From darkness into light --the Idea of Gunavarma behind the design of Borobudur

Dr uday Dokras

Buddha’s Wisdom is broad as the ocean and His Spirit is full of great Compassion. Buddha
has no form but manifests Himself in Exquisiteness and leads us with His whole heart of
Compassion. THE TEACHING OF BUDDHA, BUKKYO DENDO KYOKA

The idea of moving from the darkness into the light is the goal of the experience of Borobudur- both for
the layman and the bikkhu. The uniqueness of the Borobudur archaeological remain as we find it today
suggests that there was an underlying genius of innovative ideas behind it during its time of planning and
construction in the past. The Borobudur shows the process of Buddhism, the scenery and features show
that it was set in Java. Borobudur is thus a Buddhist stupa in the Indian sense. Each of the square terraces
is enclosed in a high wall with pavilions and niches along the whole perimeter, which prevents the visitor
on one level from seeing into any of the other levels . The temple’s pathway takes one from the earthly
realm of desire (kamadhatu), represented and documented on the hidden narratives of the structure’s
earthbound base, through the world of forms (rupadhatu) as expounded on the narratives carved along the
four galleries set at right angles, until one finally emerges into the realm of formlessness (arupadhatu) as
symbolized and manifested in the open circular terraces crowned with 72 stupas. Candi Borobudur and
Candi Mendut were the two sites in Central Java that promoted caitya worship. Even before their
establishment in the 8th century A.D., it is probable that the belief was already brought into Java by
Gunavarma the architect of Borobudur in the beginning of the 5th century A. D.

Sunrise and sunset at the site

Someone asked : Does enlightenment mean illumination?

Illumination is when someone shines a torch in your ear. Enlightenment is
when you're the torch.

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 1. THE CONCEPT OF CAUSE & EFFECT; The rendering of the text Karmavibhangga in
a continuous row of reliefs is indeed only found at the Borobudur sanctuary In such a
format is not found anyhere else in the world.
2. A number of 160 panels are found on the walls of the hidden base.
3. The specific structural scheme of this row of scenes in stone is that each panel consists of two
parts: the left and the right side (from the spectator's view), each with a separate scene,
4. however both are interconnected.
5. The first one, which is on the left, contains "the cause" scene,
6. whereas the second scene on the right contains "the effect", following the teachings of the
Karmavibhangga regarding rewards for good deeds and punishments for bad deeds.
7. Each panel is clearly demarcated by the 'frame' of the panel,
8. whereas the separation between the left and the right scene within one panel is not demarcated by
an explicid line. There is only an imaginary line between the two scenes within one panel.
9. This imaginary line might have the form of a tree, or two groups of people sitting or standing
back to back, the line of their backs thus forming the imaginary separating line.
10. Since the Karmavibhangga is a didactic text that has no single story line with permanent
characters, and seems to be meant as guidance for the population in general, so the sculptors
possibly had a free reign to portray scenes with the model taken from real life in his social
environment.
11. It is in this aspect that this row of relief might have its significance as an "information' on daily
life in the time of Borobudur 's conception and realisation.
12. The forms of performing arts, both among the elites as well as among the commoners, the
midwife's activity, the market scene, are among the spheres of activity that are 'reported' through
the panels
13. In this respect the Karmavibhangga row of reliefs is the most prolific among other rows of reliefs
in ancient Javanese temples.1

There are no known records of construction or the intended purpose of Borobudur. The
duration of construction has been estimated by comparison of carved reliefs on the temple's
hidden foot and the inscriptions commonly used in royal charters during the 8th and 9th
centuries. Borobudur was likely founded around 800 AD. This corresponds to the period
between 760 and 830 AD, the peak of the Sailendra dynasty rule over Mataram kingdom in
central Java, when their power encompassed not only the Srivijayan Empire but also southern
Thailand, Indianized kingdoms of Philippines, North Malaya (Kedah, also known in Indian texts
as the ancient Hindu state of Kadaram). The construction has been estimated to have taken 75
years with completion during the reign of Samaratungga in 825.
There is uncertainty about Hindu and Buddhist rulers in Java around that time. The Sailendras
were known as ardent followers of Buddhism, though stone inscriptions found at Sojomerto also
suggest they may have been Hindus.[  It was during this time that many Hindu and Buddhist
monuments were built on the plains and mountains around the Kedu Plain. The Buddhist
monuments, including Borobudur, were erected around the same period as the
Hindu Shiva Prambanan temple compound. In 732 AD, the Shivaite King Sanjaya commissioned
a Shivalinga sanctuary to be built on the Wukir hill, only 10 km (6.2 mi) east of Borobudur.
Construction of Buddhist temples, including Borobudur, at that time was possible because
Sanjaya's immediate successor, Rakai Panangkaran, granted his permission to the Buddhist
followers to build such temples.  In fact, to show his respect, Panangkaran gave the village
of Kalasan to the Buddhist community, as is written in the Kalasan Charter dated 778 AD. This

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has led some archaeologists to believe that there was never serious conflict concerning religion
in Java as it was possible for a Hindu king to patronize the establishment of a Buddhist
monument; or for a Buddhist king to act likewise. The 856 battle on the Ratubaka plateau was
much after and was a political battle. There was a climate of peaceful coexistence where
Sailendra involvement exists in Lara Jonggrang.
 Age: Built in the 9th century during the reign of the Sailendra Dynasty, the temple's design in Gupta
architecture reflects India's influence on the region. It also depicts the gupta style from India and shows
influence of Buddhism as well as Hinduism. The monument was both a shrine to the Lord Buddha and a
place for Buddhist pilgrimage. The monument guides pilgrims through an extensive system of stairways
and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief panels on the walls and the balustrades.
The journey for pilgrims begins at the base of the monument and follows a path around the monument
and ascends to the top through three levels symbolic of Buddhist cosmology: Kāmadhātu (the world of
desire), Rupadhatu (the world of forms) and Arupadhatu (the world of formlessness). 
Evidence suggests Borobudur was constructed in the 9th century and abandoned following the 14th
century decline of Hindu kingdoms in Java, and the Javanese conversion to Islam..
 
Apart from being called a most impressive monument, Borobudur is both a temple and a complete
exposition of doctrine, designed as a whole, and completed as it was designed, with only one major
afterthought. It seems to have provided a pattern for Hindu temple mountains at Angkor, and in its own
day it must have been one of the wonders of the Asian world.

