Psychology and Perspectives : Perceptions

The twentieth century has witnessed a multifaceted growth of the discipline of
psychology. As a human scientific enterprise as well as a profession, psychology is

increasingly expected toplaya key role in many areas. Teaching, training and research
in Indian institutions of higher learning are finding it difficult to face this challenge
and to keep at par with the developments taking place at the international level. This
article addresses the problems in handling these issues as perceived by the teaching
faculty, students and apprentices. In a series of six studies using qualitative methods
like long interviews, focused group and open ended narratives, it is found that there is
a high degree offrustration and helplessness in the faculty as far as creatively responding
to the demands on the discipline are concerned. Students are more interested in
applications and personal growth rather than in the mere academic transaction of
passing knowledge. The intense awareness of the issues, however, is a sign of the
paradigmatic transformation. This transformation will have to respond to local as
well as global concerns and must resolve its value concerns.
Psychology in India: Perceptions

and Perspectives*
G. MISRA
Department of Psychology
University of Delhi
Delhi
ANAND PRAKASH
University of Delhi
Delhi
*
This study was made possible with the support of UGC’s DSA grant to the
Department. Jitendra K. Singh carried out the interviews and helped in systematising
the data. H.S. Upadhyaya, Honey Oberoi, Monica Gupta, Arvind Mishra, Bimoi and
Ashok Nagpal were always concerned with the core issues of this work. We thank
them all for their interest and assistance.
Downloaded from pds.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on March 5, 2016

26
SUNEET VERMA
University of Delhi
Delhi
In recent years there has been growing realisation that the discipline
of psychology in India as an academic venture and as a professional
intervention needs serious rethinking. It has been indicated by
researchers, students (Krishnamohan, 1999; Misra & Verma, 1995;
Singh & Dalal, 1988; Sinha & Prakash, 1993) as well as consumers
of the manpower trained in this discipline that the teaching
programmes in psychology do not adequately address the require-
ments of different sectors (UGC, 1968, 1982). At the same time,
there has been growing discomfort among researchers about the
current models and methods being inadequate to help understand
important issues. The applications of psychology to meet real life
challenges in the Indian context are constrained. Interestingly, the
questions of cultural differences, foundations of knowledge, methods
of psychology and the relationship between psychological
knowledge and commonsense are being raised in other parts of the
world as well (see Smith, Harre, & Langenhove, 1995). All this is
happening in the wake of postmodemist discourse in the philosophy
of science. Limitations of the unidisciplinary and acultural approaches
to leaming are being realised in other disciplines also. Towards the
end of the twentieth century, a critical assessment of the discipline
is warranted. With this in mind an attempt was made to analyse the
perceptions of the discipline of psychology by the different parties
involved, that is, students and the faculty. This exercise it is hoped
will enable us to identify some of the strategies for improving the
quality of teaching, learning and research in psychology.
T’be Received View of Psychology and Its Critique
In the last century psychologists in the mainstream have projected

a physical science model as the best possible mode of undertaking
psychological enquiry. Using the empiricist-positivist strategy, the

’27
goals of quantification, objectivity, prediction, control and manage-

ment became the central concerns. As Misra (1993) has stated,
Notwithstanding the theoretical problems inherent in this

, disciplinary voyage, the history of psychology has usually been
depicted as a narrative of progress-progress in ideas, methods,
and applications. This narrative has been maintained even though
no significant breakthroughs in theory or predictive capability
have been noticeable. Perhaps the passing of time gave a sense
of chronological maturity, which strengthened the belief in
development and progress. Yet, within recent years a certain
malaise has become discernible. Increasingly, state-of-the-art
assessments of and reflections on the conceptual foundations of
psychology have occasioned serious questioning about basic
metatheoretical, methodological, and ideological assumptions.
These discussions have centred on both endogenous and exo-
genous issues. In the endogenous case, discussions like the lack
of cumulativeness of research findings, impossibility of broad
scale generalizations, problems of ecological validity, difficulty
in addressing real life issues, and ethical dilemmas, have guided
both the psychologists pursuing studies on basic psychological
processes, and the practitioners who are left to apply the basic
knowledge to pressing human problems. In the exogenous case;
developments in post-positivistic philosophy of science, social
studies of science, post-structuralist and postmodern intellectual
movements, along with the emerging voices of minority groups,
feminists, and scholars in decolonized countries have questioned
the fundamental legitimacy of positivist-empiricist pursuits of
psychological knowledge. Both forms of discussion now combine
to provide impetus toward rethinking the foundations of
psychological science (pp. 399-40).
The major criticism may be summarised as follows:
1. The nature of psychological knowledge is socially constructed

and is relative to time and place (Gergen, 1973, 1978, 1989;
Shotter, 1990; Shweder, 1991).
2. Psychological knowledge cannot approach the sophistication
and level of analysis achieved in the physical sciences. It can
formulate only a middle range of theories and its nature is

28
closer to the humanities (Koch, 1985). It is heterogeneous

and should be considered as &dquo;psychological studies&dquo; rather
than psychology.
3. Most psychological research done in laboratories is con-
siderably artificial and lacks sufficient relevance to real life
circumstances. It is often trivial and redundant when con-
sidered in actual conditions.
4. The theories and findings of psychological research do not
show cumulative growth. Instead of answering old questions,
attempts are made to raise new questions.
5. Psychological theory and practice has maintained a pseudo-
universal stand at the cost of being not only culture-bound
but also culture-blind. For the larger part of research, the
work is rooted in the Euro-American cultural regions
(Danziger, 1990; Gilgin & Gilgin, 1987; Ho, 1982; Rose, 1985).
6. The paradigm of physical science accompanied by the twin
assertions of objectivity and quantification does not suit the
demands of analysing and understanding human action which
is not only reactive but also proactive. It has emergent
properties as well.
7. The available scientific analysis is value loaded, although it
preaches and projects itself to be a value free enterprise.
Thus, control and prediction intrinsically involve certain value
assumptions. The pos*vist and individualist practice of
psychology nourishes a set of western cultural values which
are not appreciative of the social reality of non-western
cultures (Sampson, 1977).
8. More often than not psychological researches generate findings
which are nothing but organised commonsense. Most studies
seem to present nothing but the obvious. At times, they are
neither commonsensical nor innovative but superfluous.
9. Most of the empirical psychological researches maintain a
status quo and do not contribute to the emancipation of
humanity which is suppressed and subjected to atrocities of
various kinds. Many thinkers notice a hidden agenda behind
the kinds of research which are being encouraged by the
establishment, and researchers are totally oblivious of it.
10. Many of the issues concerning psychological research are
interdisciplinary in nature and the boundaries cutting across
different disciplines. becomes meaningless.

