the die structure and
extrusion fashion, and definition of external orientations [53].
[53]. Fig. 5.18 shows a sketch of the integrated extrusion dies. The par-
ticular zones of the extrusion deformation were labeled I, II, III, and IV,
which represent the conical part, the forward extruded rod, the torsional
part, and the eventual forming stage, respectively. The integrated extru-
sion die consists of two equal sectional dies that were clamped by screws,
each of which had a half torsion structure after forward extrusion. The
torsional shearing strain can thereby be imposed on forward-extruded
materials to further modify the microstructure and texture [53].
5.17 KOBO PROCESS

Korbel and Bochniak suggested one more method of SPD for industrial
applications, called the KoBo process [54,55]. As shown in Fig. 5.19, the
method consists of a cyclic change of the deformation path in combined
torsion and extrusion, forging, rolling, or drawing processes. The princi-
pal aim of the KoBo method is to take advantage of strain-induced soft-
ening that results from the change of deformation path. The change of
the deformation path favors especially the mechanism of localized plastic
flow in slip bands for monocrystalline materials in which shear bands for
polycrystalline aggregates, at the expense of the multisystem crystallo-
graphic slip decreasing the work hardening of the material [56,57].
Reversibly rotating die

Sample
Sample
(A) (B)
Die
Roll Wire
Sample
Gearbox
Reversing shifting roll
(C) (D)
Motor
Figure 5.19 Schematic representation of some technical solutions of KoBo metal

forming: (A) extrusion, (B) forging, (C) rolling, and (D) drawing.
The KoBo method resembles HPT (pressure is implied simultaneously

with torsion), with a significant difference: torsion is oscillating with a
frequency of about several Hertz and amplitude about 57 degrees. Such
a complex method of plastic straining causes the highly heterogeneous
flow of metals in the strongly shortened zone of deformation and as a
result of radial flow in the direct vicinity of the die. An associated drastic
decrease in the extrusion force, which depends on the frequency and
amplitude of the die rotations, deforms the metal with very large strains
at low temperature, which make the method unique. During the KoBo
extrusion process, the metal billet undergoes reversible plastic twisting
just before entering the cross-section reducing die. The reversible metal
twist does not affect the geometry of the billet directly [58].
5.18 CRYO-ROLLING
Cryo-rolling is another technique that can be used to produce continu-
ously long product as compared to other SPD processes [59]. In cryo-
rolling, the material is dipped in liquid nitrogen (190˚C) and held there
for a distinct time (depending on the requirements) and then rolled

between two rollers. Moreover, the cryo-rolling process offers other advan-
tages, such as lower required plastic deformations and simple processing.
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CHAPTER 6
Effective Parameters for the

Success of Severe Plastic
Deformation Methods
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The structural features of severe plastic deformation (SPD)-processed
metals are quite complex. They are not only characterized by the forma-
tion of ultrafine grains but also by the presence of nonequilibrium grain
boundaries (GBs) with a high density of extrinsic dislocations and vacan-
cies [1,2], high lattice distortions, and possible local phase composition
changes [3,4]. In other words, the properties of SPD-processed materials
strongly depend not only on a refined grain size but also on other micro-
structural features such as GBs state, defect densities, texture, misorienta-
tion spectra, etc. The various nanostructural features are caused by the
die, material, and process parameters including hydrostatic pressure, strain,
deformation path, temperature, strain rate, friction, stacking fault energy,
composition, etc. Producing nanostructured (NS) samples with micro-
structures that provides a good combination of properties is complicated
and multifactorial [5]. Thus, ultrafine-grained (UFG) and NS metals and
alloys processed via SPD methods are characterized by several nanostruc-
tural features which can strongly affect these properties. The structural
features and parameters that affect these properties are discussed in this
chapter.
6.2 GRAIN SIZE