How age of Borobudur was estimated: The construction time has been estimated by comparison
between carved reliefs on the temple's hidden foot and the inscriptions commonly used in royal charters
during the 8th and 9th centuries. Borobudur was likely founded around 800 CE. This corresponds to the
period between 760 and 830 CE, the peak of the Sailendra dynasty in central Java, when it was under the
influence of the Srivijayan Empire. However, there is no written record of who built Borobudur or of its
intende d purpose. There is also o clear indication of how long it took to build from 75 years – 100 years.

Hot balloon over Thai Stupa. /// painting by G.B. Hooijer (c. 1916–1919) reconstructing the scene of Borobudur during its heyday

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_____________________________________________________________
1. Manfred Sommer-Indonesia - Java - Borobudur Temple - Stone Relief With Carved Images

Shailendra dynasty- Borobudur was constructed between about 778 and 850 ce, under the
Shailendra dynasty. ompleted during the reign of Samaratungga in 825.It was buried under
volcanic ash from about 1000 and overgrown with vegetation until discovered by the English
lieutenant governor Thomas Stamford Raffles in 1814.

 There is confusion between Hindu and Buddhist rulers in Java around that time. The Sailendras
were known as ardent followers of Buddhism, though stone inscriptions found at Sojomerto
suggest they may have been Hindus. It was during this time that many Hindu and Buddhist
monuments were built on the plains and mountains around the Kedu Plain. The Buddhist
monuments, including Borobudur, were erected around the same time as the Hindu Shiva
Prambanan temple compound. In 732 CE, the Shivaite King Sanjaya commissioned a Shivalinga
sanctuary to be built on the Wukir hill, only 10 km east of Borobudur.
 
THE ARCHITECT of the BOROBUDUR

Candi Borobudur and Candi Mendut were the two sites in Central Java that promoted caitya
worship. Even before their establishment in the 8th century A.D., it is probable that the belief
was already brought into Java by Gunavarma the architect of Borobudur in the beginning of the
5th century A. D.

Gunavarma was an Indian monk from Jibin (ancient Gandhara) who is said to have been the
designer behind the site. Not much is known about him and after searching far and wide I have
arrived at this below given excerpt. Gunavarma traveled to Java from Sri Lanka around the
beginning of the 5th century A.D. Not long after his arrival, the Javanese king Po-duo-jia
suffered from a foot injury caused by an arrow in a war. Gunavarma healed the king's injury and
won his trust and friendship. Showing respect and gratitude to Gunavarma, King Po-duo-jia
decided to rule his kingdom with Buddhist belief.

As a Buddhist cakravartin, he gave all his possessions to the poor and the people were ordered to
abstain from killing. The people were also instructed to respect Gunavarma and even to receive
the 5 precepts from him. The Chinese sources do not say that Gunavarma helped King Po-duo-jia

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to implement the belief in the descent of Buddharaja Maitreya. However, we may surmise that
Gunavarma did this from the fact that he was officially invited to China by Emperor Wen of the
Song (424-453) and from his activities in the Song. We describe these below. About 9 years after
Faxian had brought the painting of Nagapuspa back to the South, Emperor Wen of the Song
decided to implement the belief as his political ideology. In the 9th month of the first year of the
Yuanjia reign (424), the monks Huiguan and Huicong persuaded the emperor to send letters to
the Javanese king and Gunavarma, respectively, inviting Gunavarma to China. Later, the monks
Fachang, Daochong and Daojun etc., were despatched to bring Gunavarma to China.

Gunavarma arrived in China in the year 431. Another Indian monk, Senghavarma also arrived in
433. Both subsequently translated the Suhrllekha for the emperor. The Suhrlleka was a letter sent
by Nagarjuna to King Satavahana persuading him to practice Buddhism and to implement the
cakravartinship to rule his kingdom. Gunavarma must have been an expert in promoting the
belief in the descent of Buddharaja Maitreya. Otherwise, he would not have been invited by
Emperor Wen of the Song to China. Besides translating the Suhrlleka for Emperor Wen,
Gunavarma was also appointed by him to oversee the ritual of Bodhisattva pratimoksa.

Bodhisattva pratimoksa. is the most important ritual that initiates an emperor to become a
cakravartin or a Buddharaja. Soon after his arrival at the capital of the Song, Gunavarma was
appointed to perform this ritual. But due to an internal revolt that erupted suddenly, Emperor
Wen immediately dropped the idea of becoming a cakravartin/Buddharaja Maitreya.

The Chinese sources tell us that Gunavarma had stayed and preached the Dharma in Sri Lanka
for quite a while thus making him an expert in the implementation of the belief and it is likely
that he would have helped the Javanese king to promote it. One can surmise that in 2 succession
of countries he transmitted the belief i.e. to Java from Sri Lanka.1

The role of Rakai Panangkaran: Panangkaran or formal regnal name Mahārāja dyāḥ Pañcapaṇa
kariyāna Paṇaṃkaraṇa was the king of Shailendra dynasty and also the ruler of Mataram
Kingdom between AD 760—775, the kingdom of which its power centralized on Java island
of Indonesia. Crowned as Rakai Panangkaran, he was the immediate successor of Sri Sanjaya, the
founder of Sanjaya Dynasty as mentioned in the Kalasan inscription. The name of Panangkaran is
mentioned in the Balitung charter (found in the Kedu Plain area) as the line of kings who were
named as the 'builders of kraton'.
In the late 8th and early 9th centuries, Java observed rivalries between two dynasties. The first four
Sanjaya Dynasty lines after King Sanjaya (Panangkaran, Panunggalan, Warak and Garung), which
was known as the Amrati Kings, competed over their power and religious influences with
the Sailendras princes in the south of central Java who had arisen since 779. The Sanjayas
were Hindus while Sailendras were Buddhists. There was only an isolated kingship in the east of
Java, Gajayana, who appeared to have control over the Mount Kawi region in 760.
______________________________________________________________________________
A RE-INVESTIGATION OF THE NATURE OF CANDI BOROBUDUR by Kathy Cheng Mei K u
Proceedings of INTERNATIONAL SEMINAR Borobudur, Magelang, f - 5'" July 2008 pn
Uncovering the Meaning of the Hidden Base of Candi Borobudur