29
Thesechallenges faced in the academic and professional practice

of psychology have led to a lot of questioning and rethinking. The
growing interest in areas like cultural and cross-cultural psychology,
ethnopsychology, indigenous psychology and societal psychology
has helped to correct the western cultural bias largely prevalent in
psychological literature, though it has its own problems. The question
of understanding of human psychology involves the paradigmatic
as well as narrative construction of reality (Bruner, 1990). The use
of qualitative methods and conceptual advances in the arena of
science leading to a postmodern awareness have also facilitated
rethinking about the modalities of reconstructing the field of human
sciences. Taken together, it can be seen that all is not well with the
discipline. Its projected universalistic and scientific character is being
seriously questioned from different quarters. In particular,
psychologists in different parts of the world are voicing their concern
for orienting psychology to the needs of diverse cultures. The
emergence of Chicano psychology, Filipino psychology, Black
psychology and Chinese psychology are examples of such move-
ments (Bond, 1986; Diaz-Gurrero, 1977, 1984; Enriquez, 1993; Jones,
1990; Moghaddam, 1987; Moghaddam, 1990; Moghaddam & Taylor,
1986; Pawlik & D’Ydewalle, 1996; Petzold, 1986) which indicate
that there are many worlds of psychology.
Evolution of Psycbology in Modern India: A Historical

Overview
Psychology in India has largely been dominated by western

concepts and theories. Though there exists a large volume of research,
it has not offered an indigenous paradigm of Indian psychology. The
three surveys of psychology published by the ICSSR (Mitra, 1972;
Pandey, 1988; Pareek, 1980), and other reviews (Dalal, 1990; Ganguli,
1971) and summaries published in the Indian Psychological Abstracts
and Reviews document the salience of western orientation of Indian
psychology in its concepts, methods and aspirations as the dominant
mode of conducting psychology. Western methodologies and tools
have been blindly adopted without taking into account their cultural
and contextual limitations (Agrawal, 1973; Misra, Sahoo, & Puhan,
1997; Mohanty, 1988; Srivastava, Tripathi, & Misra, 1996; Verma,

30/
1995). These developments have brought Indian psychology at the

crossroads from where it is looking for a separate identity (Mohanty,
1990).
Recently, Dalal (1996) has reviewed developments in Indian
psychology from a historical perspective. According to him, apart
from the lack of a supportive intellectual climate, the use of western
methodologies and colonial identity other factors have also
contributed to the failure in the academic world of psychology. For
instance, the pioneers of Indian psychology have not been able to
popularise psychology amongst the masses. They have, instead,
compartmentalised it and have given it a microscopic identity. Today,
there is hardly any indigenous psychological concept coined in the
modem tradition of Indian psychological research. The works of
Chakraborty (1985); Kakar (1995, 1996); Nandy (1995); Pandey and
Naidu (1992) and Paranjpe (1984), however, are exceptions.
Historically, the development of psychological science in India
has passed through two stages, namely, preindependent and
postindependent (Sinha, 1986). The development of psychology as
a discipline in India suffered in terms of lack of adequate research
facilities and gross negligence by the colonial rulers. The growth of

psychology (in terms of attention and funding) vis-~-vis other
disciplines like history, sociology and anthropology (Atal, 1976;
Dhanagare, 1985; Dube, 1994) suffered a lot. While psychology
was created as a discipline with strong roots in philosophy, efforts
were made to bring it closer to the physical sciences. As a result,
psychology has emerged as a discipline with an elite urban identity.

It has created a new class of western educated Indian psychologists
who have lived in their own world of narcissistic thinking. During
the initial phase, psychology was a total propagation of contem-
poraneous western schools of thought and Indian pioneers did little
to attend to the demands of Indian society. They attempted to verify
western ideas in the Indian sociocultural milieu. They evinced little
interest in intellectual creativity. However, psychology in the post-
independence era emerged with a gradual awareness of critical
evaluation of theories and researches with a view to provide a
separate and independent status to the discipline. Efforts were made
to relate research and application in order to make psychology
relevant in the context of day-to-day life (Pandey, 1988; J.B.P. Sinha,
1993). However, efforts to counter the adaptation of western
theoretical and methodological frameworks in order to make

31
psychology indigenous were limited (Adair, Puhan, & Vohra, 1993;

Adair, Pandey, Begum, Puhan, & Vohra 1995; Gergen, Gulerce, Lock,
& Misra, 1996; Sinha, 1997; Verma, 1995). The literature of available
researches and counter arguments indicates that psychology in India is
passing through a metamorphic stage to evolve an indigenous identity.
Tensions in tbe Practice of Psycbology
Psychology in modern India has developed in a strange academic

milieu. While discourses on issues pertaining to psychological import
are available in philosophical treatises, they have remained obscure
and inaccessible because of historical circumstances which have
instituted a western tradition of education and learning (Dalal, 1990,
1996; Sinha, 1986). This tradition has alienated learners from the
vast body of indigenous knowledge, symbolic repertoire and know-
how available in the Indian tradition (Akhilanand, 1948; Misra, 1988;
Misra & Gergen, 1993a, 1993b; Paranjpe, 1984; Rao, 1962; Safaya,
1976). attempt has been made to create a gap between
A deliberate
the indigenous system of knowledge and modem learning. The
colonial incursion was so powerful that although western concepts
were accepted and welcomed without scrutiny, indigenous concepts
were denied entry to the academic discourse. Because the discipline
was imitative, its growth always remained one step behind
developments in the donor country (see Gergen et al., 1996, p. 497).