The details of grain refinement mechanisms were discussed in Chapter 1.
There are two potential advantages in refining the grain size of metallic
alloys. First, according to the HallPetch relationship, a reduction in
grain size leads to higher tensile strength and possibly higher fracture
toughness. Second, if the ultrafine grain sizes are retained at elevated tem-
peratures, where diffusion becomes reasonably rapid, superplastic forming
capability can be achieved at very high strain rates or lower temperatures
in comparison to conventional metals. If precipitates are incorporated

into the matrix to restrict the grain boundary mobility, it is possible to
retain the ultrafine grain sizes at high temperatures and thereby achieve a
rapid superplastic forming capability [6]. It is important to mention a
point about the relationship between grain size and strength. The
HallPetch relationship breaks down and softening occurs below a cer-
tain grain size in the nanometer regime for some alloys. The strength of
nanograined metals is not only dependent on grain size but is also gov-
erned by the grain boundary stability, which explains the controversial
reported results on hardening and softening behaviors in nanograined
materials. For example, electrodeposited nanograined nickelmolybdenum
(NiMo) samples become softened for grain sizes below 10 nanometers
because of GB-mediated processes. Novel NS materials with extraordinary
properties, such as ultrahigh hardness, can be synthesized by manipulating
both characteristic size and interface stability [7].
It is important to note that the testing material influences both the
equilibrium grain size and the homogeneity of the microstructure attained
after ECAP [8]. For example, the equilibrium grain size or saturated grain
size (Saturated or equilibrium grain size is the smallest size of grain
achievable for a particular metal or alloy after processing by a particular
SPD method and process parameters.) in pure Al is B1.21.3 μm and
the microstructure is extremely homogeneous after pressing at room tem-
perature [9,10]. In contrast, when pure Cu is pressed at room tempera-
ture, the equilibrium grain size is much smaller (typically B0.27 μm),
and the microstructure is not entirely homogeneous [11]. This difference
arises because of the low stacking-fault energy (SFE) and the associated
low rate of recovery in Cu. In this respect, pure Ni appears to represent
an ideal material for ECAP because the SFE of Ni is between pure Al
and pure Cu. The equilibrium grain size achieved in pure Ni is very small
(B0.30 μm) and the microstructure is substantially homogeneous after
pressing at room temperature [12].
To illustrate the influences of grain size on material behaviors and
properties, we give an example in the following. As mentioned in
Chapter 1, twinning is a kind of deformation mechanisms that occurs at
low deformation temperature, in materials with relatively low SFE, and at
a high strain rate. It is well known that in contrast to coarse-grained (CG)
metals, which are more difficult to twin with reducing grain size, twin-
ning occurs in NS face centered cubic (FCC) metals with a decrease in
grain size. Twinning becomes more difficult as the grain size decreases
Effective Parameters for the Success of Severe Plastic Deformation Methods 189
after reaching a saturated twin capacity, and exhibits an inverse grain size
effect on twinning. Molecular dynamics simulations and experimental
observations have revealed that the mechanisms of twinning deformation
in NS metals are different from those in their CG counterparts [13].
Therefore, there is a critical grain size range conducive to deformation
twinning [1417]. This critical grain size for the formation of deforma-
tion twins is influenced by intrinsic properties of the material mentioned
above, and can be estimated by the following relationship [14]:
dm 9:69-υ Ga2
pffiffiffi 5 ; (6.1)
ln 2dm =a 253:66ð1-υÞ γ
where γ is the stacking fault energy, a is the lattice parameter, ν is
Poisson’s ratio, G is the shear modulus, and dm is the critical grain size.
However, the minimum saturated grain size is influenced by several para-
meters categorized in three categories including material parameters
(composition, stacking fault energy), SPD method die parameters (hydro-
static pressure, strain), and SPD process parameters (temperature, strain
rate). It is worth mentioning that the minimum saturated grain size may
also depend on the workability of metals, which is influenced by strain
state, stress state (hydrostatic compressive stress), temperature, the compo-
sition of the metal, prestrain, and strain rate. When the workability of the
metal increases, the strain the metal can tolerate before cracking increases
[18]. Consequently, more strain leads to more grain refinement and
greater improvement in mechanical properties [1921]. However, it is
hard to investigate the effects of each parameter separately.
6.2.1 Equivalent Plastic Strain and Hydrostatic Stress

