Unit I Abrasive grinding

Unit III Micro and Nano machining of

glasses and ceramics in ductile regime
using diamond tool and diamond
grinding wheel.

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 Abrasive Machining Processes
• Abrasive machining involves material removal by the action of
• hard, abrasive particles.
• The use of abrasives to shape parts is probably the oldest material
• removal process. Free sand was applied between two moving parts to
remove material and hape the stone parts.

• They are important because

 They can be used on all types of materials ranging from soft metals to
hardened steels and hard nonmetallic materials such as ceramics and
silicon.
 Extremely fine surface finishes (0.025 m).
 For certain abrasive processes, dimensions can be held to extremely
close tolerances.

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 Types of Abrasive Machining Processes

• Grinding
• Honing
• Lapping
• Polishing
• Buffing
• Abrasive water jet machining
• Ultrasonic machining

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 Honing
• Honing is a low abrading process used to improve the surface
finish of holes, stock removing from metallic and nonmetallic
surfaces
• Tool has a reciprocating axial motion and produces a crosshatched
pattern on the surface of the hole
• TOOL –Metal mandrel with abrasive stones
• The dimension to an accuracy of 0.005 mm can be obtained
• Honing is wet cutting process 6 to 8 honing sticks are held
together and metal is removed by rotating or reciprocating the
holder
• Honing tool is rotated at a speed of 0.5 - 2.5 m/s and reciprocates at
a speed of 0.2 – 0.5 m/s.
• Special (thick) cutting liquids are being used with high viscosity.
• Honing machines –horizontal and vertical

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Advantages of Honing
Correction of Geometrical accuracy
– Out of roundness
– Taper
– Axial distortion
• Dimensional accuracy
• Required surface finish

Application of Honing
• It can be used for both external (cylindrical and flat
surfaces) and internal surfaces (common)
• Honing of automobile cylinder
• Honing is also used for repair work
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 Super finishing /Micro honing

• Super finishing is a micro finishing process that produces a

controlled surface condition on parts which is not obtainable by any
other method.
The operation which is also called ‘micro stoning’ consist of
scrubbing a stone against a surface to produce a fine quality metal
finish.
• The process consists of removing chatter marks and fragmented or
smear metal from the surface of dimensionally finished parts.
• As much as 0.03 to 0.05 mm of stock can be efficiently removed
with some production applications, the process becomes most
economical if the metal removal is limited to 0.005 mm

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 Lapping
• In lapping, instead of a bonded abrasive tool, oil-based fluid
suspension of very small free abrasive grains (aluminum oxide
and silicon carbide, with typical grit sizes between 300 and 600)
called a lapping compound is applied between the work piece
and the lapping tool.
• The lapping tool is called a lap, which is made of soft materials
like copper, lead or wood.
The lap has the reverse of the desired shape of the
work part. To accomplish the process, the lap is pressed against
the work and moved back and forth over the surface.
• Lapping is sometimes performed by hand, but lapping
machines accomplish the process with greater consistency and
efficiency

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Schematic of lapping process

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• Advantages:-
1.Increase wear life of part.
2.Improve accuracy and surface finish.
3.Improve surface flatness.
4.Provide better seals and eliminate need for
gaskets.
Applications:-
Lapping is used to produce optical lenses, metallic
bearing surfaces, gauges, and other parts requiring
very good finishes and extreme accuracy.

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 ULTASONIC MACHINING
• Material removed through high velocity movement of abrasive particles, which
are in the form of slurry
• The oscillating motion of the tool – frequencies 25-40 kHz causes cavitation
phenomena and projects the abrasive particles against the workpiece
• Any desired contour of the hole can be produced by forming the tool to a desired
shape.
• Holes in hard materials can be machined (ceramics, etc.)

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 Process
• Ultrasonic machining is a mechanical type non-traditional machining
process.
• It is employed to machine hard and brittle materials (both electrically
conductive and non conductive material) having hardness usually
greater than 40 HRC.
• The process was first developed in 1950s and was originally used for
finishing EDM surfaces.
• In ultrasonic machining, tool of desired shape vibrates at ultrasonic
frequency ( 19 to 25 kHz. ) with an amplitude of 15-50 Microns over
work piece.
• Generally tool is pressed down with a feed force F.
• Between the tool and work, machining zone is flooded with hard
abrasive particles generally in the form of water based slurry.
• As the tool vibrates over the work piece, abrasive particles acts as
indenter and indent both work and tool material .
• Abrasive particles , as they indent , the work material would remove the
material from both tool and work piece.