Caught between the traditional and modern influences, con-
temporary Indian psychologists find it difficult to respond to the
culture in which they live. Most of them are intellectually trained in
a tradition which is largely western in orientation (Nandy, 1974).
They are used to the concepts and methods prevalent in western

psychology and tend to utilise them in their research without taking
into consideration their relevance and adequacy in tapping relevant
psychological processes (Misra, 1988; D. Sinha, 1984, 1996; J.B.P.
Sinha, 1984, 1993). They address concepts in psychology vis-A-vis
real life situations in a manner which indicates that the people
comprising Indian society present a case of quantitative variation in
the assumed universal psychological functions. Thus, scores on
different psychological measures are interpreted in terms of variation
in some assumed universal psychological property.

32/
In view of this academic intellectual scenario it was considered

relevant to undertake an enquiry into the real working of the
.
teaching-learning process as it is currently prevalent in the Indian

university system. The sample comprised the faculty, undergraduate,
postgraduate and doctoral students, and used interview, group
discussion and open ended techniques for obtaining relevant data.
Empirical Studies
Study 1: Perspectives of the Faculty
With view to understand the perspectives of the faculty of

a
psychology on the problems in the discipline, detailed and informal

interviews and discussions were held with teachers (N 30) in =
universities and colleges. The interviews dealt with the context and
delivery of teaching, research themes and processes, disciplinary
practices and society-academia interface. The following views and
observations emerged during these interviews:
1. All the basic textbooks used in teaching psychology courses

are Euro-American in origin and they are usually taught like
Vedic Biblical texts on account of assumed universality of

or
knowledge and paradigm in which knowledge pursuit is

rooted. The material available in the regional languages
comprises poor translations of English books. All these books
hardly mention Indian research or Indian thought and culture.
The world of textbooks and the real world outside the
’
classroom are disassociated.

2. Most of the psychological instruments (such as tests, measures
and techniques) are borrowed/adapted/adopted in various
ways and it is difficult to ensure how and to what extent
such tools have been indigenised.
3. The concepts and variables for research are usually derived
from Euro-American theories and adopted by researchers
without examining their content. Most of these imitative efforts
are poor in quality, and merely reiterate the concepts and
ideas developed in an alien culture. In fact, this practice tends
to create a tendency among researchers to look for such

/33
concepts which, at are non-existent. However, due to

times,
use in the community of psychologists they are reinforced
and assume commendable status amongst psychologists. They
are, at times, also shared by the people. However, there is a
clear disassociation between the mainstream concepts and
the social reality encountered.
4. The cultural distance in conceptual structures has led to
problems in cross-disciplinary dialogue. Indian psychologists
often find it difficult to communicate with colleagues in allied
disciplines. This makes our effort closed ended.
5. There is also a gap between the academia and the people.
Since discourses in psychology are largely in the English
language they remain largely inaccessible and incom-
prehensible for the vast majority of the Indians. This creates
a peculiar problem of isolation and alienation of the knowledge
producers from the knowledge users. The potential user (the

masses) find it inaccessible. This distance accentuates the
dichotomy between the producers and users of psychological
knowledge. As a result, psychology has largely become
dominated by an urban bias, serving the interest of a particular
class and its establishment. Its existence is maintained and
reinforced by the structures and processes created by the
industrialised sector which is predominantly western in its
education, attitude and mentality. It favours the intellectual
distance for vested interest.
6. Due to technical jargon and abstractness, the knowledge
generated through psychological research is either unusable
or remains unutilised by the people, policy makers, and those
interested in intellectual pursuits. It is a harsh fact that
psychology has failed to convincingly present its case as a
social science having the potential to improve the quality of
life of the people. It appears that there is lack of psychological
literacy among the people and cultural literacy among
psychologists. Thus, it has yet to take firm roots in the Indian
soil.
7. Mainstream psychology bas been emphasising a very strong
value neutral posture. Its epistemological premises and
contents tried to appropriate the human intentional world in
terms of stimuli, responses and neural mechanisms etc.
Subjectivity was anathema and in the name of objectivity

34
everything was neatly packaged in terms of causes (antecedent

or independent variables) and effects (consequences or
dependent variables). This illusory clarity in conceptualisation

was achieved by suppressing the mounting ambiguity in our
understanding through statistical tactics, operationism, and a

preference for a limited vision to view our reality and
existential conditions.
8. In India, the practice of psychological research has suffered
much as a result of the introduction of tests. A large number
of variables or processes were transformed, through these
tests, into static organismic properties and attributes. It was a
cheap strategy that bypassed all the norms and requirements
of psychological assessment and as a result many things were
(mis)measured and (mis)quantified. The attitude scaling
techniques were indiscreetly extended to assess almost all
areas of psychology. Catalogues of psychological tests,
commercially available in India, are replete with entries of a

large number of items which are listed as tests but in reality,
neither satisfy the criteria of testing nor are relevant for tapping
the trait or process which they purport to measure. This kind
of (double) mismatch has led to a proliferation of research
which barely contributes to knowledge.
9. A peculiar kind of method/instrument dependence is present
among researchers. This has obstructed creativity, innovation
and has promoted extreme rigidity, repetition and misinvest-
ment of scarce resources of the country with very little out-
come either in terms of theoretical or conceptual knowledge,
self-understanding or social problem solving. It is also reflected

in the publications in most of the Indian journals. They largely
remain unnoticed even by Indian researchers and their impact
on research or use in policy planning and problem solving
in the social arena has been negligible. In fact psychological
studies of social problems have been psychologised to such
.
an extent that their outcomes become unusable for policy
planners. Psychological research with real applied value is

minimal. It is only recently that the areas of mental health
and management have opened up new avenues for
’
professional psychologists, for instance, guidance, counselling,

therapy, and management related interventions (such as
personnel selection, performance appraisal, team building,