Though the effective strain is important in an SPD process, the values of
the shear strain and hydrostatic stress play the main role in producing
high-strength, ductile UFG and NG metals. Moreover, hydrostatic com-
pressive stress could enhance the workability of metals to obtain very high
plastic strains before crack initiation and propagation. To illustrate the
shear part of the effective strain, the ratio of γ can be defined as indicated
in Eqs. (6.2), (6.3), and (6.4) [18].
γ 5 εγ =εeq ; (6.2)
where,
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi
γ 21γ 21γ 2
2 xy yz zx
εeq 5 εx 2 1 εy 2 1 εz 2 1 ; (6.3)
3 2
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
γxy 2 1 γ yz 2 1 γzx 2
εγ 5 (6.4)
3
From the theory of plasticity, it can be demonstrated that the state of
stress can be divided into hydrostatic and deviator stresses within the total
state of stress. Reports show that the greater the compressive hydrostatic
stress, the better the workability of the material. Compressive stresses super-
imposed on tensile or shear stresses during the deformation process have a
significant influence on initiation and closing of small cavities and cracks
(or limiting their growth), thus enhancing workability [20,22]. This issue
can be found in ECAP processing with or without back pressure. The
metal could be exposed to much higher strains with back pressure com-
pared to ECAP without back pressure [23]. ECAP with back pressure
(higher hydrostatic stresses) leads to the production of UFG metals with
uniform microstructure and improved mechanical properties, compared
with the same method without back pressure [24]. Unfortunately, this
important warning was disregarded in many later studies, which utilized a
“simplified” die design. This led to the development of many SPD
methods lacking high hydrostatic compressive stresses, such as repetitive
corrugated and straightening, constrained groove pressing, tube channel
pressing, cyclic flaring and sinking, equal channel angular drawing, and
tube equal channel angular pressing as illustrated in earlier chapters. For a
given metal, the strain rate (process speed), process temperature, and
workability (which enhances the mechanical properties of the final product)
is much improved if the stress state is highly compressive [25]. A general
workability parameter, β, has been proposed to illustrate the ratio of hydro-
static stress to effective stress [26] and is described in Eqs. (6.5) and (6.6).
3σm
β5 (6.5)
σ
in which
σ1 1 σ2 1 σ3
σm 5 ; (6.6)
3
where σ1 ; σ2 ; σ3 are the principal stresses and σm is a hydrostatic compo-