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Although relationship between the Amrati Kings with Sailendra was important at that time, the
rivalries between the two is still unclear. From the Kalasan and Ratu Boko inscriptions, there were
stated that Panangkaran granted permission requested by the collective guru of the Sailendra king to
build Buddhist sculptures, shrines and monasteries in honor to the goddess Tara. The construction
was built under Panangkaran's supervision, but was supported by Sailendra's expenses. In order to
show his respect to the guru, Panangkaran consented the building of the shrine by giving the village
of Kalasan to the Buddhist community.
Construction of Buddhist temples, including Borobudur, at that time was possible because
Sanjaya's immediate successor, Rakai Panangkaran, granted his permission to the Buddhist
followers to build such temples. In fact, to show his respect, Panangkaran gave the village of
Kalasan to the Buddhist community, as is written in the Kalasan Charter dated 778 CE. This has
led some archaeologists to believe that there was never serious conflict concerning religion in
Java as it was possible for a Hindu king to patronize the establishment of a Buddhist monument;
or for a Buddhist king to act likewise. However, it is likely that there were two rival royal
dynasties in Java at the time—the Buddhist Sailendra and the Saivite Sanjaya—in which the
latter triumphed over their rival in the 856 battle on the Ratubaka plateau. This confusion also
exists regarding the Lara Jonggrang temple at the Prambanan complex, which was believed that
it was erected by the victor Rakai Pikatan as the Sanjaya dynasty's reply to Borobudur, but others
suggest that there was a climate of peaceful coexistence where Sailendra involvement exists in
Lara Jonggrang.
 
Borobudur as a Complete Exposition of Doctrine

The construction of stupas were considered acts of great merit. The purpose of stupas were mainly to
enshrine relics of Buddha. The design specifications are consistent within most of the stupas,
entrances to stupas are laid out so that their centre lines point to the relic chambers. It is therefore no
surprise that the Shailendra Dynesty not only gave asent to Temple but also Stupa construction.
The stupas were covered with a coating of lime plaster, plaster combinations changed with the
requirements of the design, items used included lime, clay, sand, pebbles, crushed seashells, sugar
syrup, white of egg, coconut water, plant resin, drying oil, glues and saliva of white ants. The fine
plaster at Kiri Vehera used small pebbles, crushed seashells mixed with lime and sand were used in
the stupas from the fifth to twelfth centuries.
Borobudur is one of the most impressive monuments ever created by humans. It is both a temple
and a complete exposition of doctrine, designed as a whole, and completed as it was designed,
with only one major afterthought. It seems to have provided a pattern for Hindu temple
mountains at Angkor (see above Cambodia and Vietnam), and in its own day it must have been
one of the wonders of the Asian world. Built about 800, it probably fell into neglect by c. 1000
and was overgrown. It was excavated and restored by the Dutch between 1907 and 1911. It now
appears as a large square plinth (the processional path) upon which stand five terraces gradually
diminishing in size. The plans of the squares are stepped out twice to a central projection. Above
the fifth terrace stands a series of three diminishing circular terraces carrying small stupas,
crowned at the centre of the summit by a large circular bell-shaped stupa. Running up the centre
of each face is a long staircase; all four are given equal importance. There are no internal cell

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shrines, and the terraces are solid. Borobudur is thus a Buddhist stupa in the Indian sense. Each
of the square terraces is enclosed in a high wall with pavilions and niches along the whole
perimeter, which prevents the visitor on one level from seeing into any of the other levels. All of
these terraces are lined with relief sculptures, and the niches contain Buddha figures. The top
three circular terraces are open and unwalled, and the 72 lesser bell-shaped stupas they support
are of open stone latticework; inside each was a huge stone Buddha figure. The
convex contour of the whole monument is steepest near the ground, flattening as it reaches the
summit. The bottom plinth, the processional path, was the major afterthought. It consists of a
massive heap of stone pressed up against the original bottom story of the designed structure so
that it obscures an entire series of reliefs—a few of which have been uncovered in modern times.
It was probably added to hold together the bottom story, which began to spread under the
pressure of the immense weight of earth and stone accumulated above.

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if consciousness is light then the opposite of consciousness is un-consciousness and the opposite
of light is darkness BUT since the ‘I AM’ is infinitely aware of its consciouness the state of un-
consciousness is also a state of consciousness and so the darkness is also within the light…..

….darkness by itself has no existential conception the same as the hole in the sock has no
existence without the sock….darkness needs the light first in order to exist as much as un-
consciousness needs consciousness first to exist…..the nothing needs the everything first for its
existence….

….in order for the soul go gain enlightenment, it has to gain understanding and that
understanding is only accessible to the individual soul, when the soul has experienced enough
and is now desiring to understand its own reality, it wants to understand of why it experiences
the universe and the world in the way it does…..

….once that desire becomes an all absorbing longing, crowding out anything and all, the rapid
ascent toward the light begins….the individual soul begins to realise that life flows from inner
contemplation, it begins to see the pattern that nothing in its life can be experienced that was not
first internally contemplated and accepted….once the soul has grasped this truth, the inner eye
(third eye) is opened and the world for the first time is seen as it really is…..

….with the opening of the inner eye, the soul begins to understand its connection to all and
everything because it now knows that nothing exists without a conscious contemplation, our
mind is trying to keep us away from that understanding because it is beyond the rational and
anything that it cannot discern rationally, it simply rejects…..the bravest of the brave soul press
on and don’t let themselves be pulled back into the world of judgement and at a time that is
unknown, the heavens open and the soul gets a true understanding of its own oneness with the I
AM….

The whole building symbolizes a Buddhist transition from the lowest manifestations of reality
at the base, through a series of regions representing psychological states, toward the ultimate
condition of spiritual enlightenment at the summit. The unity of the monument effectively
proclaims the unity of the cosmos permeated by the light of truth. The visitor was meant to be
transformed while climbing through the levels of Borobudur, encountering illustrations of
progressively more profound doctrines nearer to the summit. The topmost terrace, whose main
stupa contained an unfinished image of Buddha that was hidden from the spectator’s view,
symbolized the indefinable ultimate spiritual state. The 72 openwork stupas on the circular
terraces, with their barely visible internal Buddhas, symbolize incomplete states of
enlightenment on the borders of manifestation. The usual way for a pilgrim to pay reverence to a
Buddhist stupa is to walk around it, keeping it on his right hand. The vast series of reliefs about
three feet (one metre) high on the exterior walls of the terraces would thus be read by the visitor
in series from right to left. Between the reliefs are decorative scroll panels, and a hundred
monster-head waterspouts carry off the tropical rainwater. The gates on the stairways between
terraces are of the standard Indonesian type, with the face of the Kala monster at the apex
spouting his scrolls.