35
or training for various skills). The demands in the areas of

practice are usually focused on the use of skills.
10. With unprecedented changes taking place across the globe,
the discipline of psychology is also undergoing a state of
tension. This tension has had interesting consequences for
psychological research and practice in universities and other
academic institutions. Currently, the emphasis seems to be
shifting towards the concept of usefulness and the commercial
metaphor. There is a growing temptation to join the pro-
fessionalisation bandwagon to sustain the discipline, promoting
personal careers and gaining access to the limited research
resources. Further, the tension within psychology is reflected
in a conflict within a broader context. The world trend in the
development of psychology indicates a progressive reduction
in the investment in academic research fields (such as
comparative, developmental, educational, experimental,
personality, psychological, psychometric, quantitative and
social psychology) and a rapid growth in service provider
fields (for example, organisational counselling, health, school
and clinical psychology).
11. With reference to the issue of whether psychology should
move toward professionalisation, a variety of views have been
advanced. For example, one concern is that the applied nature
of work requires a &dquo;rather different mentality and it is not
particularly easy to switch from one to another&dquo;, or &dquo;without
fundamental knowledge, there is a dearth of knowledge to
apply&dquo;. Contrary to this, it is also argued that when the public
realises that psychologists do not in fact use specifically
psychological research in solving real world problems, funding
for psychological research, in general, will be withdrawn. It
may be recalled that changes taking place around the world
have always shaped the nature of psychology. The two World
Wars stimulated and shaped the development of applied
psychology in the West. Hence, the dominant contemporary
trend in India might also be expected to shape the future of
psychology in the next century.
12. A cynical reaction to the debate on professionalisation is that
self-interest is a primary concern rather than a science for public
benefit stemming from the notion that in the not-too-distant
future, many subfields of psychology would be recognised

36
as catering to regular professions--different in quality and

professional expertise from other competitors in the field.
Academic psychologists, who teach psychology, fail to apply
psychological knowledge to their own professional practice.
The failure to apply psychology by psychologists themselves
’
reveals yet another further potential gap between academic
and applied psychology and the apparent failure of psycho-
logical organisation to recognise its own pathology.
13. The parting of ways of scientific and professional psychologists
in the USA, and the consequences for the APA which literally
split, caution us of the dangers of the divisions between
scientific and professional psychologies. Though a variety of
skills have been identified by professional psychologists which
make psychology very powerful as a profession, these skills
nonetheless provide a legitimate ground for a serious debate.
Whatever be the formal relationship between scientific and
professional psychology, professional psychologists do claim
that part of their legitimised authority comes from their origins
within psychological science. An analysis of the common
facets of professional psychology reveals a set of skills,
attitudes, beliefs and values which go beyond science towards
a conception of society in which the psychologist facilitates
individuals and groups in achieving positive states and highest
levels of competence.
Discussion. The issues and responses to the same draw our

attention to the limitations and potentials of teaching and practice
of psychology in India. Making psychology a relevant and viable
enterprise is a challenge as well as an opportunity. Unfortunately,
efforts in this direction have been of a &dquo;routine&dquo; and &dquo;ritualistic&dquo;
kind. As a result, they could not lead to radically new directions or
orientations and the weight of the dead wood has increased. The
tradition, however, continues and is sustained by extra-academic
(such as institutional, contextual) forces. However, the awareness
evidenced in the sample here representing views of the psychology
faculty is indicative of the turmoil and the changes that have begun.
Institutions and organisations must take necessary steps to consolidate
on this and contribute to the growth and reorientation of the
discipline for the next millennium.

/37
Study 2: Students’ Perception
In order to understand how students of psychology perceive the

discipline, attempt
an was made to tap the views of undergraduate
(Hons) final year students using an open ended measure. They
were given a sheet of blank paper which had &dquo;My Perceptions of
the Discipline of Psychology&dquo; printed on it. The respondents (N 140) =
were instructed to write down their views in the space provided.
They came from different colleges of Delhi University. The majority

of them (94%) were females. Their ages ranged between 19 and 22
years. They completed the task in small groups of four or five.
As there was no structure, the participants were free to articulate
their views any way they liked. It was found that the protocols
given by the participants varied in length and ideas covered. All the
protocols were examined for the themes which were mentioned by
the participants. Initial analysis revealed six broad themes: nature
of psychology, task of psychology, applications of psychology,
relationship with other disciplines, preparation for a psychologist,
and prospects of psychology in India. These categories exhausted all
the major concerns of the participants. The protocols were read and
examined for ideas pertaining to these six themes. In this qualitative
analysis the emphasis was on the variety and richness of ideas
expressed.
In order to ensure identification of ideas each of the protocols
was read by at least two investigators and the meaning or significance
of the idea was deciphered. Once the ideas were located and
identified, they were again examined for their meaning, elaboration
and emphasis. The aim was to have access to the shared meaning
which the participants had voiced in their protocols.
Results. Nature of Psychology When perceiving something, our

goal centres around the identity of the object to be perceived. In
this study the focus was on a discipline and perceivers were students
who had direct experience of dealing with, and appreciating, the
percept under consideration. Thus, their views were those of &dquo;close
acquaintances&dquo;. As a human scientific enterprise the discipline of
psychology was perceived as dynamic, evolving and open which
tried to gauge others deeply. For some, psychology was pervasive
and formed a part and parcel of everyday life while others perceived