nent of the stress state. Compressive stresses are negative, and tensile stres-
ses are positive. Here, σ is the effective stress from Eq. (6.7)
1 1=2
σ 5 pffiffiffi ðσ1 2σ2 Þ2 1ðσ2 2σ3 Þ2 1ðσ3 2σ1 Þ2 (6.7)
2
Workability depends not only on the characteristics of the material
but also on the process variables, such as strain rate, strain state, tempera-
ture, and stress state. Using a simple calculation, it can be found that the
workability parameter, β, for basic forming tests of tension, torsion, and
compression are, respectively, equal to 1, 0, and 1. By increasing the β
value with a negative sign, the fracture strain (εf) will be increased. One
of the important characteristics of SPD processes is having a higher β
value with a negative sign. A larger β value with a negative sign leads to
greater workability of the metal to deal with plastic strains before crack-
ing, leading to exceptional grain refinement. Many metals that are brittle
and crystalline under normal conditions, such as hcp metals, gray cast
iron, and molybdenum, gain substantial ductility under high hydrostatic
pressure and can be deformed to large strains without failure [27]. The
highest β value with a negative sign can be found in the HPT method
among all SPD methods from the workability point of view. HPT could
offer NG metal with exceptional strength and ductility [21]. A higher β
value with a positive sign leads to lower workability of the metal. The
SPD process with larger negative β values can be used to apply very large
strains before fracture, thus potentially leading to the development of
high-strength UFG metals. When processing with SPD, grain refinement
occurs, and the CG structure is changed to UFG and nanograined struc-
tures having exceptional mechanical strength. This is in accord with the
well-known HallPetch relationship. However, there is a lower limit to
the grain size, dmin, a distinct condition from which the grain size cannot
be further refined even if the sample is processed at higher strains by the
same SPD method [2831].
The saturated smallest grain size, in the processing of distinct metals
and alloys, relates to the level of hydrostatic pressure, the strain state, the
strain path, SFE, purity level, the strain rate, and the deformation temper-
ature [32]. The latter two factors are considered as the magnitude of the
ZenerHollomon parameter Z (Z 5 ε_ exp ðQ=RT Þ). The saturation of
grain size can be reduced significantly by reducing the deformation tem-
perature and level of purity [32]. However, one of the important factors
affecting the minimum saturated grain size is the type of SPD method
which applies different hydrostatic compressive stresses and stress/strain
states. Also, the smallest grain size is sensitive to the strain rate at medium
temperatures and less sensitive at low temperatures. An increase in the
hydrostatic pressure leads to a decrease in the saturated smallest grain size
with high-angle GBs. As already mentioned, this increases the workability
of the material, even at room temperature, and increases the ductility of
the material during processing to achieve very large strains. For example,
during “equal channel angular pressing without back pressure” processing
of copper, it is generally found that, after about 1213 passes, cracks may
appear on the surface of the sample. However, during the equal channel
angular pressing process with a back pressure of only 300 MPa, the same
sample showed no perceptible cracking even after 16 or more passes [33].
To achieve better mechanical properties in UFG with high-angle
GBs, the ratio γ and the hydrostatic compressive stress are the key para-
meters. However, this does not take into consideration the manufacturing
parameters and suitability for industrialization. HPT and HPTT seem to
be a more efficient process for processing metals with exceptional proper-
ties, and in which both parameters γ and β have optimal values [18]. The
workability of the material during the HPT and HPTT processes is excel-
lent and significantly large shear strain of about 24 could be applied to
the material [18]. Maximum effective strains (workability limits) of about
8.8, 2.25, 5.6, and 7.2 were reported for the TCAP, cyclic flaring and
sinking, tube channel pressing, and PTCAP methods, respectively [18].
As already mentioned, it has been proven that the grain size will
decrease to a minimum saturated value by increasing the strain [34,35].
Fig. 6.1 displays the evolution of grain size as a function of strain for cop-
per and different SPD processing techniques which offer different stress
and strain states. It is clear that the grain size decreases drastically up to
strains of about 3, after it begins to stabilize. A decrease by a factor of 100
in grain size can be readily achieved for initial grain sizes of about 20 μm
[36].
It has been elucidated that the rate of grain refinement decreases with
increasing strain, and the grain size falls to nearly steady state, leading to a
saturated grain size [19,37]. The mechanism for establishing the steady-
state condition in SPD processing is not yet clear. Some studies have sug-
gested that the steady state is achieved through a dynamic balance
between the formation of dislocation structure introduced by severe
deformation and the recovery process of dislocation annihilation and
Grain size or boundary spacing (nm)