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The reliefs of the lowest level illustrate scenes that show the causal workings of good and bad
deeds through successive reincarnations. They show, for example, how those who hunt, kill, and
cook living creatures, such as tortoises and fish, are themselves cooked in hells or die as children
in their next life. They show how foolish people waste their time at entertainments. From these
scenes of everyday life, one moves to the terraces above, where the subject matter becomes more

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profound and metaphysical. It illustrates important Mahayana texts dealing with the self-
discovery and education of the bodhisattva, conceived as being possessed by compassion for and
devoted wholly to the salvation of all creatures. The reliefs on the uppermost terraces gradually
become more static. The sensuous roundness of the forms of the figures is not abated, but, in the
design, great emphasis is laid upon horizontals and verticals and upon static, formal enclosures
of repeated figures and gestures. At the summit all movement disappears, and the design is
entirely subordinated to the circle enclosing the stupa.

The iconography of Borobudur suggests that the legend of the royal bodhisattva recounted in

many of the reliefs was meant to “authenticate” some king or dynasty. Yet, it hardly seems
possible that Borobudur was the focus of a specific royal cult, as there is no provision at all for
the performance of royal ritual. It must have been, then, in some sense a monument for the whole
people, the focus for their religion and life, and a perpetual reminder of the doctrines of their
religion.

A considerable number of bronzes, some small, some large, have been found in Indonesia in a
style close to that of the sculptures of Borobudur and Mendut. One fine, large standing image
comes from Kotabangun in Borneo, but some come from Java. Many small cult images of the
Buddha and Buddhist deities exist. Some are close in type to the early Pala images of
Indian Bihar, the homeland of Buddhism, with which the Javanese must have maintained close
touch. A few small but extremely fine gold figurines of undoubted Javanese workmanship have
also turned up. For all their small size they must rate as first-class works of art. As well as
images, there are many beautiful bronze ceremonial objects, such as lamps, trays, and bells.

How old is Borobudur Temple? 1,196 years old.

Was Borobudur painted?
Originally, it was probably plastered white, and painted in bright colours. There must have been
a substantial monastery for the monks who looked after the structure and the pilgrims, but
nothing adequate has yet been discovered. What Stone is Borobudur made of?- andesite.Built
from nearly two million stone blocks of andesite, a bluish-gray volcanic stone, Borobudur is
shaped like a stepped pyramid, the base of which is 402 feet long from north to south and 383
feet long from east to west; the height is now 95 feet above ground level.

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Each stupa is bell-shaped and pierced by numerous decorative openings. Statues of the Buddha
sit inside the pierced enclosures. The design of Borobudur took the form of a step pyramid. How
many levels are there in Borobudur?

S T E P P Y R A M I D

The main temple structure at Borobudur is constructed on three levels with a pyramid-shaped

base replete with five square terraces, the trunk of a cone with three circular shaped platforms,
and on the upper level, a grand monumental stupa. How big is the Borobudur Temple? The area
of the temple is 2,500 m²

A step pyramid or stepped pyramid is an architectural structure that uses flat platforms, or steps,

receding from the ground up, to achieve a completed shape similar to a geometric pyramid. Step
pyramids are structures which characterized several cultures throughout history, in several
locations throughout the world. These pyramids typically are large and made of several layers of
stone. The term refers to pyramids of similar design that emerged separately from one another, as
there are no firmly established connections between the different civilizations that built them.
Some detail facts and figures of CANDI BOROBUDUR is shown below:-

1) MONUMENT SIZE: 123m by 123m and 42 meter height.

2) NARRATIVE RELIEF:1,460 panels and decorative relief: 1,212panels.
3) BUDDHA STATUES IN OPEN NICHES:368 (Original 432) and 72 on top terraces.4)
NUMBER OF GALLERIES:
4 (each has 2 wall panels: main wall andbalustrade)
5) TOTAL LENGTA OF VISUAL PANELS: Circa 2,500 meters
6) TOTAL VOLUME OF STONE USED: Circa 55,000 cubic meters.
7) TIME TO BUILD:perhaps 66 years, and
8) USUAGE PERIOD: Almost 200 years 1
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Lundquist, J. M. (1995) 2 says that the top 2 terraces are not circular but eleptical and can be clearly
seen from aerial photos of the structure- the third being definitely circular. What reason this was done
for is unclear. Perhaps some structural calculations of that time.

If seen from the air and from the small reproduction of it in the museum and it was made in the
form of a Hindu Meru which is a vertical representation of the Sri Yantra. Apparently this was
the shape of a Buddhist mandala. The height of the whole edifice before renovation was 42
meters. Now it is only 34.5 meters  since the lowest level has been used as a supporting base.

Two ancient Ganesha statues are  at the entrance but there was a pool in front of the hotel in
which you found a statue of Lakshmi which had a striking resemblance to the Chinese goddess
of prosperity called Kuan.

1. (PDF) Borobudur - A Splendid Zenith of World Heritage-

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326413314_Borobudur_-
_A_Splendid_Zenith_of_World_Heritage

2. Borobudur: The Top Plan and the Upper Terraces. East and West, 45(1/4), 283–304.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/29757214

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Prasat Thom of Koh Ker temple site Cambodia- another step pyramid
The step pyramid is the basic design of 8th century Borobudur Buddhist monument in Central
Java. However the later temples built in Java were influenced by Indian Hindu architecture, as
displayed by the towering spires of Prambanan temple. In the 15th century Java during the
late Majapahit period saw the revival of Austronesian indigenous elements as displayed
by Sukuh temple that somewhat resembles a Mesoamerican pyramid, and also stepped pyramids
of Mount Penanggungan.
The koh ker pyramid: The archaeological site of Koh Ker in northern Cambodia contains a
seven-tiered pyramid called Prang which was probably the state temple of Jayavarman IV.
Construction of the sanctuary was started in 928 AD. At ground level one, side of the square
building measures 62 m (203 ft). The height is 36 m (118 ft). Originally on the top platform
stood a huge lingam probably more than 4 m (13 ft) high and having a weight of several tons.
Inscriptions say that it was the tallest and most beautiful Shiva-ling-am. The ling-am probably
stood in a shrine which some researchers say could have been about 15 m (49 ft) high. On the
north side of the pyramid is a steep staircase leading to the top. Concerning the seventh tier some
scientists say, this was the platform of the shrine because on its sides beautiful reliefs of Garudas
were made.

