2021-2022-1st Sem RRR AERODYN3 - LP 2 of 6 Updated

HOLY ANGEL UNIVERSITY
AERODYN3 LEARNING PACKET

1st Semester, S.Y. 2021 - 2022
Course Developer: Engr. Roberto R. Renigen
Topic 2: Effects of Compressibility
Learning Objectives:
1. To state the Law of Continuity.
2. Tell continuity equation of flow.
3. To discuss the application of equation of continuity.
4. To explain how does continuity equation apply to compressible flow.
5. To state the basic properties of fluid flow.
6. To explain the effects of compressibility on continuity.
7. To discuss the effect of Mach number on compressibility.
8. To give the meaning of Mach number in aircraft.
9. To discuss the effect of Mach number on continuity.
10. To explain how does velocity affect compressibility.
11. To tell what happen to pressure when the Mach number is increasing in compressible flow.
12. To discuss the importance of property relations.
13. To derive and apply the property relationship formula.
14. To calculate multiple problems to fully relate the relationship of every property that affects aircraft
performance.
1) Law of Continuity
If a fluid is moving steadily and uniformly through a closed pipe on a stream tube, the mass of fluids passing
one section in one second must be the same as the mass of fluid passing any other section in one second.
The continuity equation:
For incompressible fluid, ρ = constant
AV = constant
Differentiating both sides,
d ( AV ) = dc
AdV +VdA = 0
Dividing both sides by AV :
dV dA
+ =0
V A
dA dV
=−
A V
For compressible fluid, ρ ≠ constant
ρAV = constant
Differentiating both sides,
d (ρAV ) = dc
ρAdV + ρVdA + AVdρ = 0
Dividing both side by ρAV :
dV dA dρ
+ + =0
V A ρ
10
2) Effect of Mach Number on Continuity
From:
dV dA dρ
+ + =0
V A ρ
From:
− dP = ρVdV
or:
dP = − ρVdV
And from:
2 dP
Va =
dρ
or:
2
dP = Va dρ
Equating for dP :
2
Va dρ = − ρVdV
dρ VdV V 
=− 2  
ρ Va V 
dρ V 2 dV
=− 2
ρ Va V
dρ dV
= −M 2
ρ V
dV dA dρ
Substituting in + + = 0,
V A ρ
dV dA dV
+ −M2 =0
V A V
dA dV dV
=M2 −
A V V
dA dV
A
= M 2 −1( V
)
dA dV dA dV
Comparison between Eqn.
A
=−
V
and Eqn.
A
= M 2 −1
V
:( )
 dP 
a) For non-compressible substance, dρ = 0 then Va =  is infinite.
 dρ 

b) For a compressible flow, if M < 1, dA and dV are of opposite sign; that is, an increasing area means a
decreasing velocity.
c) If M > 1, dA and dV have the same sign; that is, an increasing area means increasing velocity.
11
dA dV
d) When M equals exactly 1, Eqn.
A
(
= M 2 −1
V
)
meaningless.
e) For a non-compressible fluid, a decrease of a certain % in area means an increase of the same % in
velocity.
f) For compressible fluids with M < 1 the % of change in velocity for a given % change in area decreases as
M increases.
Multiplying Eqn. dP = − ρVdV both sides by − 1 :
V2
(dP = − ρVdV ) − 1V 2 ( )
dV dP
− =
V ρV 2
But,
2 γP
Va =
ρ
γP
ρ= 2
Va
Substituting,
dV dP
− =
V V2
γP 2
Va
dV dP
− =
V γPM 2
dV dP dA dV
Substituting Eqn. −
V
=
γPM 2
in Eqn.
A
= M 2 −1
V
(: )
dA dP
A
(
= − M 2 −1
γPM 2
)
dA dP
A
(
= 1− M 2
γPM 2
)
dA  1  dP
=  2 − 1
A M  γP
1  1  dP
As pressure can never be negative if M < 1, 2
is greater than 1, so that  2 − 1 is positive.
M M  γP
If A is increasing, P is increasing. If a streamtube is contracting in size, the pressure is decreasing.
12
Relevant Properties of gases
Types of gas Ratio of Specific Gas Constant