Copper
ECAP (EBSD)
CR (EBSD)
ECAP (TEM)
ARB (EBSD)
1000
HPTT
100
1 10 100
von Mises equivalent strain
Figure 6.1 Grain size of a Cu sample as a function of strain and different SPD meth-
ods [36].
recombination [3840]. However, other studies have suggested dynamic

recrystallization [41], grain boundary migration [42,43], and twinning
[44] are important processes for approaching the steady state. The effects
of some parameters on saturation grain size such as hydrostatic pressure,
strain path, material properties, and temperature were investigated. For
example, Hebesberger et al. showed that the steady-state size decreases
with increasing pressure and decreasing temperature and level of purity in
the HPT process [31,41]. Also, the minimum saturated grain size is found
to be related to the SFE. Namely, dmin decreases with decreasing SFE.
Mohamed [38] investigated the correlation between the minimum grain
size and the SFE of pure metals through ball milling. Based on the con-
cept that the steady state is governed by a balance between the hardening
rate introduced by dislocation generation and the recovery rate arising
from dislocation annihilation and recombination, the relationship between
dmin and the SFE is expressed as:
dmin γ
q
5A ; (6.8)
b Gb
where b denotes the Burgers vector, G represents the shear modulus, and
A is a dimensionless constant. Fitting the measured dmin values of various
pure metals processed through ball milling, Mohamed et al. [38] found
the exponential coefficient q to be about 0.65, which is close to the theo-
retical value of 0.5 [38]. For AlMg solid solutions processed through
ECAP/FSP, a similar relationship was established with A 5 2:4 3 104 and
q 5 0:65 [45]. Besides grain boundary sliding or localized deformation,
grain boundary migration has been proposed to be the dominant process

responsible for the limitation of grain refinement by SPD at higher strains
[41]. If boundary migration limits the refinement during SPD, introduc-
ing a second phase or nanoparticles during processing may further refine
the microstructure.
Besides other effective parameters, the strain rate or straining speed is
another factor that affects the microstructure in SPD processing. As a first
estimation, higher strain rate may lead to finer saturated grain size. On
the other side, an increase in the strain rate may lead to a decrease in the
workability of metals. Therefore, it needs experimental evidence to
explore its effects. ECAP processing is usually carried out using hydraulic
presses which normally operate at relatively high pressing speeds in the
range of B120 mm=s. Nevertheless, it is feasible to construct dies for
use in conventional mechanical testing machines and this provides the
capability of extending the pressing speeds over a very wide range. The
first detailed examination on the influence of the pressing speed is carried
out on pure aluminum and an Al1%Mg alloy at ram speeds ranging
from 1022 to 10 mm=s [46]. It has been demonstrated that the pressing
speed does not have a significant influence on the equilibrium size of the
ultrafine grains formed by ECAP, however, since recovery occurs more
easily when pressing at the slower speeds, these lower speeds produce
more equilibrated microstructures. A similar conclusion has been reached
in tests on pure Al and three Al-based alloys using pressing speeds of
180.18 mm=s. In addition, rapid heating of the samples is observed
when testing at the faster rate, but it is not significant at the slower rate
[47]. In addition, tests on titanium after one pass at pressing speeds of 0:2
and 2.8 mm=s revealed only minor microstructural differences [48].
The pressing temperature is another key factor in SPD processing
because it can be easily controlled. As a first estimation, the temperature
increase may lead to dislocation density reduction, facilitating dislocation
climb and grain growth, and consequently increasing the minimum satu-
rated grain size. The first detailed investigation into the effect of tempera-
ture was carried out on pure Al, an Al3%Mg alloy, and an Al3%
Mg0.2%Sc alloy using the ECAP process from room temperature up to
573K [49]. The results of these experiments revealed that there is an
increase in the equilibrium grain size with increasing temperature as
shown in Fig. 6.2 [49]. The tendency to form larger grains or subgrains
at higher pressing temperatures has been confirmed in several subsequent
investigations [5055]. The deformation mechanism of pure Ti changed
10
Pure Al
Al-3Mg
Al-3Mg-0.2Sc
Grain size (µm)