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 Process
• In Ultrasonic machining material removal is due to crack
initiation, propagation and brittle fracture of material.
• The tool in USM is made to vibrate with high frequency on
to the work surface in the midst of the flowing slurry.
• The main reason for using ultrasonic frequency is to
provide better performance. Audible frequencies of
required intensities would be heard as extremely loud
sound and would cause fatigue and even permanent
damage to the auditory apparatus.

• This method is the best choice for working with hard

materials such as ceramic matrix composites, ruby, piezo-
ceramics, glass, ceramics, Quartz, ferrite, diamonds,
technical ceramics, alumina, PCD, sapphire, CVD silicon
carbide and similar ones.

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 Equipment
Ultrasonic Machining
consists of :
1. High Power sine
wave generator
2. Transducer
3. Tool Holder
4. Tool

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 Equipment
1. High power sine wave generator :This unit converts low frequency (60
Hz) electrical power to high frequency (20kHz) electrical power.
2. Transducer :The high frequency electrical signal is transmitted to
traducer which converts it into high frequency low amplitude
vibration. Essentially transducer converts electrical energy to
mechanical vibration. There are two types of transducer used 1. Piezo
electric transducer 2. Magneto-stricitve transducer.
3. Tool holder. OR Horn:The tool holder holds and connects the tool to
the transducer. It virtually transmits the energy and in some cases,
amplifies the amplitude of vibration. Material of tool should have good
acoustic properties, high resistance to fatigue cracking. Due measures
should be taken to avoid ultrasonic welding between transducer and
tool holder. Commonly used tool holders are Monel, titanium, stainless
steel. Tool holders are more expensive, demand higher operating cost.
4. Tool: Tools are made of relatively ductile materials like Brass,
Stainless steel or Mild steel so that Tool wear rate (TWR) can be
minimized. The value of ratio of TWR and MRR depends on kind of
abrasive, work material and tool materials.

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 Process parameters
1. Amplitude of vibration ( 15 to 50 microns)
2. Frequency of vibration ( 19 to 25 kHz).
3. Feed force (F) related to tool dimensions
4. Feed pressure
5. Abrasive size
6. Abrasive material ** Al203, SiC, B4C, Boron silicarbide, Diamond.
7. Flow strength of the work material
8. Flow strength of the tool material
9. Contact area of the tool
10. Volume concentration of abrasive in water slurry
11. Tool a. Material of tool b. Shape c. Amplitude of vibration d. Frequency
of vibration e. Strength developed in tool
12. Work material a. Material b. Impact strength c. Surface fatigue strength
13. Slurry a. Abrasive – hardness, size, shape and quantity of abrasive flow b.
Liquid – Chemical property, viscosity, flow rate c. Pressure d. Density

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 Polishing and Buffing
• A process that produces a smooth, glossy surface finish
• Softening and smearing of surface layers by frictional
heating and fine scale abrasive removal from the
workpiece surface
• In buffing the abrasive grains in a suitable carrying
medium such as grease are applied at suitable intervals
to the buffing wheel
• Negligible amount of material is removed
• Polishing may be used to enhance and restore the looks
of certain metal parts or object on cars and other
vehicles, handrails, cookware, kitchenware, and
architectural metal.
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 Burnishing
• Burnishing is the plastic deformation of a surface
due to sliding contact with another object. Visually,
burnishing smears the texture of a rough surface and
makes it shinier.
• Burnishing may occur on any sliding surface if the contact
stress locally exceeds the yield strength of the material.
• Burnishing is a Super-finishing process.

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 Advantages

• Mirror Finish in One Pass, Accurate Sizing, Close

Tolerances, Eliminates Lapping & Honing
• Improved Metallurgical Properties - Work Hardened
Surface, Increase in fatigue strength,
• No Additional Machine Investment - attachable to
any Standard Machine Tool Already Present in the
Shop
• Long Tool Life No Operator Skill Required Low
Torque & Power Requirements Maximum Parts
Interchangeability

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 Applications

• Bright burnishing tools are being used in sectors

like Automobile, Aircraft, Defense, Spacecraft,
Railways, Textile, Machine Tool, Motors and Pump
Industry, Hydraulic and Pneumatic Farm
Equipment, Home
Appliances etc., and areas where close
tolerance and superior surface finish is
required.