38
it to be scientific and complete in itsef-a kind of self-contained

discipline. It is highly diversified in terms of its scope. A majority of
theparticipants recognised that psychology was practical/useful/
helpfulin many ways. Many of them approached the discipline or
were attracted towards it in a mood of excitement. One participant
reported that she was enamoured

by it. Another described it as
esoteric. For many, it stimulating subject, the study of which
was a
involved and engrossed its learners. The respondents held the notion
that psychology could make one’s life worth living by helping to
achieve the much needed balance between rationality and
emotionality.
A large majority of the participants viewed psychology as a science
of human (and animal) behaviour; overt as well as covert. Some
confined it only to human behaviour; cognition was described as a
study of mind and behaviour as a study of emotions. Others perceived
it as an effort to understand the complexities of mental life and the
experiential world. Enabling an understanding of the real self was
another view endorsed by some of the respondents. Inclusive but
less engaging views like &dquo;studying human nature&dquo; or &dquo;daily life
activities&dquo; were also expressed. Understanding self and others,
interpersonal environment and a lifespan developmental perspective
on psychological phenomena were also cited. Psychology was
described as an endeavour which allowed an appreciation of the
various ways in which the world was perceived, understood and
responded to. Others believed that psychology was a gold mine yet
to be discovered. It could fulfil one’s dream of knowing others
deeply. It was an art of living.
Thus, while a scientific or positivistic view of psychology consti-
tuted the dominant voice, personal, experiential and sociocultural
contexts were also included. It appears that a comprehensive
perspective on psychology would have to respond to both these
spheres of interest.
The Tasks of Psychology In the course of a disciplinary journey
academic pursuits continuously define and redefine their concerns
in view of the external societal demands as well as internal or
paradigmatic challenges. The set of tasks considered relevant or
important for the discipline reveals how one may and/or should
conduct the discipline. The participants viewed the task of
psychology from three vantage points. The first represented the

/39
&dquo;received scientific view&dquo;. Maintaining a neutral and somewhat value

free stance, they described psychology’s major goal as the causal
explanation of behaviour; seeking insight into, and understanding
the intricacies of behaviour and getting to the roots of behaviour.
Focusing on physical and cognitive growth, understanding oneself
and others and self-development were cited as the key concerns of
psychology. Another goal focused on its commitment to the welfare
of society/mankind and helping to face the challenges of society
(such as mental health, women’s issues, and children’s problem),
minimising human problems and enhancing human resources and
potential. Finally, some of the views were loaded with value commit-
ment : &dquo;making society a better place to live&dquo; and &dquo;a healthy and
satisfied life&dquo;. Some expected psychology to enable one to know
and interpret the mysteries of human behaviour and &dquo;psyche&dquo; and
enhance the quality of life.
It is obvious that as a discipline psychology can no longer continue
with the image of a pure scientific enterprise committed to the goal
of conceptual and methodological advances. Psychology needs to
become meaningful or fruitful for the individual student as a person
as well as for society in general. There was a clear shift in favour of
linking psychology with life. Psychology cannot survive in isolation

and enjoy the luxury of engaging to excel in abstract academic
pursuits.
Applications of Psychology The question of relevance and con-

textualising psychology demands a clear perspective on the choice
of goals in the realm of application. It was observed that applications
of psychology covered both individual (micro) as well as group
(macro) sites or locations. The participants viewed clinical work as
a dominant category in the individual setting (such as working with
emotional problems, stress management, helping and rehabilitating,
managing mentally retarded, handling behavioural problems, and
facilitating interpersonal relations). It involved a variety of interventions
such as therapy, counselling, guidance, and mental testing. Some
participants emphasised work in industry and other organisational
settings which called for a variety of applications (such as selection,
placement, training, professional adjustment, and group behaviour).
Schools were cited as another important setting where dealing with
groups was crucial. Health behaviour, political behaviour and criminal
behaviour were also cited. Parapsychology was mentioned by one

40
participant as a possible area of application. In this way, pursuing a

career in psychology expectedis to contribute to humankind in
every field of human transaction.
The participants perceived the range of contemporary psychology
as a &dquo;vast field&dquo; in itself. It catered to the needs of individuals by
helping them in &dquo;self understanding&dquo; (&dquo;all-round&dquo;), personality

development/enhancement, growing up as an independent and
mature person, and coping with personal problems by providing
relevant behaviour skills. Competence in learning psychology
promoted an empathic understanding of people. Training in
psychology sensitised one to the needs of others, which in turn
made people responsible citizens. Perhaps, this is possible because
of the promise of psychology to transform people into rational,
social and adaptable individuals. The central emphasis is on
enhancing the potential to actualise one’s self. It is, therefore, as
one participant said, &dquo;practically applicable&dquo;. A meaningful and
enriched life providing mental succour and warmth can be pursued
through the study of psychology.
In an age where human beings are losing touch with themselves
and their world, psychology can help in relating to people in humane
ways on the one hand and facilitating inner growth and self clarity
on the other. Some participants believed that psychology could
provide guidance for human conduct. As a corrective measure, it

could bQ used to help disturbed and suffering individuals and to
improve their performance. In short, applications of psychology are
multifaceted and deal with both individual and collective levels of
psychological functioning.
Relationship with Other Disciplines It is an interesting paradox
of disciplinary development that while specialisation and
diversification are taking place there is an equally growing need for
linking psychology with other disciplines. Cross and multidisciplinary
collaborations are becoming increasingly important for research in
psychology. Psychology started its journey as part of philosophy
and under positivist influence vehemently tried to dissociate itself
from philosophy. It is being realised that this cannot help much in
resolving the issues of theory and application of psychology. Against
this backdrop, it is pertinent to examine how psychology is being
related to other disciplines. While psychologists often project the
independence of psychology it can hardly be denied that any