1
0.1
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
ECAP temperature (k)
Figure 6.2 Grain size after ECAP versus the pressing temperature for pure Al and
Al3%Mg and Al3%Mg0.2%Sc alloys [49].
from the formation of parallel shear bands to the formation of a deforma-

tion twinning band during the ECAP process when the temperature
increased from 473K to 523K [56]. While it is experimentally easy to
process materials at high temperatures, the experimental results demon-
strate that the optimum UFG microstructures will be obtained when the
pressing is performed at the lowest possible temperature at which signifi-
cant cracks can be formed on the billets. Low pressing temperature
ensures the possibility of achieving a high fraction of high-angle bound-
aries and the smallest possible equilibrium grain size [57]. In addition, the
high processing temperature lowers the processing load, which is a limita-
tion for the processable size of the sample for industrial applications.
The equilibrium grain size achieved in the pure aluminum sample is
B1 μm, which is larger than most materials processed by ECAP. It is pos-
sible to attain much smaller grain sizes by alloying, but the production of
an array of equiaxed grains may require continued pressing to a larger
number of passes [8]. For example, experiments on AlMg solid solution
alloy show that the equilibrium grain size is reduced to B0.45 μm after
six passes in an Al1%Mg alloy and to B0.27 μm after eight passes in an
Al3%Mg alloy. These two microstructures are shown in Fig. 6.3
together with the relevant selected area electron diffraction (SAED) pat-
terns, which confirm the presence of high-angle boundaries [58]. The
occurrence of smaller grain sizes on alloying with magnesium is attributed
to the decrease in the recovery rate in these solid solution alloys [58].
Similarly, a grain size of B0.70 μm is achieved in an Al0.2%Sc alloy by
pressing at room temperature, and this is reduced even further to
Figure 6.3 Microstructures of Al1%Mg after ECAP through six passes and Al3%
Mg after ECAP through eight passes together with the associated SAED patterns [58].
Increasing
Saturated grain size (dmin)
Incr strain rate

eas
ing
app
lied
she
De ar s
cre train
as
ing
SF
In E
cr
In
ea
cr
sin
ea
g
si
al De
ng
lo cre
yin
hy
as
g ing
dr
el
os
em the
ta
en pro
tic
ts ce
pr
ss
es
tem
su
pe
re
rat
ure
Increment
Figure 6.4 Schematic view of the effects of different parameters on the minimum
saturated grain size in SPD processing.
B0.20 μm through the addition of 3% Mg [59]. However, a slightly

larger grain size of B0.30 μm is achieved in an Al5%Mg0.2%Sc alloy
because additional intermediate annealing was required to prevent crack-
ing during the pressing operation [59].
Fig. 6.4 shows the effects of the above-mentioned different parameters
on the minimum saturated grain size in SPD processing. It is shown as a
rough estimation that increasing the strain rate, increasing the shear strain,
decreasing SFE, decreasing the temperature, increasing alloying elements,
and increasing the hydrostatic compressive stress decrease the minimum
saturated grain size.
6.3 DISLOCATIONS AND DISCLINATIONS

The mechanism governing deformation-induced grain refinement is
believed to be dominated by dislocation activities such as dislocation mul-
tiplication and interaction, and the formation of various dislocation
configurations including geometrically necessary boundaries (GNBs) and

incidental dislocation boundaries (IDBs) [60]. Apparently, the formation
of these dislocation boundaries originates from the fact that dislocation
glide is the dominant deformation mode in most metals when deformed
at strain rates (,10 s21 ) at ambient temperature, as used in various SPD
processes [61,62]. Thus, the investigation of dislocations types, density,
and distribution are very important in UFG and NS materials.
Disclination defects are an important element of the structures
obtained by SPD. Disclinations contribute to the high level of internal
stress and the occurrence of anomalies in deformation behavior of
strongly deformed materials. Disclination defects are found at the junc-
tions of several grain or subgrain boundaries, and they can be identified
by applying diffraction methods of the structure analysis of distorted crys-
tals [63].
Dislocation cell microstructure evolution during SPD has been studied
using a modified kinetic dislocation model based on the two-dimensional
approach presented by Estrin, Toth, Molinary, and Brechet (ETMB)
[64,65]. The dependency of dislocation densities on strain results from
the models is shown in Fig. 6.5. For simplicity, the experimental disloca-
tion density is normalized by the maximal dislocation density. In contrast
to the ETMB model, which shows an increase and asymptotic saturation,
the modified model is in accord with the experimental results, exhibiting
Figure 6.5 (A) Model dependence of dislocation densities on strain obtained by the
ETMB model (dotted line) and by the modified model (solid line). Experimental data
for Cu processed by multiple forging [66] ðΔÞ and ECAP, and this study (O) are also
shown. (B) Model dependence of dislocation densities on strain obtained by the
modified model (solid line). Experimental data for Cu processed by high-pressure tor-
sion [67] (O) are also shown [65].
a decrease in the dislocation density after a maximum point. The drop in