Heats R( J/Kg-K)
Air 1.4 287.08
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 1.288 188.96
Hydrogen (H2) 1.4 4125.52
Helium (He) 1.666 2077.67
Neon (Ne) 1.666 412.10
Argon (A) 1.666 208.17
Oxygen (O2) 1.395 259.90
Nitrogen (N2) 1.399 296.86
Examples:
1. The temperature and pressure at the stagnation point of a high-speed missile are 934°R and 7.8 atm,
respectively. Calculate the density at this point.
Given:
TS = 934 0R
PS = 7.8 atm
Required:
ρS
Solution:
PS = ρ S gRTS
2,116.8 lb / ft 2
7.8 atm x
PS 1 atm
ρS = = = 0.0103 slug / ft 3
gRTS ( 2
)( 0
32.174 ft / sec 53.342 ft / R 934 R0
)( )
13
2. Consider the isentropic flow over an airfoil. The freestream conditions are T∞= 245 K and P∞= 4.35 ×
104N/m2. At a point on the airfoil, the pressure P = 3.6 × 104 N/m2. Calculate the density at this point.
Given:
T∞ = 245 K
P∞ = 4.35 x10 4 N / m 2
P = 3.6 x10 4 N / m 2
Required:
ρ
Solution:
γ
p  ρ 
=  
P∞  ρ∞ 
1
 P γ
ρ = ρ ∞  
 P∞ 
 
 
1 1
 P  P  γ 4 .35 x10 4
N / m 2
 3 .6 x10 4
N / m 2
 1.4
ρ =  ∞    = 
  = 0.540 kg / m 3
2 
 RT∞   P∞   J   4
4.35 x10 N / m 
  287.08 (245K ) 
 kg − K  
14
3) Property Relationships
Thermodynamic Relations – Isentropic or Reversible Adiabatic Gas Laws apply in a flow where no
compression shock waves occur. Note that isentropic losses in pressure exist through shock waves.
Compressible - One-dimensional flow

The term one-dimensional flow is used to describe a flow in which conditions are sensibly constant
across a cross section normal to the flow direction. Such a condition is to be found in the flow of air through
long nozzles and diffusers. Because the flow is constrained in all directions normal to the flow direction, the
flow is called one dimensional even though it may expand or contract in directions normal to the mean flow
direction.
Nozzle - a short tube or duct that usually tapers or has a constriction, often forms the vent of a hose or pipe,
and is used to direct the flow of fluid or to increase the velocity of flow.
Diffuser - any duct designed to slow an increasingly gas flow to lower velocity at the exit of the diffuser.
- a divergent duct downstream of the test section whose role is to slow the higher-velocity air from the
test section down to a very low velocity at the diffuser exit.
15
Pressure - Specific Volume Relationship
γ
P2  v1 
= 
P1  v 2 
Pressure - Density Relationship

1
Since v = ,
ρ
γ
 1 
 
P2  ρ1 
=
P1  1 
 ρ 2 

γ
P2  ρ 2 
= 
P1  ρ1 
Pressure - Specific Weight Relationship

w
Since w = ρg , then ρ = .
g
Therefore :
γ
 w2 
 
P2  g 
=
P1  w1 
 
 g 
γ
P2  w2 
= 
P1  w1 
Pressure - Temperature Relationship

From :
P = ρRT
or :
P2 ρ 2 RT2
=
P1 ρ1 RT1
P2  ρ 2  T2 
=   
P1  ρ1  T1 
16
Since ,
γ
P2  ρ 2 
= 
P1  ρ1 
1
ρ 2  P2  γ
= 
ρ1  P1 
Subst .,
1
P2  P2  γ  T2 
=   
P1  P1   T1 
1
1−
 P2  γ T 
  =  2 
 P1   T1 
γ −1
 P2  γ T 
  =  2 
 P1   T1 
γ
P2  T2  γ −1
= 
P1  T1 
Pressure - Speed of Sound Relationship

From:
γ
P2  T2  γ −1
= 
P1  T1 
Also from:
Va = 20.05 T
2
 V 
T = a 
 20.05 
Substituting,
γ
 V a2 
2
 γ −1 2γ
    Va2  γ −1
P2  20 .05   = 
=
P1  Va1    Va 
 1
 
20 .05  
 
17
Pressure - Mach Number Relationship
From:
V12 γ P1 V22 γ P2
+ = +
2 γ − 1 ρ1 2 γ −1 ρ2
Also from:
V
M=
Va
V = MVa
Substituting,
2 2
M 12Va1 γ P1 M 22Va2 γ P2
+ = +
2 γ − 1 ρ1 2 γ −1 ρ2
But,
2 γP
Va =
ρ
Substituting,
M 12 γP1 γ P1 M 2 γP γ P2
+ = 2 2+
2 ρ1 γ − 1 ρ1 2 ρ2 γ −1 ρ2
γP1  M 12 1  γP2  M 2
= 
2
1 