/41
meaningful and comprehensive perspective on psychology has to

situate itself in the matrix of other allied or cognate disciplines. It
was, therefore, natural that the participants recognised the rela-
tionship between psychology and disciplines like philosophy,
sociology, anthropology, public administration, physiology and other
behavioural sciences. The extent and modalities of disciplinary
relationships or linkages, however, were not elaborated.
Preparation for Becoming a Psychologist Committed to the

complex goal of studying human behaviour and experience, psycho-
logy faces a great challenge as far as training of students is
concerned. The kind of sensitivity required to work as a psycho-
logist both in academic institutions as well as professional settings
like clinics, schools, industry and organisations, needs to be developed.
The protocols obtained from the participants provided cues about
the training and apprenticeship of students entering the academic
programmes of the discipline at the postgraduate level. It was pointed
out that a psychology student as compared to one from another
discipline was required to be more sincere, hardworking and devoted.
He or she needed to inculcate critical thinking, a nonjudgmental
attitude, and sensitivity to surroundings and skills of observation.
He or she should be considerate, patient, understanding and com-
passionate. Becoming a psychologist demands a stable foundation
in which training for critical self-awareness is imperative.
Prospects of Psychology in India Psychology in its modem

sense is a new and alien discipline in India. It originated in the
Euro-American intellectual tradition and was transplanted in Indian
universities. Most of the teaching in these institutions has little relation
to the Indian culture and its social-historical moorings. It is only
recently that attempts have been made to challenge and change this
situation. The protocols were diverse in terms of the future of
psychology in India. While some of them recognised the &dquo;long history
from ancient times&dquo; in India, many believed that it was not so popular
and applied or otherwise it was not so well developed in India. As
one participant articulated, &dquo;it is still to be established and still to
flourish&dquo;.
Discussion. The qualitative inquiry into the perception of psycho-

logy yielded a construction of psychology which is changing. The

42 /
dominant concern expressed by the participants was that psychology

is broad in its scope in theory as well as application. In order to
address the challenges faced by society at the individual as well as
collective levels, psychology has to mould its working substantially
in its content and delivery. The image of psychology as a relevant
and practical discipline requires a reorientation in favour of an
apprenticeship model often practised in the teaching of professional
courses. In fact, the use of psychology in diverse spheres of life
which may contribute to the growth of the discipline is a challenge
as well as an opportunity.
This study clearly indicates a need for transformation of the
discipline. Psychology can no longer survive by holding on to its
neutral, purely academic and uninvolved posture. It needs to engage
itself with conceptual, methodological and applied issues. However,
the application of psychology cannot be equated with applications
in the physical sciences. Here the link between theory and application
is very close and emerges in the field setting itself. Society and
social institutions through their practices constitute the discipline,
and the discipline through its symbolic resources and practices
contributes to society.
Study 3: Preference of New Entrants to Master’s Programme in

Psychology
With a view to analyse the possible reasons for joining the Master’s
programme in psychology, 157 potential candidates were asked to
indicate their career options. The per cent frequencies shown in
Table 1 indicate maximum preference for applied areas (such as
clinical, organisational, counselling, social work, and child psycho-
logy) and lower preference for other areas. This trend characterises
a major shift in the seekers of psychological knowledge.
Study 4: Meaning of Personal Growth
In order to understand the way the relevance of psychology is

experienced by students, 25 postgraduate students asked to were
narrate in their own words the sense of personal growth they had
developed and considered relevant as a student of psychology. The

43
Table 1
Preferences of Students Seeking Admission to Psychology
* These responses referred to professional development without making reference

to any specific field.
_
_
participants were given an open ended task of describing their sense

of personal growth. The content analysis of their protocols revealed
that the meaning of personal growth covers a wide spectrum. The
major components of the notion of personal and professional growth
which emerged included end states and processes. The end states
included the following two categories: (a) self-awareness (understanding,
insight and clarity), and (b) accomplishment of goals, life satisfaction,
acquisition of skills/knowledge, planning a career, developing traits
(such as independence, achievement, confidence, leadership, and
evaluating others). The processes included adaptation to environment/
life situation, adequate role in relation to others (for instance, sharing,
positive attitude, approval seeking, and accepting norms).
Discussion. It is evident that personal growth was viewed by
many as an end state in global or specific terms. Some students
located it in the process of self-appraisal while others identified it
with having or realising certain goals/dispositions/behaviours/traits
which made them more efficacious and competent in life. They
wanted to become capable of influencing others. This involved a
change or transformation in the self. The other major category that
emerged dealt with processes which were instrumental in achieving

44/
the goal states. One can easily see the existing linkages between
these views on personal growth. They tend to suggest that the image
of personal growth shared by students revolved around self-
transformation and realising their inherent potentialities.
Study 5: Personal Dimensions of Experiential Learning
In the course of our analysis of the meaning of professional and

personal growth and interaction with students, it was observed that
there were many personal psychological qualities which they lacked
as students of psychology. With this in view, 20 students enrolled in
the postgraduate course in psychology were asked to look within
and examine their competencies or strengths and weaknesses and
to state their views. The results revealed a range of skills and traits
perceived by them as relevant and needed. These included acceptance,
calmness, confidence, communication skills, control of anger, control
over mood, control of impulsiveness, creativity, determination,
discipline, empathy, endurance, faith, focus of attention, friendly,

hard work, helpful, honesty, kind-heartedness, objectivity, patience,
self-regard, spontaneity and trust.
The above list mainly refers to aspects of self-development.
Training for such development does not find a place in the present
courses. They are trained more to direct their attention towards
others rather than the self.
Study 6: Perceptions of the Apprentices
Thisstudy investigated the perceptions of those who were pursuing

psychology to earn a doctoral degree. Using the focused group
method, a small group of research students (N 12) intensively =
interacted with the researchers. Several issues pertaining to

perceptions of psychology were raised, including enquiry about
the role of psychologists, distinctions between psychologists and
other experts, drawbacks of psychology, relationship between
~
psychological knowledge and Hfe, evaluation of the current status

of psychology, experiential outcomes of training in psychology, and
suggestions for improving the status of psychology. The group
interacted in a very cordial atmosphere, with an open mind. The