dislocation density after the peak point can be attributed to a rapid reduc-
tion of the output of FrankRead sources (a mechanism explaining the
generation of multiple dislocations) within grains with the reduction of
grain size, and the volume fraction of FrankRead sources being given
by B1=d 3 [65].
Using multiple reflection X-ray peak profile analysis (MXPA) [68],
dislocation densities were obtained in Cu after deformation by HPT with
different hydrostatic pressure [6971]. In Fig. 6.6, dislocation densities
measured for four different hydrostatic pressures of 0.8, 2, 5, and 8 GPa
are given. It is evident that the dislocation density ðρÞ increases by a factor
B3 if the pressure increases by a factor of B10. Another increase seems
to occur with the concentration of deformation-induced vacancies. To
understand the development of UFG or NG structures, it is worth men-
tioning that as more dislocations are produced and stored, more GBs can
be generated from them. The enhanced concentration of vacancies may
contribute to more grain boundary sliding which has been often observed
in SPD-processed materials when they exhibit superplasticity at far lower
temperatures as compared to CG materials [72]. For this contribution, a
model is introduced based on the pressure-caused decrease of lattice diffu-
sion, which restricts the diffusion-controlled annihilation of dislocation,
thus leading to a higher density of vacancies, dislocations, and/or GBs
which lead to very high strength [72].
Figure 6.6 Dislocation density evolution; measured data (points), and fits (lines) cal-
culated by the model of Zehetbauer and Kohout [73] for different hydrostatic pres-
sure as indicated for deformed Cu by HPT.
Figure 6.7 Changes in ratio ρb =ρm with (A) temperature and (B) strain rate [76].
Fig. 6.7 shows the variation in the ratio of dislocation density between
subgrain boundaries and interiors ρb =ρm with the temperature and strain
rate. The climb process occurs through diffusion [74,75]. Therefore,
increasing temperature and decreasing strain rate enhance the annihilation
of dislocations in the subgrain boundaries and decrease the ratio
ρb =ρm [76].
6.4 GRAIN BOUNDARIES

UFG and NG materials contain a very high density of GBs, which play
an important role in the exhibition of advanced properties. The grain
boundary structure, which is modified by the interaction with a high
density of dislocations and triple junctions, is an important element of
UFG microstructures. The structure and strain state of GBs in UFG and
NS materials affect the stability, mechanical performance, and also the
grain-boundary diffusion in very significant ways and quite often the
UFG metals are referred to as “interface-controlled materials.” In the first
work on nanocrystalline materials pioneered by Gleiter and colleagues, it
was suggested that GBs could possess some peculiar features regarding
their atomic structure in contrast to GBs in conventional polycrystalline
materials. Grain boundary engineering is the control of material proper-
ties by varying the grain boundary structure [77,78]. Depending on the
SPD processing route, different types of GBs are formed, which may be
classified as [3,79] low- versus high-angle boundaries and equilibrium
versus nonequilibrium boundaries with strain-distorted structures and
extrinsic dislocations.

2.27.3 Twist Channel Multiangular Pressing: Plunger

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2.27.3 Twist Channel Multiangular Pressing: Plunger

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Severe Plastic Deformation Methods for Bulk Samples 99

2.27.3 Twist Channel Multiangular Pressing

2.27.4 Cyclic Extrusion Compression Angular Pressing

Figure 2.53 A scheme of the TCMAP process.