The main pyramid of Sukuh temple

As well as menhirs, stone tables, and stone statues Austronesian megalithic culture

in Indonesia also featured earth and stone step pyramid structure, referred to as punden
berundak as discovered in Pangguyangan site near Cisolok  and in Cipari near Kuningan. The
construction of stone pyramids is based on the native beliefs that mountains and high places are
the abode for the spirit of the ancestors.
One can venture to compare the Buddhist Cosmological design of this structure with the thailand
Stupas (called chedi in Thai). This design is said to have originated in India, where the rounded
shape of ancient funerary mounds was adopted for Buddhist reli-quary monuments.   These
mounds were often set atop platforms and topped by elaborate umbrellas.   Over time each

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component part of the stupa was given a symbolic meaning and evolved distinctive regional
variations  as  Buddhism  spread  across  Asia.

Temples of Ayutthaya

Wat is the Thai word for temple. Wat Ratchaburana was built in the mid 15th century by the
seventh king of Ayutthaya.   It features a tall Khmer-style prang tower over the sanctuary, which
is covered with stucco decoration, and three porticoes facing east, north and south, set atop a
high platform accessed by steep stairs. The silhouette is reminiscent of the medieval Hindu
temples of north-central   India.

Under the Chakri dynasty the Thai kingdom (known in the West as Siam) prospered, avoiding
colonization by the European powers and laying the foundations of a modern nation state.  
During this period, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, older architectural models were
reinterpreted with the addition of elaborate surface decoration in glittering  gold  leaf  and
mosaics of shell,  ceramic and colored glass.

Graceful  Dance Pose(left)Elaborate Decoration

14
The characteristic Thai roof profile also emerged at this time, featuring sloping tiled surfaces
with high gables and overhanging eaves enhanced by long pointed finials marking the ends of
the ridge poles.  The exaggerated effect is reminiscent of southern Chinese architecture  which
may  have  inspired  it.

Overlapping Roof EavesGlittering Surfaces

  Chinese influence is more explicit in the use of porcelain mosaics to decorate the surface of
chedis at Wat Pho and at Wat Arun, the famous “Temple of the Dawn.”  Construction of this
magnificent structure was begun by king Rama II over an existing foundation and completed by
his successor, Rama III,  in the 1840’s.  The Khmer-style prang tower is the tallest in the country.

15
 Front View of Wat Arun

The brick core is covered with plaster and embedded with multi-colored porcelain shards from
the ballast carried by Chinese trading ships.  The zig-zagging glistening surfaces impart a sense
of rhythmic movement to the structure which follows a complex mandala plan.  The grouping of
five towers represents Mount Meru, the central mountain of Buddhist cosmology, encircled by
the guardians of the four directions.  
Set in a prominent riverside location, Wat Arun is a distin-ctive beloved Bangkok land-mark.
Many of Bangkok’s most famous temples and historical monuments lie on the banks of the Chao
Phraya River which winds through the city and the best way to visit them is by a long-tailed
motor boat.  These water taxis offer a refreshing alternative to the modern city’s notoriously  
congested   traffic.

The mondop  or maṇḍapa in Sanskrit, is a building form in traditional Thai religious architecture

featuring a square or cruciform building with a usually pointed roof. In the narrow sense, it refers to
an enclosed square building with a roughly pyramidal, multi-tiered roof culminating in a tall pointed
spire, with a roof structure very similar to the smaller busabok. In the wider sense, the term may refer
to religious buildings following a wide range of architectural styles, including historical structures
more closely reflecting the Indic mandapa, from which they are likely derived.

Phra Mondop, the sumptuous library building within the Grand Palace’s  Wat  Phra  Kaew
temple  complex,  was  built by king Rama I in the late 18th century.  It epitomizes the Thai
style, with its super-imposed roof structures and overlapping eaves, dramatic upturned finials
and  richly  decorated  surfaces.

16
 BAS RELIEFS
Borobudur contains approximately 2,670 individual bas reliefs (1,460 narrative and 1,212
decorative panels), which cover the façades and balustrades. The total relief surface is 2,500
square metres and they are distributed at the hidden foot and the five square platforms.
 
However, the symbolization of enlightenment these stupas represent is not intended to be merely
aesthetic. Buddhist stupas and mandalas are understood as “spiritual technologies” that harness
spiritual “energies” in the creation of sacred space. The repetition of form and the
circumabulatory progress of the pilgrim mimic, and thereby access, the cosmological as a
microcosm. The clockwise movement around the cosmic center reproduces the macrocosmic
path of the sun. Thus, when one emerges from the dark galleries representing the realms of desire
and form into the light of the “formless” circular open air upper walkways, the material effect of
light on one’s physical form merges concomitantly with the spiritual enlightenment generated by
the metaphysical journey of the sacred path.

Light, in all its paradoxes, is the ultimate goal. The crowning stupa of this sacred mountain is
dedicated to the “Great Sun Buddha” Vairocana. The temple sits in cosmic proximity to the
nearby volcano Mt. Merapi. During certain times of the year the path of the rising sun in the East
seems to emerge out of the mountain to strike the temple’s peak in radiant synergy. Light
illuminates the stone in a way that is intended to be more than beautiful. The brilliance of the site
can be found in how the Borobudur mandala blends the metaphysical and physical, the symbolic
and the material, the cosmological and the earthly within the structure of its physical setting and
the framework of spiritual paradox.

The journey

Set high upon a hill vertically enhanced by its builders to achieve a greater elevation, Borobudur
consists of a series of open-air passageways that radiate around a central axis mundi (cosmic
axis).  Devotees circumambulate clockwise along walkways that gradually ascend to its
uppermost level. At Borobudur, geometry, geomancy, and theology all instruct adherents toward
the ultimate goal of enlightenment. Meticulously carved relief sculptures mediate a physical and
spiritual journey that guides pilgrims progressively toward higher states of consciousness.