’45
investigators participated as facilitators. Thus, their role was limited

to clarification of issues by putting the discussion back on track by
rephrasing and summarising the arguments. There were two
participants who volunteered to take note of the major themes and
ideas generated in the course of discussion.
Results. Role of Psychologists The picture which emerged from

the group discussion was similar to the role of a scientist. In this
role psychologists observe behaviour in various settings with the
aim of understanding by looking at or deciphering the causes of
behaviour. They pay attention to details which are often missed
and make general statements or generalise and predict behaviour.
The second role dealt with that of an applied professional working
in diverse settings such as schools, clinics and organisations. Some
participants argued that psychologists attempted to approximate the
lay understanding of the people. But they were conscious of the
fact that this should not be equated with the misconceptions which
are common among the masses. Others pointed out that psychologists
played the role of a third person. Finally, there was recognition of

the role of disseminating knowledge and giving direction or advice
to people.
The Distinctiveness of Psychology It was pointed out that while
other social sciences are preoccupied with the context, psychology
focuses more on the individual. More recent developments in
psychology are taking into account sociocultural and contextual
factors and becoming more holistic. Thus, a psychologist may be in
a better position to offer an understanding of the complexities of
human behaviour. Some participants were not in favour of comparing

diverse disciplines as all of them have different rules of game and
contexts to deal with.
Limitations of Psychology This theme was self-reflective and

opened up many streams of thought. It was pointed out that
psychology was not an exact science as one could not predict indivi-
dual behaviour in a precise manner. Following the natural science
model, psychology had alienated itself from the local social reality.
It was difficult to draw generalisations on the basis of psychological
knowledge generated in an artificial set-up. The assertion of being
aware of reasons underlying behaviour was erroneous and was a

46/
major reason for the application of psychological theories in day-to-

day life being problematic.
The human dimension of psychological practice was considered
to be more problematic. It was indicated that self-understanding
preceded the understanding of others. However, the practice of
psychology had failed to follow this line of thought. The participants
recognised that psychologists preoccupied with describing the reality
avoided value questions and maintained a value neutral posture.
Psychology did not empower people to choose. The mode of
conducting psychology involved power relations: One person
(experimenter) made another person (subject) an object and
considered herself or himself superior to the subject being studied.
Psychological knowledge and understanding were perceived to
be decontextualised. Thus, psychologists talk of abstract memory
as a thing rather than memory of a person. Memory has to be
perceived as an activity situated in the context. Some participants

held that contemporary mainstream psychology was fragmented,
artificial and did not emphasise the whole person. Its individualistic
stance was capitalist in spirit. Psychology’s renewed interest in relating
to philosophy should not be considered as a threat to the discipline’s
identity.
Psychological Knowledge and life Reflecting on this issue, it

was observed that psychology had succeeded in describing human
life by using discrete concepts. It had contributed a vocabulary to
look at human life and to use that for promoting a particular kind of
understanding of human phenomena. However, the dictionary of
people’s range of experiences was broader than the dictionary of
psychology. In particular, the experiences and concepts in Indian
society were not incorporated in psychology. The western orientation
was biased and could not be considered as universal.
Current Status of Psychology It was strongly felt that psychology

had made an impact in certain areas (such as clinical, organisational)
but psychologists had failed to make a significant impact on the
common people (intergroup relations, policy making, contemporary
societal crisespolitics, media’s impact in spreading awareness-social
marketing). It was also observed that the various taboos attached to
a psychologist, prevented people from approaching psychologists.
They would rather talk to family members since the family is a
close-knit unit. In contemporary social life, psychologists could work

47
for social well-being including mental well-being. The breakdown

of the family structure made the role of psychologist more relevant.
It was pointed out that there is a need to try and make a dent where
we are really needed. To change people’s value system it was impor-
tant to focus on their Indian roots.
Experiential Outcomes of
Training in Psychology The
participants were asked to reflect
their experience as students of
on
psychology. They were encouraged share the realisations of being

to
a psychologist.
&dquo;I have seen myself changing&dquo;, &dquo;it has helped immensely&dquo;.
&dquo;We understand other person’s behaviour better than people from
non-psychology background&dquo;.
&dquo;We can use psychological terminology better&dquo;.
&dquo;We can relate better to group psychology or psyche of the
people&dquo;.
&dquo;In psychology-there is greater focus on understanding ’others’-
as compared to understanding ourselves. Introspection is not
encouraged&dquo;.
However, some participants pointed out that in the current courses

in psychology there was a limited role for experiential learning.
Suggestions for Improving the Status of Psychology In the

final part of discussion, special efforts were made to identity the
ways in which the status of psychology could be improved. It was
pointed out that there was a need to change the context of psychology
by making it experientially-oriented and open to other disciplines.
Thus, it was important to take culture (time and pace) into account.
There was a need to establish the credibility of psychologists in
various settings. Psychology could be applied to many problems in
everyday life. This, however, necessitated overcoming its western
orientation. In terms of truth being represented it celebrated ageless
organism and western male culture (white, middle class, sophomore).
Psychology needed to be changed in favour of Indian concepts and
Indian social reality.
Discussion. The study threw up many ideas which extended the

scope of pursuit in exploring perceptions of psychology as a
our
discipline and practice. It was clear that the traditional paradigm of

48
doing psychology was being critically evaluated. Issues of cultural

relevance and experiential foundation have come to the front. Views
of the participants clearly indicated that much needed to be done to
restructure the courses and their delivery.
Concluding Observations .
The perspectives of the faculty and students indicate that the

discipline of psychology should address many questions in a
dispassionate manner if it has to move forward in a meaningful
way. The question of underlying values needed to be attended to
before an agenda for the discipline could be worked out. It was
observed that till recently, the workings of the field were governed
more by a mechanical rather than reflective endeavour, and this
could partially account for psychology’s weak potential to respond
to social realities and people’s actual lives. We constantly need to
ask ourselves the question &dquo;why&dquo; we are doing psychology and
where in a stratified, hierarchical society like India we position
ourselves. &dquo;what for&dquo; and &dquo;who’s&dquo; social position are we
&dquo;Why&dquo;,
representing are the key questions that have to be addressed. The
futility of naively assuming a neutral, apolitical stand is quite obvious.
And having viewed ourselves as not merely working within a
&dquo;deficiency fulfilling model&dquo; but also being dynamically capable of
creatively contributing to the formulation of social values, it should
be realised that we need a guiding philosophy to direct the course
of our discipline.
Psychology in its theory and practice must include a space to
deal with past processes. The discontinuity and split that confronted
the older generation of psychologists in its moment of giving, by
way of passing on its realisations and thoughts is significant. Thus,
the intergenerational task facing psychologists was largely ignored.
Any process of envisioning the future needs to be concerned with
what the older had lived through and what the younger needed to
be reflective of, even as the younger took the field forward.
Just as psychologists have a role to play in guiding social values,
they also need to be sensitised to the actualities of contemporary
living. Psychology’s training agenda, while focusing on imparting a
strong value base, requires an equal emphasis on the capability of

