Borobudur, or Barabudur (Indonesian: Candi

Borobudur, Javanese: , translit. Candhi Barabudhur) is a 9th-

century Mahayana Buddhist temple in Magelang, Central Java, Indonesia, as well as the world's
largest Buddhist temple,[1][2] and also one of the greatest Buddhist monuments in the world.[3] The
temple consists of nine stacked platforms, six square and three circular, topped by a central dome.
The temple is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues. The central dome is
surrounded by 72 Buddha statues, each seated inside a perforated stupa.[4]
Built in the 9th century during the reign of the Sailendra Dynasty, the temple was designed
in Javanese Buddhist architecture, which blends the Indonesian indigenous cult of ancestor
worship and the Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana.[3] The temple also demonstrates the
influences of Gupta art that reflects India's influence on the region, yet there are enough indigenous
scenes and elements incorporated to make Borobudur uniquely Indonesian.[5][6] The monument is
both a shrine to the Lord Buddha and a place for Buddhist pilgrimage. The journey for pilgrims
begins at the base of the monument and follows a path around the monument and ascends to the
top through three levels symbolic of Buddhist cosmology: Kmadhtu (the world of
desire), Rupadhatu (the world of forms) and Arupadhatu (the world of formlessness). The monument
guides pilgrims through an extensive system of stairways and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief
panels on the walls and the balustrades. Borobudur has the largest and most complete ensemble of
Buddhist reliefs in the world.[3]
Evidence suggests Borobudur was constructed in the 9th century and abandoned following the 14th-
century decline of Hindu kingdoms in Java and the Javanese conversion to Islam.[7] Worldwide
knowledge of its existence was sparked in 1814 by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, then the British
ruler of Java, who was advised of its location by native Indonesians. Borobudur has since been
preserved through several restorations. The largest restoration project was undertaken between
1975 and 1982 by the Indonesian governmentand UNESCO, following which the monument was
listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[3]
Borobudur is still used for pilgrimage; once a year, Buddhists in Indonesia celebrate Vesak at the
monument, and Borobudur is Indonesia's single most visited tourist attraction.[8][9][10]
The three temples
Approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi) northwest of Yogyakarta and 86 kilometres (53 mi) west
of Surakarta, Borobudur is located in an elevated area between two twin volcanoes, Sundoro-
Sumbing and Merbabu-Merapi, and two rivers, the Progo and the Elo. According to local myth, the
area known as Kedu Plain is a Javanese "sacred" place and has been dubbed "the garden of Java"
due to its high agricultural fertility.[18] During the restoration in the early 20th century, it was
discovered that three Buddhist temples in the region, Borobudur, Pawonand Mendut, are positioned
along a straight line.[19] A ritual relationship between the three temples must have existed, although
the exact ritual process is unknown.[13]

History[edit]
Construction
There is no written record of who built the Borobudur or of its intended purpose.[21] The construction
time has been estimated by comparison between carved reliefs on the temple's hidden foot and
the inscriptions commonly used in royal charters during the 8th and 9th centuries. Borobudur was
likely founded around 800 CE.[21] This corresponds to the period between 760 and 830 CE, the peak
of the Sailendra dynasty rule of Mataram kingdom in central Java,[22] when it was under the influence
of the Srivijayan Empire. The construction has been estimated to have taken 75 years and was
completed during the reign of Samaratungga in 825.[23][24]
There is confusion between Hindu and Buddhist rulers in Java around that time. The Sailendras
were known as ardent followers of Buddhism, though stone inscriptions found at Sojomerto suggest
they may have been Hindus.[23] It was during this time that many Hindu and Buddhist monuments
were built on the plains and mountains around the Kedu Plain. The Buddhist monuments, including
Borobudur, were erected around the same period as the Hindu Shiva Prambanan temple compound.
In 732 CE, the Shivaite King Sanjaya commissioned a Shivalinga sanctuary to be built on the Wukir
hill, only 10 km (6.2 mi) east of Borobudur.[25]
Construction of Buddhist temples, including Borobudur, at that time was possible because Sanjaya's
immediate successor, Rakai Panangkaran, granted his permission to the Buddhist followers to build
such temples.[26] In fact, to show his respect, Panangkaran gave the village of Kalasan to the
Buddhist community, as is written in the Kalasan Charter dated 778 CE.[26] This has led some
archaeologists to believe that there was never serious conflict concerning religion in Java as it was
possible for a Hindu king to patronize the establishment of a Buddhist monument; or for a Buddhist
king to act likewise.[27] However, it is likely that there were two rival royal dynasties in Java at the
timethe Buddhist Sailendra and the Saivite Sanjayain which the latter triumphed over their rival
in the 856 battle on the Ratubaka plateau.[28] This confusion also exists regarding the Lara Jonggrang
temple at the Prambanan complex, which was believed to have been erected by the victor Rakai
Pikatan as the Sanjaya dynasty's reply to Borobudur,[28] but others suggest that there was a climate
of peaceful coexistence where Sailendra involvement exists in Lara Jonggrang.[29]