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 Abrasives
• Abrasives different for:
• Grinding (Bonded wheel)
• Honing (Bonded, very fine)
• Snagging (Bonded, belted)
• Lapping ( Free abrasives)
• Abrasive grains are bonded together to form tools
(wheels)
• Abrasives- a)NATURAL & b) MANUFACTURED

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A.NATURAL ABRASIVES–Sand
1. Sand stone (quartz)
wheels used for hand grinding–cheap (SiO2+ impurities)
is not uniform and does not wear evenly
relatively soft. These cannot be used for grinding of hard material and at faster
speed.
2. Corundum and Emery–
better uniformity and good for production(Natural Al2O3+Fe3O4+impurities)
If percentage of aluminium oxide is more, ranging from 75 to 95% then it is called
corundum.
Both emery and corundum are harder than quartz and can have better abrasive
action.
3. Diamondand garnets–abrasive material (Hardest), most expensive (Carbon)-hardness
10 on Mohr’s scale
B. MANUFACTURED ABRASIVES
1.Silicon Carbide(carborundum)–discovered in 19th century during an attempt to get
precious gems. Hardness Mohr’s Scale of 9.5. Very sharp but brittle.
2. Aluminium Oxide(Alundum)–made of bauxite (AlO) –slightly softer than SiC but
tougher. It is preferred for grinding of materials of higher tensile strengths like steel; high
carbon and high speed steel and tough bronze.
3.Cubic Boron Nitride(CBN)–recently –hard (9.5) and tough , very good high
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temperature properties
 COATED ABRASIVES

• Abrasive grains are glued to cloth or paper

sheets.
• Synthetic and natural abrasives are used .
• The sheets are flexible:
• Available in various shapes and work can be
easily ground
• ABRASIVE BELT GRINDER –the same
• Self sharpening is not possible
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• Micro and Nano machining of
glasses and ceramics in ductile
regime using diamond tool and
diamond grinding wheel.

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 Introduction
 Glass is a homogeneous material with a random, liquid-like
(non-crystalline) molecular structure.
 Glass is hard and brittle, and includes various oxidized
particles.
 In cutting optical glasses with diamond tools, new surfaces are
produced by plastic deformation and brittle fracture occurs in
a complex interaction between the glass, the environment, the
tool and the machine.
 The materials like glasses are difficult to machine using a
sharp diamond tool due to the material property of workpiece
such as low fracture toughness, amorphous structure, brittle,
and fragmentation.
 It will also affect the material property of the diamond tool
and leads to increase in the wear rapidly.

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 Ultra-precision machining
• The ultra-precision machining is the process of improving the
dimensional accuracy and the surface quality of the product in the
submicron level.
• The magnitude of surface roughness must be less than 10 nm, and
the machining accuracy will be in the range of 0.1–100 nm.
• The brittle materials such as glasses, silicon, and germanium are
machined with high-speed ultra-precision lathe to understand the
material removal mechanism in different modes.
• The diamond tool with high negative rake angle is used to
finish this material in the ultra-precision accuracy.
• However, it provides a good surface finish to the material, but the
tool wear is a major problem in machining the hard brittle
material. For example, the flank and crater wear occurs obviously
in the turning operation, which results in increased production cost
and deteriorates the product quality.

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 Diamond-cutting glasses
• The process of using a single point diamond tool (SPDT) can be used to
fabricate a finished optical component on a precision machine under very
precisely controlled machining and environmental conditions.
• Single point diamond turning is now a well-established technology for the
fabrication of glass and ceramic materials.
• The process is the natural extension of conventional machine tool technology
to nanometre precision.
• SPDT utilizes large single diamonds sharpened to edge radius as fine as 100
nm, sometimes even upto 20–40 nm.
• When used with the preferred diamond turnable materials (copper,
electrolysis nickel, and aluminium), surface roughness values approaching 1
nm rms can be achieved.
• It is critical to determine the transition point from brittle mode to ductile
mode.