+ +
ρ1  2 γ − 1  ρ 2  2 γ − 1 
γP1  M 12 + 2  γP2  M 22 + 2 
 =  
ρ1  2(γ − 1)  ρ 2  2(γ − ) 
 P2   ρ 2  M 1 + 2 
2
  =  
 P1   ρ1  M 2 + 2 
2
From:
γ
P2  ρ 2 
= 
P1  ρ1 
1
ρ 2  P2  γ
= 
ρ1  P1 
Substituting,
1
M +2
2
 P2   P2  γ
 1 
  =  
 P1   P1   M 22 + 2 
 
18
1
−
 M +2
2
 P2  P2  γ
   =  12 
 P1  P1   M2 + 2 
 
γ −1
 M +2
2
 P2  γ
  =  12 
 P1   M2 + 2 
 
γ
P2  M 1 + 2  γ −1
2
=
P1  M 2 2 + 2 
Pressure, Specific Volume, Density, Specific Weight, Temperature, Speed of Sound and Mach Number
Relations
For any gas
γ 2γ γ
γ γ γ
p2  v1   ρ 2   w2   T2  γ −1  Va2  γ −1  (γ − 1)M 12 + 2  γ −1
=   =   =   =   = = 
 Va  2
P1  v2   ρ1   w1   T1   1  (γ − 1)M 2 + 2 
For air , γ = 1.4
1. 4 1. 4 1. 4 3. 5 7 3.5
p2 v  ρ  w  T   Va   M 12 + 5 
=  1  =  2  =  2  =  2  = 2  = 
P1  v2   ρ1   w1   T1   Va   M 22 + 5 
 1 
Area – Mach Number Relationship
From:
ρ1 A1V1 = ρ 2 A2V2
ρ1 A1Va M 1 = ρ 2 A2Va M 2
1 2
A2  M 1  ρ1  Va1 

=  
A1  M 2  ρ 2  Va2 

1 1
A2  M 1   (γ − 1)M 2 + 2  γ −1  (γ − 1)M 2 + 2  2
2 2
=    
A1  M 2   (γ − 1)M 12 + 2   (γ − 1)M 12 + 2 
2 +γ −1
A2  M 1   (γ − 1)M 2 + 2  2(γ −1)

2
=  
A1  M 2   (γ − 1)M 12 + 2 
For any gas
γ +1
A2  M 1   (γ − 1)M 2 + 2  2(γ −1)
2
=    
A1  M 2   (γ − 1)M 12 + 2 
For air , γ = 1.4
3
A2 M1  M 22 + 5 
=  2 
A1 M2  M1 + 5 
19
Examples:
1. Consider the isentropic flow through a supersonic wind-tunnel nozzle. The reservoir properties are To= 500
K and Po = 10 atm. If P = 1 atm at the nozzle exit, calculate the exit temperature and density.
Given:
T0 = 500 K
P0 = 10 atm
PEX = 1 atm
Required:
TEX and ρ EX
Solution;
γ
PEX T  γ −1
=  EX 
P0  T0 
γ −1 1.4 −1
P  γ  1 atm  1.4
TEX = T0  EX 
= (500 K )  = 258.97 K
 P0   10 atm 
101,325 Pa
1 atm x
PEX 1 atm
ρ EX = = = 1.363 kg / m 3
RTEX (287.08 J / kg − K )(258.97 K )
2. In the reservoir of a supersonic wind tunnel, the velocity is negligible, and the temperature is 1,000 K. The
temperature at the nozzle exit is 600 K. Assuming adiabatic flow through the nozzle, calculate the velocity at
the exit.
Given:
V0 = 0
T0 = 1,000 K
TEX = 600 K
Required:
VEX
Solution;
2 2
VEX γ PEX Vo γ Po
+ = +
2 γ − 1 ρ EX 2 γ − 1 ρo
2
VEX γ PEX γ Po
+ =
2 γ − 1 ρ EX γ −1 ρo
VEX
2
γ  P0 PEX 
=  − 
2 γ − 1  ρ 0 ρ EX 
20
2
VEX γ
= (RT0 − RTEX )
2 γ −1
VEX =
2γR
(T0 − TEX ) =  (2)(1.4)(287.08 (1,000 − 600) = 896.56 m / sec
γ −1  1.4 − 1 
Assignment No. 1
1. An airfoil in a free stream where P∞ = 0.61 atm, ρ∞ = 0.819 Kg/m3, and V∞ = 300 m/s. At a point on the airfoil
surface, the pressure is 0.5 atm. Assuming isentropic flow, calculate the velocity at that point.
2. An air tank with a nozzle has a pressure of 196.32 KPa and density of 1.9 Kg/m3. Outside the converging-
diverging nozzle, the pressure is atmospheric and designed to have a Mach No. of 1.0 and 1.5 at the throat
and exit respectively. The area at the throat is 0.11m2. Calculate the following: (a) Temperature and speed of
sound at the tank. (b) Pressure, density, temperature and speed of sound at the throat. (c) Mass flow at the
exit.
Quiz No. 1
21
4) Critical Velocity, Critical Mach Number, Critical Pressure and Critical Pressure Coefficient
Learning Objectives:
1. To recall the meaning of critical velocity, critical Mach number, critical pressure, and critical pressure
coefficient.
2. To formulate critical velocity, critical pressure, and critical pressure coefficient.
3. To tell what increased critical velocity and critical pressure.
4. To calculate critical velocity, critical Mach number, critical pressure, and critical pressure coefficient,
5. To explain the main purpose of wind tunnel.
6. To illustrate the main parts of supersonic wind tunnel.
7. To discuss the purpose of the main parts of supersonic wind tunnel.
8. To tell how to determine dynamic similarity.
9. To discuss the three similarity relationships required by a model test.
10. To tell why wind tunnels useful in studying fluid flow.
11. To explain what are used to measure wind tunnels.
12. To identify the advantages and the disadvantages of wind tunnel testing.
13. To solve parameters involving supersonic wind tunnel design.
AIRFOIL PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION

The pressure distribution is normally expressed in terms of the pressure coefficient, Cp.
P − P∞ P − P∞
Cp = =
q∞ 1
ρ ∞ V∞ 2
2
At low speeds, according to the incompressible Bernoulli Equation,
2
 V 
Cp = 1 −  
 V∞ 
Note that Eqn. above shows that cp =1.0 at a stagnation point (V = 0).
Compressibility Effects
Due to the variation of local velocity over the curved surface of the airfoil, the local Mach number of the
flow varies considerably from that in the freestream. By increasing the freestream Mach number at a given α,
eventually a freestream Mach number is reached at which sonic speed occurs on the airfoil surface. Such a
freestream Mach number is called the critical Mach number.
22
Critical Velocity, Vcr
The velocity at a given point on the airfoil surface where the Mach number is equal to 1.0.
From compressible Bernoulli Equation:

2
V2 γ P V γ P∞
+ = ∞ +
2 γ −1 ρ 2 γ − 1 ρ∞
Since,
2 γP
Va =
ρ
2 2 2
V 2 Va V Va
+ = ∞ + ∞
2 γ −1 2 γ −1
 Va∞  γ − 1 V∞ 2 
2
Va  γ − 1 V 2
2
 + 1  =  + 1 
γ − 1  2 Va 2  γ − 1  2 Va∞ 2 
2  γ −1  2  γ −1 2 
Va  M 2 + 1 = Va∞  M ∞ + 1
 2   2 
If Va = Vcr , M = M cr = 1.0
2 γ −1
Vcr  (1.0)2 + 1 = Va∞ 2  γ − 1 M ∞ 2 + 1
 2   2 
2  γ −1  2  γ −1 2 
Vcr  + 1 = Va∞  M ∞ + 1
 2   2 
2  (γ − 1)M ∞ + 2 
2
2  (γ − 1) + 2 
Vcr   = Va∞  
 2   2 
2 2  (γ − 1)M ∞ 2 + 2 
Vcr = Va∞  
 γ +1 
For any gas
1
 (γ − 1)M ∞ 2 + 2  2
Vcr = Va∞  
 γ +1 
For air, γ = 1.4.
1
 M ∞2 + 5  2
Vcr = Va∞  

 6 
23
Critical Pressure, Pcr
The local pressure at the point on the airfoil surface where M = 1.0 and the velocity is Vcr.
From:
γ
p  (γ − 1)M ∞ 2 + 2  γ −1
= 
 (γ − 1)M + 2 
2
P∞
If P = Pcr , M = M cr = 1.0
γ
pcr  (γ − 1)M ∞ 2 + 2  γ −1
= 2 
P∞  (γ − 1)(1.0 ) + 2 
γ
Pcr  (γ − 1)M ∞ + 2  γ −1
2
= 
P∞  γ +1 
For any gas
γ
 (γ − 1)M ∞ + 2 
2 γ −1
Pcr = P∞  
 γ +1 
For air, γ = 1.4.
3.5
 M 2 +5
Pcr = P∞  ∞ 