Abandonment[edit]
Borobudur stupas overlooking a mountain. For centuries, it was deserted.

Borobudur lay hidden for centuries under layers of volcanic ash and jungle growth. The facts behind
its abandonment remain a mystery. It is not known when active use of the monument and Buddhist
pilgrimage to it ceased. Sometime between 928 and 1006, King Mpu Sindokmoved the capital of
the Medang Kingdom to the region of East Java after a series of volcanic eruptions; it is not certain
whether this influenced the abandonment, but several sources mention this as the most likely period
of abandonment.[7][20] The monument is mentioned vaguely as late as c. 1365, in Mpu
Prapanca's Nagarakretagama, written during the Majapahit era and mentioning "the vihara in
Budur".[30]Soekmono (1976) also mentions the popular belief that the temples were disbanded when
the population converted to Islam in the 15th century.[7]
The monument was not forgotten completely, though folk stories gradually shifted from its past glory
into more superstitious beliefs associated with bad luck and misery. Two old Javanese
chronicles (babad) from the 18th century mention cases of bad luck associated with the monument.
According to the Babad Tanah Jawi (or the History of Java), the monument was a fatal factor for
Mas Dana, a rebel who revolted against Pakubuwono I, the king of Mataram in 1709.[7] It was
mentioned that the "Redi Borobudur" hill was besieged and the insurgents were defeated and
sentenced to death by the king. In the Babad Mataram (or the History of the Mataram Kingdom), the
monument was associated with the misfortune of Prince Monconagoro, the crown prince of
the Yogyakarta Sultanate in 1757.[31] In spite of a taboo against visiting the monument, "he took what
is written as the knight who was captured in a cage (a statue in one of the perforated stupas)". Upon
returning to his palace, he fell ill and died one day later.

Rediscovery[edit]

Borobudur's main stupa in mid 19th-century, a wooden deck had been installed above the main stupa.

Following its capture, Java was under British administration from 1811 to 1816. The appointed
governor was Lieutenant Governor-General Thomas Stamford Raffles, who took great interest in the
history of Java. He collected Javanese antiques and made notes through contacts with local
inhabitants during his tour throughout the island. On an inspection tour to Semarang in 1814, he was
informed about a big monument deep in a jungle near the village of Bumisegoro.[31] He was not able
to make the discovery himself and sent H.C. Cornelius, a Dutch engineer, to investigate. In two
months, Cornelius and his 200 men cut down trees, burned down vegetation and dug away the earth
to reveal the monument. Due to the danger of collapse, he could not unearth all galleries. He
reported his findings to Raffles, including various drawings. Although the discovery is only mentioned
by a few sentences, Raffles has been credited with the monument's recovery, as one who had
brought it to the world's attention.[12]
Hartmann, a Dutch administrator of the Kedu region, continued Cornelius's work, and in 1835, the
whole complex was finally unearthed. His interest in Borobudur was more personal than official.
Hartmann did not write any reports of his activities, in particular, the alleged story that he discovered
the large statue of Buddha in the main stupa.[32] In 1842, Hartmann investigated the main dome,
although what he discovered is unknown and the main stupa remains empty.

Borobudur in 1872.