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 Significance of diamond as a cutting tool
• The cutting edge of the tool must be sharp and free from irregular
shape to process high-precision aspheric surfaces.
• There exists a major difference between the single crystal diamond
(SCD) and the polycrystalline diamond (PCD) based on the
sharpness of the tool.
• The cutting edges of the SCD tool are homogeneous and free from
irregularities, whereas the cutting edges of the PCD tool show
microscopic irregularities which lead to the removal of diamond
particles.
• The major drawback of the SCD tool is the shorter life period
compared to the PCD tool due to the abrasion wear.
• Since the NPCD tool consists of fine grains of nanometer size over
the length with no additional binder materials, the properties of the
NPCD tool are much better than that of the SCD.
• The performance of the NPCD tool is improved compared to the
SCD, where the tool life is longer for the NPCD.
• This may be due to the hardness property and thermally stable
characteristics of the NCPD tool 32
 Diamond-coated tools
• The diamond film is coated on different substrates to increase in the
durability of the coated tools in the machining process.
– to improve the hardness, corrosion resistance, and wear
resistance of the tool.
– It also removes the heat generation from the cutting edge due to
the high thermal conductivity of diamond.
• The deposition of diamond films on the substrates such as metal
alloys, cemented tungsten carbide, and stainless steel has not been
consistent due to the adhesion difficulty at the interface.
Additionally, a chemical affinity reaction takes place between the
substrate and the diamond deposited films. This enhances the
formation of carbide layer when the carbon from the diamond film
interacts with air particles. However, when the coating is not regular
on the substrate, the diamond film peels off from the surface and
reduces the tool life.
• The diamond film deposits as different layers such as monolayer,
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bilayer, and multilayer.
 Diamond-coated tools
• The cemented tungsten carbide with the diamond
coating is used in the recent periods to enhance the
tool life and the cutting performance of the dental
materials. The deposition of titanium nitride
between the diamond film and the substrate
performs well compared to the other tools for the
orthodontic application
• the small particles of diamond are embedded in
the tool material for performing different
micromachining operations such as turning,
milling, drilling, and grinding.
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 Ductile regime machining of brittle materials
• The ductile regime machining of brittle materials produces the material
removal in the plastic deformation zone when the applied stress is below
the critical stress of the material, which is insufficient to cause the
macrocrack formation.
• The mechanism of material removal is identified by the occurrence of
radial, lateral cracking, chipping, and pileup formation on the surface
level.
• The morphology of machined surfaces provides the regular or irregular
lay pattern, which confirmed the mode of deformation. The chances of
both the ductile and brittle mode of deformation occur in the ceramic
materials depending on the critical depth of cut.
• When the depth is below the critical depth of cut, it leads to a ductile
regime of machining, where the material removal takes place by plastic
deformation. On the other hand, when the depth of cut exceeds the
critical depth, it removes the material by brittle fracture.

where E is the Young modulus (GPa), H is the Vickers hardness (GPa), and Kc is
the fracture toughness (MPa m1/2) of the material .
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 Surface generation
• In machining glasses, a negative rake angle face is necessary to
produce sufficient hydrostatic compressive stress in the cutting
zone.
• This compressive stress makes the material transit from the brittle
regime to a ductile regime.
• In conventional machining, the cutting edge radius of carbide tools
can be considered to be sharp as the undeformed chip thickness is
substantially
• larger than the radius value. When the cutting edge radius is larger
than the undeformed chip thickness in ultra-precision machining of
brittle materials, even though the actual rake angle is 0, the
effective rake angle is a large negative value.
• With an increase in cutting edge radius and a decrease in
undeformed chip thickness, the rake angle of the tool becomes
more negative.
• However, an extreme negative rake with large edge radius has a
negative effective rake that could be much higher, creating more
ploughing and sliding instead of chip formation. 36
Tool wear of diamond in ultra-precision machining
• The different types of wear mechanisms such as
abrasion, adhesion, diffusion, and chemical reaction are
formed on the tool surface during the machining
process.
• The tool wear will vary depending on the machining
condition and the lubrication used.
• The tool wear is a significant parameter which affects
the quality of the machined components and economics
of the part produced.
• The tool wear rate is based on the properties of the
work material such as strength, hardness, and fracture
toughness.

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The microchipping and cleavage are identified as the dominant wear mechanism during the
machining of glass material using a diamond tool.
Different types of wear such as crater wear and flank wear occur in the ductile mode as shown
in Figure d, which looks smooth and uniform along the cutting edges. This shows the
development of tool wear is gradual and stable throughout the machining process.
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 Tool life improvement
Ultrasonic vibration assisted cutting
• One approach to prolonging tool life is to apply ultrasonic
vibration to the diamond cutting tool. The idea is that with
vibration during cutting, the lubricant can easily penetrate the
cutting zone.
• Also, the shatter contact time between the cutting tool and work
material improves the tool life.
• In addition to increasing the tool life, another advantage of the use
of ultrasonic vibration assisted cutting is that the critical depth of
cut can be increased.
• The intermittent cutting due to the ultrasonic vibration causes
separation of the rake face of the tool from the chip and
introduces the aerodynamic lubrication between the tool rake and
the chip. Hence, the friction at the tool-chip interface is reduced.
This causes reduction in the instantaneous cutting force as well as
the average cutting force, which is naturally reduced because of
the intermittent cutting. As the force to initiate brittle fracture is
reduced, the critical depth of cut is consequently increased.
• The increase in the critical depth of cut is advantageous from the 39
viewpoints of efficiency and operation.
 Tool life improvement
• Heat assisted cutting: With increases in temperature,
glasses soften and the materials become less brittle. The burners
heat the workpiece up to the glass removal condition beyond the
glass transition temperature. The point burner at the same time
acts locally in improving the surface finish without geometrically
disturbing the bulk of the glass. This implies that moderate
annealing has to be applied afterwards to prevent stress.
• Apart from the burners, laser is an alternative to heat the
machining area due to its good focussing performance in a special
area.
• Owing to the thermal stress from the steep gradient of the
temperature, cracks occur.
• The recommendation for future study is that two laser beams,
one with a small focussing area and the other with a big focussing
area should be used to form two overlapping hot areas. This
reduces the temperature difference between the heated and non-
heated areas and decreases the thermal stress leading to fewer
cracks.
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 Tool life improvement
• A new method of supplying nitrogen cold plasma
associated with ultrasonic vibration is used to reduce the
chemical affinity between the interfaces. Moreover, it also
reduces the tool wear in the machining. of the ferrous
materials. This also supports the machining process by
reducing the temperature and the surface roughness of the
component. In another experiment, the diamond-coated
tool is used to turn the graphite bar in high-speed lathe
machine under the influence of both the air and nitrogen
atmosphere. In addition, the oxidation forms in the
presence of air, which causes wear to the cutting tool and
decreases the tool life, whereas the blowing of nitrogen in
the turning operation reduces the wear of the cutting tool
by weakening the oxidation process.