17
The entire site contains 504 statues of the Buddha. 1460 stone reliefs on the walls and
opposite balustrades decorate the first four galleries, with an additional 1212 decorative reliefs
augmenting the path. The relief sculptures narrate the Buddha’s teachings (the Dharma), depict
various events related to his past lives (Jataka tales), and illustrate didactic stories taken from
important Buddhist scriptures (sutras). Interestingly, another 160 relief sculptures adorn the base
of the monument, but are concealed behind stone buttresses that were added shortly after the
building’s construction in order to further support the structure’s weight. The hidden narrative
reliefs were photographed when they were discovered in the late 19th century before the stones
were put back to help ensure the temple’s stability.

The narrative panels, which tell the story of Sudhana and Manohara,[69] are grouped into 11
series encircled the monument with the total length of 3,000 metres (9,800 ft). The hidden foot
contains the first series with 160 narrative panels and the remaining 10 series are distributed
throughout walls and balustrades in four galleries starting from the eastern entrance stairway to
the left. Narrative panels on the wall read from right to left, while on the balustrade read from
left to right. This conforms with pradaksina, the ritual of circumambulation performed by
pilgrims who move in a clockwise direction while keeping the sanctuary to their right.
 
The hidden foot depicts the workings of karmic law. The walls of the first gallery have two
superimposed series of reliefs; each consists of 120 panels. The upper part depicts the biography
of the Buddha, while the lower part of the wall and also balustrades in the first and the second

18
galleries tell the story of the Buddha's former lives. The remaining panels are devoted to
Sudhana's further wandering about his search, terminated by his meeting with the Gautama.
At first glance, all the Buddha statues appear similar, but there is a subtle difference between
them in the mudras or the position of the hands. There are five groups of mudra: North, East,
South, West and Zenith, which represent the five cardinal compass points according to
Mahayana. The first four balustrades have the first four mudras: North, East, South and West, of
which the Buddha statues that face one compass direction have the corresponding mudra.
Buddha statues at the fifth balustrades and inside the 72 stupas on the top platform have the same
mudra: Zenith. Each mudra represents one of the Five Dhyani Buddhas; each has its own
symbolism.

Borobudur's vertical organization reflects Buddhist cosmology, according to which the

universe is divided into three superimposing spheres: kamadhatu (desire), rupadhatu (forms) and
arupadhatu (formlessness). Buddhist cosmology is the description of the shape and evolution of
the Universe according to the Buddhist scriptures and commentaries.
It consists of temporal and spatial cosmology: the temporal cosmology being the division of the
existence of a 'world' into four discrete moments (the creation, duration, dissolution, and state of
being dissolved; this does not seem to be a canonical division, however). The spatial cosmology
consists of a vertical cosmology, the various planes of beings, their bodies, characteristics
attainment of the Perfect Wisdom.
 
Apart from the story of the Buddhist cosmology carved in stone, Borobudur has many statues of
various Buddhas. The cross-legged statues are seated in a lotus position and distributed on the
five square platforms (the Rupadhatu level) as well as on the top platform (the Arupadhatu
level).
 
The Buddha statues are in niches at the Rupadhatu level, arranged in rows on the outer sides of
the balustrades, the number of statues decreasing as platforms progressively diminish to the
upper level. The first balustrades have 104 niches, the second 104, the third 88, the fourth 72 and
the fifth 64. In total, there are 432 Buddha statues at the Rupadhatu level. At the Arupadhatu
level (or the three circular platforms), Buddha statues are placed inside perforated stupas. The
first circular platform has 32 stupas, the second 24 and the third 16, that add up to 72 stupas. Of
the original 504 Buddha statues, over 300 are damaged (mostly headless) and 43 are missing
(since the monument's discovery, heads have been stolen as collector's items, mostly by Western
museums).
 
, food, lifespan, beauty and a horizontal cosmology, the distribution of these world-systems into
an "apparently" infinite sheet of “worlds”. The existence of world-periods (moments, kalpas), is
well attested to by the Buddha.
The historical Buddha (Gautama Buddha) made references to the existence of aeons (the
duration of which he describes using a metaphor of the time taken to erode a huge rock
measuring 1x1x1 mile by brushing it with a silk cloth, once every century), [3] and simultaneously

19
intimates his knowledge of past events, such as the dawn of human beings in their coarse and
gender-split forms his ability to convey his voice vast distances,[5] as well as the ability of his
disciples (who if they fare accordingly) to be reborn in any one of these planes (should they so
choose).
If we talk about Spatial Cosmology of Buddhism

The plan of the Borobudur temple complex in Java mirrors the three main levels of Buddhist
cosmology. The highest point in the center symbolizes Buddhahood. Aerial view of Borobudur
Spatial cosmology displays the various, multitude of worlds embedded in the universe. Spatial
cosmology can also be divided into two branches. The vertical (or cakravāḍa; Devanagari:
चक् रवाड) cosmology describes the arrangement of worlds in a vertical pattern, some being
higher and some lower. By contrast, the horizontal (sahasra) cosmology describes the grouping
of these vertical worlds into sets of thousands, millions or billions.
Manuṣyaloka मनु ष्यलोक is the world of humans and human-like beings who live on the surface
of the earth. Birth in this plane results from giving and moral discipline of middling quality. This
is the realm of moral choice where destiny can be guided. The Khana Sutta mentioned that this
plane is a unique balance of pleasure and pain. It facilitates the development of virtue and
wisdom to liberate oneself from the entire cycle or rebirths. For this reason rebirth as a human
being is considered precious according to the Chiggala Sutta. The mountain-rings that engird
Sumeru are surrounded by a vast ocean, which fills most of the world. The ocean is in turn
surrounded by a circular mountain wall called Cakravāḍa चक् रवाड which marks the horizontal
limit of the world. In this ocean there are four continents which are, relatively speaking, small
islands in it. Because of the immenseness of the ocean, they cannot be reached from each other
by ordinary sailing vessels, although in the past, when the cakravartin kings ruled,
communication between the continents was possible by means of the treasure called
the cakraratna (Pāli cakkaratana’’’), which a cakravartin king and his retinue could use to fly
through the air between the continents. The four continents are:

20
1. Jambudvīpa  located in the south and is the dwelling of ordinary human beings. It is said to
be shaped "like a cart", or rather a blunt-nosed triangle with the point facing south. (This
description probably echoes the shape of the coastline of southern India
2. Pūrvavideha पूर्वविदे ह or Pubbavideha पु ब्बविदे ह located in the east, and is shaped like a
semicircle with the flat side pointing westward (i.e., towards Sumeru).
3. Aparagodānīya अपरगोदानीय or Aparagoyāna अपरगोयान  located in the west, and is
shaped like a circle.
4. Uttarakuru उत्तरकुरु  is shaped like a square.