The Dutch East Indies government then commissioned F.C. Wilsen, a Dutch engineering official,
who studied the monument and drew hundreds of relief sketches. J.F.G. Brumund was also
appointed to make a detailed study of the monument, which was completed in 1859. The
government intended to publish an article based on Brumund's study supplemented by Wilsen's
drawings, but Brumund refused to cooperate. The government then commissioned another scholar,
C. Leemans, who compiled a monograph based on Brumund's and Wilsen's sources. In 1873, the
first monograph of the detailed study of Borobudur was published, followed by its French translation
a year later.[32] The first photograph of the monument was taken in 1872 by a Dutch-
Flemish engraver, Isidore van Kinsbergen.[33]
Appreciation of the site developed slowly, and it served for some time largely as a source of
souvenirs and income for "souvenir hunters" and thieves. In 1882, the chief inspector of cultural
artifacts recommended that Borobudur be entirely disassembled with the relocation of reliefs into
museums due to the unstable condition of the monument.[33] As a result, the government appointed
Groenveldt, an archaeologist, to undertake a thorough investigation of the site and to assess the
actual condition of the complex; his report found that these fears were unjustified and recommended
it be left intact.
Borobudur was considered as the source of souvenirs, and parts of its sculptures were looted, some
even with colonial-government consent. In 1896 King Chulalongkorn of Siamvisited Java and
requested and was allowed to take home eight cartloads of sculptures taken from Borobudur. These
include thirty pieces taken from a number of relief panels, five buddha images, two lions, one
gargoyle, several kala motifs from the stairs and gateways, and a guardian statue (dvarapala).
Several of these artifacts, most notably the lions, dvarapala, kala, makara and giant waterspouts are
now on display in the Java Art room in The National Museum in Bangkok.[34]

Restoration[edit]
Borobudur after Van Erp's restoration in 1911. Note the reconstructed chhatra pinnacle on top of the main
stupa (now dismantled).

The Unfinished Buddha from the main stupa of Borobudur at Karmawibhangga Museum, to which the
Buddhists give offerings, along with the main stupa's chhatra on its back.

Borobudur attracted attention in 1885, when Yzerman, the Chairman of the Archaeological Society in
Yogyakarta, made a discovery about the hidden foot.[35] Photographs that reveal reliefs on the hidden
foot were made in 18901891.[36] The discovery led the Dutch East Indies government to take steps
to safeguard the monument. In 1900, the government set up a commission consisting of three
officials to assess the monument: Brandes, an art historian, Theodoor van Erp, a Dutch
army engineer officer, and Van de Kamer, a construction engineer from the Department of Public
Works.
In 1902, the commission submitted a threefold plan of proposal to the government. First, the
immediate dangers should be avoided by resetting the corners, removing stones that endangered
the adjacent parts, strengthening the first balustrades and restoring several niches, archways,
stupas and the main dome. Second, after fencing off the courtyards, proper maintenance should be
provided and drainage should be improved by restoring floors and spouts. Third, all loose stones
should be removed, the monument cleared up to the first balustrades, disfigured stones removed
and the main dome restored. The total cost was estimated at that time around 48,800 Dutch
guilders.
The restoration then was carried out between 1907 and 1911, using the principles of anastylosis and
led by Theodor van Erp.[37] The first seven months of restoration were occupied with excavating the
grounds around the monument to find missing Buddha heads and panel stones. Van Erp dismantled
and rebuilt the upper three circular platforms and stupas. Along the way, Van Erp discovered more
things he could do to improve the monument; he submitted another proposal, which was approved
with the additional cost of 34,600 guilders. At first glance, Borobudur had been restored to its old
glory. Van Erp went further by carefully reconstructing the chhatra (three-tiered parasol) pinnacle on
top of the main stupa. However, he later dismantled the chhatra, citing that there were not enough
original stones used in reconstructing the pinnacle, which means that the original design of
Borobudur's pinnacle is actually unknown. The dismantled chhatra now is stored
in Karmawibhangga Museum, a few hundred meters north from Borobudur.
Due to the limited budget, the restoration had been primarily focused on cleaning the sculptures, and
Van Erp did not solve the drainage problem. Within fifteen years, the gallery walls were sagging, and
the reliefs showed signs of new cracks and deterioration.[37] Van Erp used concrete from which alkali
salts and calcium hydroxide leached and were transported into the rest of the construction. This
caused some problems, so that a further thorough renovation was urgently needed.