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 Conclusions
• There is an increase in demand for producing the high dimensional
accuracy product in the optical device applications.
• The diamond tool is required to machine the hard and brittle
materials to the specified tolerance limit.
• But, the occurrence of tool wear is more during the machining of
molds of the optical devices, and it will deteriorate the surface
finish of the part produced.
• This increases the cost of the production in the ultra-precision
machining process.
• In order to overcome this scenario, the diamond film is coated to
the substrate tungsten carbide to enhance the wear and corrosion
resistance of the tool.
• An alternative method is also used to machine this ceramic
material in ductile regime, where the formation of brittle fracture
is restricted.

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• Application of advance coating in
high performance cutting tools
and high performance super
abrasive wheels.

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 Introduction
• All traditional or conventional ways of machining processes such as
drilling, turning and milling depend on the hardness of the cutting
tool being higher than the hardness of the material being cut. The
cutting instruments of several machining processes suffer from a
short lifetime due to gradually reducing hardness and subsequently
the cost of machining increases.
• Design, geometry, type, tool life, and material of the cutting tool
are important parameters which affect directly on the cost and the
quality of the product.
• The development of new alloys is associated with the development
of cutting tool materials.
• Ceramic cutting tools exhibit high hardness and good performance
in wear resistance, so that they play an important role, for example,
in the high-speed machining process of super alloys

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 Significant constraints

• Cutting tool development is important for enhancing

the mechanical properties especially in high-speed
machining with a long duration.
• However the production of its cutting tools faces
challenges for many reasons.
• Firstly the material must meet mechanical property
requirements.
• Secondly conventional sintering methods are
restricted with the number of materials and the time
needed to achieve the sintering cycle, which are
reflected in the product cost

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 Properties
• Mechanical properties:
– High hardness at elevated temperature.
– High deformation resistance to prevent plastic deformation at
cutting edge.
– High stiffness to maintain accuracy.
– High fatigue resistance to resist maximum mechanical load.
– High fracture toughness.
• Thermal properties:
– High thermal conductivity to transfer the temperature away from
the cutting edge.
– High thermal shock resistance.
• Chemical composition being stable.
• Tribological properties:
– Wear resistance.
– Adequate lubricity to prevent build-up on the cutting edge. 46
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 Ceramic cutting tool materials
• Ceramic cutting tool materials are created for machining cast
irons and super-alloys materials in addition to finishing hard-to-
cut materials.
• Such tools have unique mechanical properties, and they have high
hardness, corrosion, and adhesion wear resistance compared to
carbide cutting tools.
• Advantages :
– High strength when machining hard to cut material especially in light
machining.
– Show extremely high resistance to cratering and abrasive wear.
– The ability of high cutting speed.
• Disadvatages:
– the brittleness,
– low value of transverse rupture strength
– low toughness and low resistance to mechanical and thermal shock
because they suffered from low thermal conductivity.
– Subsequently, with high-speed machining those defects became slightly
more pronounced and in order to decrease the cycle time a restricted
average of depth of cut was required
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• Ceramic cutting tools can be indexed into four
mains families as follows:
• Al2O3-based ceramics.
• Si3N4-based ceramics.
• Sialon-based ceramics.
• Cermet tool materials.

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