1. Tiryagyoni-loka तिर्यग्योनिलोक This world comprises all members of the animal

kingdom that are capable of feeling suffering, regardless of size. The animal realm
includes animals, insects, fish, birds, worms, etc..
2. Pretaloka प्रेतलोक or Petaloka पे तलोक are mostly dwellers on earth, though due to
their mental state they perceive it very differently from humans. They live for the
most part in deserts and wastelands. This is the realm where ghost and unhappy
spirits wander in vain, hopelessly in search of sensual fulfillment.

Jambudvīpa जम्बुद्वीप;  is the dvīpa ("island" or "continent") the geographical area and ancient

name of Greater India in Ancient Indian History. The term Jambudvipa is used
by Ashoka perhaps to represent his realm in 3rd century BC, same terminology is then repeated
in subsequent inscriptions for instance mysorean inscription from the tenth century AD which
also describes the region, presumably Ancient India, as Jambudvipa.
The word Jambudvīpa literally refers to "the land of Jambu trees" where jambu (also known as
jamun) is the Indian Blackberry (Syzygium cumini) and dvīpa has two meanings: "island" or
"continent," and "planets" situated in the ocean of outer space.
"The planets are called dvīpas. Outer space is like an ocean of air. Just as there are islands in the
watery ocean, these planets in the ocean of space are called dvīpas, or islands in outer space"
(Chaitanya Caritamrita Madhya 20.218, Purport)

The Prakrit name Jambudīpasi (Sanskrit "Jambudvīpa") for "India" in the Sahasram Minor Rock Edict of Ashoka, circa

250 BCE (Brahmi script).

Map of Jambudvipa

21
According to Puranic cosmography, the world is divided into seven concentric island continents
(sapta-dvipa vasumati) separated by the seven encircling oceans, each double the size of the
preceding one (going out from within). The seven continents of the Puranas are stated
as Jambudvipa, Plaksadvipa, Salmalidvipa, Kusadvipa, Krouncadvipa, Sakadvipa,
and Pushkaradvipa. Seven intermediate oceans consist of salt-water, sugarcane juice,
wine, ghee, yogurt, milk and water respectively.. The mountain range called Lokaloka, meaning
"world-no-world", stretches across this final sea, delineating the known world from the dark
void.
Continent Jambudvipa (Indian Blackberry Island), also known as Sudarshanadvipa, forms the
innermost concentric island in the above scheme. Its name is said to derive from a Jambu tree
(another name for the Indian Blackberry). The fruits of the Jambu tree are said, in
the Viṣṇupurāṇa (ch.2) to be as large as elephants and when they become rotten and fall upon the
crest of the mountains, a river of juice is formed from their expressed juice. The river so formed
is called Jambunadi (Jambu river) and flows through Jambudvipa, whose inhabitants drink its
waters. Insular continent Jambudvipa is said to comprise nine varshas (zones) and eight
significant parvatas (mountains).
Markandeya Purana portrays Jambudvipa as being depressed on its south and north and elevated
and broad in the middle. The elevated region forms the varsha named Ila-vrta or Meruvarsha. At
the center of Ila-vrta lies the golden Mount Meru, the king of mountains. On the summit of
Mount Meru, is the vast city of Lord Brahma, known as Brahmapuri. Surrounding Brahmapuri
are 8 cities - the one of Lord Indra and of seven other Devatas.
Markandeya Purana and Brahmanda Purana divide Jambudvipa into four vast regions shaped like
four petals of a lotus with Mount Meru being located at the center like a pericarp. The city
of Brahmapuri is said to be enclosed by a river, known as Akash Ganga. Akash Ganga is said to
issue forth from the foot of Lord Vishnu and after washing the lunar region falls "through the
skies" and after encircling the Brahmapuri "splits up into four mighty streams", which are said to
flow in four opposite directions from the landscape of Mount Meru and irrigate the vast lands of
Jambudvipa.
The common names of the dvīpas, having their varṣas (9 for Jambu-dvīpa, 7 for the other dvīpas)
with a mountain and a river in each varṣa, is given in several Purāṇas. [8] There is a distinct set of
names provides, however, in other Purāṇas.The most detailed geography is that described in
the Vāyu Purāṇa.
The Buddhist cosmology divides the bhūmaṇḍala (circle of the earth) into three separate
levels: Kāmadhātu (Desire realm), Rūpadhātu (Form realm), and Ārūpyadhātu (Formless realm).
In the Kāmadhātu is located Mount Sumeru which is said to be surrounded by four island-
continents. "The southernmost island is called Jambudvīpa". The other three continents of
Buddhist accounts around Sumeru are not accessible to humans from Jambudvīpa. Jambudvīpa is
shaped like a triangle with a blunted point facing south, somewhat like the Indian subcontinent.
In its center is a gigantic Jambu tree from which the continent takes its name, meaning "Jambu
Island".
Jambudipa, one of the four Mahādīpas, or great continents, which are included in the Cakkavāla
and are ruled by a Cakkavatti. They are grouped round MountSineru. In Jambudīpa is Himavā
with its eighty-four thousand peaks, its lakes, mountain ranges, etc.