Embedding concrete and pvc pipe to improve Borobudur's drainage system during the 1973 restoration

Small restorations have been performed since then, but not sufficient for complete protection.
During World War II and Indonesian National Revolution in 1945 to 1949, Borobudur restoration
efforts were halted. The monument suffered further from the weather and drainage problems, which
caused the earth core inside the temple to expand, pushing the stone structure and tilting the walls.
By 1950s some parts of Borobudur were facing imminent danger of collapsing. In 1965, Indonesia
asked the UNESCOfor advice on ways to counteract the problem of weathering at Borobudur and
other monuments. In 1968 Professor Soekmono, then head of the Archeological Service of
Indonesia, launched his "Save Borobudur" campaign, in an effort to organize a massive restoration
project.[38]

A 1968 Indonesian stamp promoting restoration of Borobudur

In the late 1960s, the Indonesian government had requested from the international community a
major renovation to protect the monument. In 1973, a master plan to restore Borobudur was
created.[39] Through an Agreement concerning the Voluntary Contributions to be Given for the
Execution of the Project to Preserve Borobudur (Paris, 29 January 1973), 5 countries agreed to
contribute to the
restoration: Australia (AUD $200,000), Belgium (BEFfr.250,000), Cyprus (CYP 100,000), France (U
SD $77,500) and Germany (DEM DM 2,000,000).[40] The Indonesian government and UNESCO then
undertook the complete overhaul of the monument in a big restoration project between 1975 and
1982.[37] In 1975, the actual work began. Over one million stones were dismantled and removed
during the restoration, and set aside like pieces of a massive jig-saw puzzle to be individually
identified, catalogued, cleaned and treated for preservation. Borobudur became a testing ground for
new conservation techniques, including new procedures to battle the microorganisms attacking the
stone.[38] The foundation was stabilized, and all 1,460 panels were cleaned. The restoration involved
the dismantling of the five square platforms and the improvement of drainage by embedding water
channels into the monument. Both impermeable and filter layers were added. This colossal project
involved around 600 people to restore the monument and cost a total of US$6,901,243.[41]
After the renovation was finished, UNESCO listed Borobudur as a World Heritage Site in 1991.[3] It is
listed under Cultural criteria (i) "to represent a masterpiece of human creative genius", (ii) "to exhibit
an important interchange of human values, over a span of time or within a cultural area of the world,
on developments in architecture or technology, monumental arts, town-planning or landscape
design", and (vi) "to be directly or tangibly associated with events or living traditions, with ideas, or
with beliefs, with artistic and literary works of outstanding universal significance".[3]

Architecture[edit]
The archaeological excavation into Borobudur during reconstruction suggests that adherents of
Hinduism or a pre-Indic faith had already begun to erect a large structure on Borobudur's hill before
the site was appropriated by Buddhists. The foundations are unlike any Hindu or Buddhist shrine
structures, and therefore, the initial structure is considered more indigenous Javanese than Hindu or
Buddhist.[64]

Design[edit]

Borobudur ground plan taking the form of a Mandala

Borobudur is built as a single large stupa and, when viewed from above, takes the form of a
giant tantric Buddhist mandala, simultaneously representing the Buddhist cosmology and the nature
of mind.[65] The original foundation is a square, approximately 118 metres (387 ft) on each side. It has
nine platforms, of which the lower six are square and the upper three are circular.[66] The upper
platform features seventy-two small stupas surrounding one large central stupa. Each stupa is bell-
shaped and pierced by numerous decorative openings. Statues of the Buddha sit inside the pierced
enclosures.
The design of Borobudur took the form of a step pyramid. Previously,
the prehistoric Austronesian megalithic culture in Indonesia had constructed several earth mounds
and stone step pyramid structures called punden berundak as discovered in Pangguyangan site
near Cisolok[67] and in Cipari near Kuningan.[68] The construction of stone pyramids is based on native
beliefs that mountains and high places are the abode of ancestral spirits or hyangs. [69] The punden
berundak step pyramid is the basic design in Borobudur,[70] believed to be the continuation of older
megalithic tradition incorporated with Mahayana Buddhist ideas and symbolism.[71]