Figure 2.54 Schematic of the CECAP process and die parameters.

required back pressure to compress the sample to increase its diameter to

ε tot 5 N 4ln 1 pffiffiffi 2cotðϕ=2 1 ψ=2Þ 1 ψcosecðϕ=2 1 ψ=2Þ

[31] Pippan R, Scheriau S, Taylor A, Hafok M, Hohenwarter A, Bachmaier A.

[53] Eftekhari M, Faraji G, Nikbakht S, Rashed R, Sharifzadeh R, Hildyard R, et al.

[73] Azushima A, Aoki K. Properties of ultrafine-grained steel by repeated shear defor-

[115] Czarkowski P, Krawczynska AT, Slesinski R, Brynk T, Budniak J, Lewandowska

[136] Beygelzimer Y, Reshetov A, Synkov S, Prokof ’eva O, Kulagin R. Kinematics of

[210] Madhavan V, Chandrasekar S, Farris TN. Machining as a Wedge Indentation. J

Severe Plastic Deformation

3.2 ACCUMULATIVE ROLL-BONDING (ARB)

Severe Plastic Deformation © 2018 Elsevier Inc.

Accumulative roll-bonding (ARB) Saito et al. [1] 1999

Surface treatment Cutting

Figure 3.1 Schematic representation of the accumulative roll-bonding (ARB) method.

The thickness of the sheet after n passes is [1]:

Therefore, the equivalent plastic strain ε calculated from von Mises

3.3 CONECONE METHOD (CCM)

Figure 3.2 Schematic view of a CCM design.

The effective strain in the geometry of the CCM process is as follows

3.4 CONSTRAINED GROOVE PRESSING (CGP)

Figure 3.4 The deformed region in the groove pressed sample.

εx 5 εy 5 εz 5 εyz 5 εxz 5 0 (3.8)

Normal Top die

Figure 3.5 Schematic of the groove pressing (GP) technique.

3.4.1 Semiconstrained Groove Pressing (SCGP)

3.4.2 Rubber Pad-Constrained Groove Pressing (RP-CGP)

Figure 3.6 A schematic drawing of the RP-CGP process.

3.4.3 Constrained Groove Rolling (CGR)

3.5 FRICTION STIR PROCESSING (FSP)

Figure 3.7 Photograph showing the CGR apparatus [33].

1st SPDed sheet 2nd SPDed sheet

Figure 3.8 Schematic of FSW/FSP.

tool are heating of the workpiece as a result of friction between the

3.6 EQUAL CHANNEL ANGULAR ROLLING (ECAR)

Figure 3.9 A schematic illustration of the ECAR process.

3.7 REPETITIVE CORRUGATION AND STRAIGHTENING (RCS)

3.8 REPETITIVE CORRUGATION AND

Figure 3.11 Schematic illustration of the RCSR process [9].

3.9 ASYMMETRIC ROLLING

3.10 CONTINUOUS FRICTIONAL ANGULAR

Figure 3.12 Schematic illustration of an asymmetric or differential speed rolling

3.11 CONTINUOUS CYCLIC BENDING (CCB)

offset Roll2 Roll4 t

Roll1 Roll3 Roll5

Figure 3.14 Schematic representation of a CCB machine [12].

Severe Plastic Deformation

Severe Plastic Deformation © 2018 Elsevier Inc.

and industrial capability method [5]. Once again, a parallel tubular

4.2 EQUAL CHANNEL ANGULAR PRESSING FOR HOLLOW

producing ultrafine-grained size materials with high angle grain bound-

4.3 HIGH-PRESSURE TUBE TWISTING

4.4 TUBE HIGH-PRESSURE SHEARING

4.5 MODIFIED HIGH-PRESSURE TUBE TWISTING

Figure 4.5 Schematic of a modified HPTT process [14].