 6 
Critical pressure Coefficient, c pcr

Pcr − P∞
C p cr =
q∞
γ
 (γ − 1)M ∞ 2 + 2  γ −1
P∞   − P∞
γ + 1
c pcr =  
1 2
γP∞ M ∞
2
For any gas
 γ 
  2 
2  (γ − 1)M ∞ + 2 γ −1 
C p cr =    −1 
γM ∞ 2   γ +1  
 
24
For air, γ = 1.4.
3 .5
 M 2 + 5
 ∞  −1
 6 
C p cr =  
0 .7 M ∞ 2
 γ 
  2
2  (γ − 1)M ∞ + 2  γ − 1 
Eqn. C p
cr
=    − 1  gives the value of c p at that point on the airfoil where
γM ∞ 2   γ +1
 
 
sonic velocity is first reached for a given freestream Mach number. This expression can be used to determine
the critical Mach number of an airfoil at a given α . Assume that at M ∞ = 0, the most negative pressure on the
airfoil is given by c p0 . According to Glauert, the pressure coefficient at the same point and same α but for
another M ∞ is approximately given by:
c p0
cp =
2
1− M ∞
Where:
c p0 = the most negative pressure coefficient at M ∞ = 0
2
1 − M ∞ = the Prandtl-Glauert Transformation factor
Most accurate formula for c p by Von karman and Tsien
c p0
cp = 2
2 c p0 M ∞
1− M ∞ +
2 1 − M ∞ + 1
2
 
25
Example:
1. An airplane is flying at sea level at an airspeed of 275 m/s. Find the critical speed, critical pressure and
critical pressure coefficient.
Given:
Sea level
V∞ = 275 m / s
Required:
Vcr , Pcr , and C Pcr
Solution:
V∞ V∞ 275
M∞ = = = = 0.81
Va∞ 20.05 T∞ 20.05 288
1 1
 M +5
2 2  M +5 2 2
Vcr = Va∞   = 20.05 T∞ 
∞
 ∞
 6   6 
1
 (0.81) 2 + 5  2
Vcr = 20.05 288   = 330.36 m / s
 6 
3.5 3.5
 M 2 +5  (0.81) 2 + 5 
Pcr = P∞  ∞  = (101,325)   = 82,413.24 m / s
 6   6 
3. 5 3. 5
 M ∞2 + 5   (0.81) 2 + 5 
  −1   −1
 6  6
C pcr =   =   = −0.406
2
0 .7 M ∞ ( 0 . 7 )( 0 . 81 )2
Assignment No. 2
1. An airplane is flying at an altitude of 3,500m at an airspeed of 300 m/s. Find the critical speed, critical
pressure and critical pressure coefficient.
2. What is the critical value of the pressure coefficient for an airplane flying at 500 knots in air at 25 0F?
3. For an airplane flying at 270 meters per second at 25, 0000 ft. attitude, find the critical value of the pressure
coefficient.
26
Dynamic Similarity (Wind Tunnel)
27
28
29
30
What is the purpose of wind tunnel?
Wind tunnels are large tubes with air moving inside. The tunnels are used to copy the actions of an object in
flight. Researchers use wind tunnels to learn more about how an aircraft will fly.
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32
33
34
35
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The Similarity analysis is applied to vehicles and a reduced scale model of actual prototype is built to
determine data on aerodynamic parameters by wind tunnel simulations and hence improve the design which
affects the actual vehicle's performance.
In fluid mechanics, dynamic similarity is the phenomenon that when there are two geometrically similar vessels
(same shape, different sizes) with the same boundary conditions (e.g., no-slip, center-line velocity) and the
same Reynolds and number, then the fluid flows will be identical.
37

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HOLY ANGEL UNIVERSITY

AERODYN3 LEARNING PACKET

If A is increasing, P is increasing. If a streamtube is contracting in size, the pressure is decreasing.

Types of gas Ratio of Specific Gas Constant

Compressible - One-dimensional flow

Pressure - Density Relationship

Pressure - Specific Weight Relationship

Pressure - Temperature Relationship

Pressure - Speed of Sound Relationship

A2  M 1   (γ − 1)M 2 + 2  2(γ −1)

AIRFOIL PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION

From compressible Bernoulli Equation:

Critical pressure Coefficient, c pcr

What is the purpose of wind tunnel?

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