49
developing among students necessary work or professional skills

and a deeper theoretical grounding which would then lead to greater
involvement and commitment.
Restructuring, of course, needs a balance in which the different
subfields of psychology could find their representation, and issues
around the delivery of course content. This points to the need to
look into these concerns from a more holistic perspective, not
confined merely to psychology alone, but to place them within the
larger realm of knowledge.
The issue of underrepresentation of the &dquo;scientific&dquo; &dquo;hard-core&dquo;
branches and the problem of rooting the discipline along its social
and cultural foundations have to be addressed. Equally vocal were
several voices that maintained a multivocal possibility in which the
co-existence of different branches was thought feasible.
Of relevance to the question of restructuring is the concern for
continuity in the courses across different levels. The delivery of
teaching needed to be close enough to the students’ life stage and
their particular concerns. There was realisation of the need for a
vision which could project far ahead into the future; and in doing
so open up numerous possibilities, directions and avenues into which
we could take our discipline forward.
As one of the most fascinating fields of social inquiry, professional

psychology has succeeded in carving out a niche for itself in the
western world. Its presence is felt in almost all walks of life (such as
media, health, education, environment, organisations, and human
development). In fact, the discipline has become~diversified and
specialised to cater to the specific needs of different sections of
society. As such it has developed many technologies and has
developed linkages with various other disciplines. The academic or
hard-core academic areas of psychology have also grown volumin-
ously. It is particularly evident in the growing number of highly
specialised journals, books and teaching programmes. The emergence
of professional networks, associations and meetings focusing on
highly specific areas and themes is yet another indication of the
upsurge of interest. On the whole, the growth of this scientific
enterprise during 100 odd years is amazing. While the voyage of
the discipline appears impressive, it has faced many problems and
its progress has not been smooth. Its proliferation has been at certain
costs. The planning for psychology in the twenty-first century will require
a different priority to avoid the pitfalls and mistakes of the past.

50
In the word of caution for psychological workers as well

end, a
as consumers of the products and services provided by psycho-
technologies would not be out of context. Anxieties, dissatisfaction
and enthusiasm manifested in the narratives of the participants are
characteristic of the contemporary world populated by atomised
selves in which psychologists also live. The peculiar position of
psychologists as both producers and consumers of the discipline
should be kept in mind while reading their responses. Pinning too
much hope on psychology may perhaps connive with invisible
oppressive forces of modernity in creating hurdles in human liberation.
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Girishwar Mishra is Professor of Psychology at the University of Delhi, Delhi. His research
and professional interests are in the areas of cognitive processes, deprivation and the
philosophy of science.
Anand Prakash is Professor in the Department of Psychology, University of Delhi, Delhi.
His research interests include organisational behaviour and management of change.
Suneet Verma is a Lecturer in the Department of Psychology, University of Delhi, Delhi.

His research interests are narrative analysing and the use of qualitative methods in
psychology.

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The twentieth century has witnessed a multifaceted growth of the discipline of

psychology. As a human scientific enterprise as well as a profession, psychology is

Psychology in India: Perceptions

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T’be Received View of Psychology and Its Critique

In the last century psychologists in the mainstream have projected

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goals of quantification, objectivity, prediction, control and manage-

Notwithstanding the theoretical problems inherent in this

1. The nature of psychological knowledge is socially constructed

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closer to the humanities (Koch, 1985). It is heterogeneous

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Thesechallenges faced in the academic and professional practice

Evolution of Psycbology in Modern India: A Historical

Psychology in India has largely been dominated by western

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1995). These developments have brought Indian psychology at the

facilities and gross negligence by the colonial rulers. The growth of

psychology has emerged as a discipline with an elite urban identity.

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psychology indigenous were limited (Adair, Puhan, & Vohra, 1993;

Tensions in tbe Practice of Psycbology

Psychology in modern India has developed in a strange academic

developments in the donor country (see Gergen et al., 1996, p. 497).

They are used to the concepts and methods prevalent in western

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In view of this academic intellectual scenario it was considered

teaching-learning process as it is currently prevalent in the Indian

Study 1: Perspectives of the Faculty

With view to understand the perspectives of the faculty of

psychology on the problems in the discipline, detailed and informal

1. All the basic textbooks used in teaching psychology courses

Vedic Biblical texts on account of assumed universality of

knowledge and paradigm in which knowledge pursuit is

classroom are disassociated.

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concepts which, at are non-existent. However, due to

producers from the knowledge users. The potential user (the

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everything was neatly packaged in terms of causes (antecedent

dependent variables). This illusory clarity in conceptualisation

understanding through statistical tactics, operationism, and a

commercially available in India, are replete with entries of a

self-understanding or social problem solving. It is also reflected

an extent that their outcomes become unusable for policy

planners. Psychological research with real applied value is

professional psychologists, for instance, guidance, counselling,

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or training for various skills). The demands in the areas of

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as catering to regular professions--different in quality and

Discussion. The issues and responses to the same draw our

discipline for the next millennium.

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Study 2: Students’ Perception

In order to understand how students of psychology perceive the

were instructed to write down their views in the space provided.

They came from different colleges of Delhi University. The majority