22
This continent derives its name from the Jambu-tree (also called Naga) which grows there, its
trunk fifteen yojanas in girth, its outspreading branches fifty yojanas in length, its shade one
hundred yojanas in extent and its height one hundred yojanas (Vin.i.30; SNA.ii.443; Vsm.i.205f;
Sp.i.119, etc.) On account of this tree, Jambudīpa is also known as Jambusanda (SN.vs.552;
SNA.i.121). The continent is ten thousand yojanas in extent; of these ten thousand, four thousand
are covered by the ocean, three thousand by the Himālaya mountains, while three thousand are
inhabited by men (SNA.ii.437; UdA.300).
Jambudvīpa is the region where the humans live and is the only place where a being may become
enlightened by being born as a human being. It is in Jambudvīpa that one may receive the gift
of Dharma and come to understand the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path and
ultimately realize the liberation from the cycle of life and death. Another reference is from the
Buddhist text Mahavamsa, where the emperor Ashoka's son Mahinda introduces himself to
the Sri Lankan king Devanampiyatissa as from Jambudvipa, referring to what is now the Indian
subcontinent. This is Based In the Kṣitigarbha Sūtra in the Mahayana.
From what we understand, Borobudur lay hidden for centuries under layers of volcanic
ash and jungle growth. The facts behind its abandonment remain a mystery. It is not known
when active use of the monument and Buddhist pilgrimage to it ceased. Sometime between 928
and 1006, King Mpu Sindok moved the capital of the Medang Kingdom to the region of East
Java after a series of volcanic eruptions; it is not certain whether this influenced the
abandonment, but several sources mention this as the most likely period of abandonment. The
monument is mentioned vaguely as late as ca. 1365, in Mpu Prapanca's Nagarakretagama written
during Majapahit era and mentioning "the vihara in Budur". Soekmono (1976) also mentions the
popular belief that the temples were disbanded when the population converted to Islam in the
15th century.
 
The monument was not forgotten completely, though folk stories gradually shifted from its past
glory into more superstitious beliefs associated with bad luck and misery. Two old Javanese
chronicles (babad) from the 18th century mention cases of bad luck associated with the
monument. According to the Babad Tanah Jawi (or the History of Java), the monument was a
fatal factor for Mas Dana, a rebel who revolted against Pakubuwono I, the king of Mataram in
1709. It was mentioned that the "Redi Borobudur" hill was besieged and the insurgents were
defeated and sentenced to death by the king. In the Babad Mataram (or the History of the
Mataram Kingdom), the monument was associated with the misfortune of Prince Monconagoro,
the crown prince of the Yogyakarta Sultanate in 1757. In spite of a taboo against visiting the
monument, "he took what is written as the knight who was captured in a cage (a statue in one of
the perforated stupas)". Upon returning to his palace, he fell ill and died one day later.
 
Lieutenant Governor-General Thomas Stamford Raffles took great interest in the history of Java.
He collected Javanese antiques and made notes through contacts with local inhabitants during his
tour throughout the island. On an inspection tour to Semarang in 1814, he was informed about a
big monument deep in a jungle near the village of Bumisegoro. He was not able to make the
discovery himself and sent H.C. Cornelius, a Dutch engineer, to investigate. In two months,
Cornelius and his 200 men cut down trees, burned down vegetation and dug away the earth to

23
reveal the monument. Due to the danger of collapse, he could not unearth all galleries. He
reported his findings to Raffles including various drawings. Although the discovery is only
mentioned by a few sentences, Raffles has been credited with the monument's recovery, as one
who had brought it to the world's attention.
 
The Dutch East Indies government then commissioned F.C. Wilsen, a Dutch engineering official,
who studied the monument and drew hundreds of relief sketches. J.F.G. Brumund was also
appointed to make a detailed study of the monument, which was completed in 1859.
 
Borobudur attracted attention in 1885. The restoration was carried out between 1907 and 1911.
Due to the limited budget, the restoration had been primarily focused on cleaning the sculptures,
and Van Erp did not solve the drainage problem. Within fifteen years, the gallery walls were
sagging and the reliefs showed signs of new cracks and deterioration. Van Erp used concrete
from which alkali salts and calcium hydroxide leached and were transported into the rest of the
construction. This caused some problems, so that a further thorough renovation was urgently
needed.
 
In 1973, a master plan to restore Borobudur was created. The Indonesian government and
UNESCO then undertook the complete overhaul of the monument in a big restoration project
between 1975 and 1982. The foundation was stabilized and all 1,460 panels were cleaned. The
restoration involved the dismantling of the five square platforms and improved the drainage by
embedding water channels into the monument. Both impermeable and filter layers were added.
This colossal project involved around 600 people to restore the monument and cost a total of
US$ 6,901,243. After the renovation was finished, UNESCO listed Borobudur as a World
Heritage Site in 1991. It is listed under Cultural criteria "to represent a masterpiece of human
creative genius", "to exhibit an important interchange of human values, over a span of time or
within a cultural area of the world, on developments in architecture or technology, monumental
arts, town-planning or landscape design", and "to be directly or tangibly associated with events
or living traditions, with ideas, or with beliefs, with artistic and literary works of outstanding
universal significance".
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. THE BOROBUDUR VESSELS IN CONTEXT A Thesis by DOUGLAS ANDREW

INGLIS Submitted to the Office of Graduate and Professional Studies of Texas A&M
University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF
ARTS,2014
2. The Ambiguous Feasibility of Borobudur Temple- Irmawati Marwoto , Mandala
Manurung2 1Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities, University of
Indonesia. International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change. www.ijicc.net
Volume 14, Issue 8, 2020 749

24
3. The famous Borobudur Temple, Indonesia is a Dreamland heavily influenced by the
ancient Indian 'Gupta Era' art . It was built by the legendary "Sailendra" Dynasty using a
combination of both buddhist and Hindu architecture. It's also a UNESCO WORLD
HERITAGE site.

4. The Restoration and Conservation Project of Borobudur Temple, Indonesia. Planning:

Research: Design Caesar Voûte Studies in Conservation-Vol. 18, No. 3, Special Issue on
the Conservation of Borobudur Temple, Indonesia (Aug., 1973), pp. 113-130 (18 pages)

5. GPS STUDY FOR RESOLVING THE STABILITY OF BOROBUDUR TEMPLE SITE

By Dwi Lestari ST., University of Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 1998 A thesis
submitted to The University of New South Wales in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the Degree of Master of Engineering School of Surveying and Spatial
Information Systems (Formerly the School of Geomatic Engineering) The University of
New South Wales Sydney NSW 2052, Australia March, 2006
http://unsworks.unsw.edu.au/fapi/datastream/unsworks:4635/SOURCE1?view=true

6. The Symbolism of Mount Meru,I. W. Mabbett,History of Religions

Vol. 23, No. 1 (Aug., 1983), pp. 64-83 (20 pages),Published By: The University of Chicago
Press,https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062318

7. A RE-INVESTIGATION OF THE NATURE OF CANDI BOROBUDUR by Kathy Cheng

Mei K u
Proceedings of INTERNATIONAL SEMINAR Borobudur, Magelang, f - 5'" July 2008 pn
-Uncovering the Meaning of the Hidden Base of Candi Borobudur

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