Borobudur architectural model

The monument's three divisions symbolize the three "realms" of Buddhist cosmology,
namely Kamadhatu (the world of desires), Rupadhatu (the world of forms), and
finally Arupadhatu (the formless world). Ordinary sentient beings live out their lives on the lowest
level, the realm of desire. Those who have burnt out all desire for continued existence leave the
world of desire and live in the world on the level of form alone: they see forms but are not drawn to
them. Finally, full Buddhas go beyond even form and experience reality at its purest, most
fundamental level, the formless ocean of nirvana.[72] The liberation from the cycle of Sasra where
the enlightened soul had no longer attached to worldly form corresponds to the concept of nyat,
the complete voidness or the nonexistence of the self. Kmadhtu is represented by the
base, Rupadhatu by the five square platforms (the body), and Arupadhatu by the three circular
platforms and the large topmost stupa. The architectural features between the three stages have
metaphorical differences. For instance, square and detailed decorations in the Rupadhatu disappear
into plain circular platforms in the Arupadhatu to represent how the world of formswhere men are
still attached with forms and nameschanges into the world of the formless.[73]
Congregational worship in Borobudur is performed in a walking pilgrimage. Pilgrims are guided by
the system of staircases and corridors ascending to the top platform. Each platform represents one
stage of enlightenment. The path that guides pilgrims was designed to symbolize Buddhist
cosmology.[74]
In 1885, a hidden structure under the base was accidentally discovered.[35] The "hidden footing"
contains reliefs, 160 of which are narratives describing the real Kmadhtu. The remaining reliefs
are panels with short inscriptions that apparently provide instructions for the sculptors, illustrating the
scenes to be carved.[75] The real base is hidden by an encasement base, the purpose of which
remains a mystery. It was first thought that the real base had to be covered to prevent a disastrous
subsidence of the monument into the hill.[75] There is another theory that the encasement base was
added because the original hidden footing was incorrectly designed, according to Vastu Shastra, the
Indian ancient book about architecture and town planning.[35] Regardless of why it was
commissioned, the encasement base was built with detailed and meticulous design and with
aesthetic and religious consideration.

Building structure[edit]
Half cross-section with 4:6:9 height ratio for foot, body and head, respectively

Approximately 55,000 cubic metres (72,000 cu yd) of andesite stones were taken from neighbouring
stone quarries to build the monument.[76] The stone was cut to size, transported to the site and laid
without mortar. Knobs, indentations and dovetails were used to form joints between stones. The roof
of stupas, niches and arched gateways were constructed in corbelling method. Reliefs were
created in situ after the building had been completed.
The monument is equipped with a good drainage system to cater to the area's high stormwater run-
off. To prevent flooding, 100 spouts are installed at each corner, each with a unique
carved gargoyle in the shape of a giant or makara.

Stairs of Borobudur through arches of Kala

A narrow corridor with reliefs on the wall

Borobudur differs markedly from the general design of other structures built for this purpose. Instead
of being built on a flat surface, Borobudur is built on a natural hill. However, construction technique is
similar to other temples in Java. Without the inner spaces seen in other temples, and with a general
design similar to the shape of pyramid, Borobudur was first thought more likely to have served as
a stupa, instead of a temple.[76] A stupa is intended as a shrine for the Buddha. Sometimes stupas
were built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism. A temple, on the other hand, is used as a house
of worship. The meticulous complexity of the monument's design suggests that Borobudur is in fact a
temple.
Little is known about Gunadharma, the architect of the complex.[77] His name is recounted from
Javanese folk tales rather than from written inscriptions.
The basic unit of measurement used during construction was the tala, defined as the length of a
human face from the forehead's hairline to the tip of the chin or the distance from the tip of the thumb
to the tip of the middle finger when both fingers are stretched at their maximum distance.[78] The unit
is thus relative from one individual to the next, but the monument has exact measurements. A survey
conducted in 1977 revealed frequent findings of a ratio of 4:6:9 around the monument. The architect
had used the formula to lay out the precise dimensions of the fractal and self-similargeometry in
Borobudur's design.[78][79] This ratio is also found in the designs of Pawon and Mendut, nearby
Buddhist temples. Archeologists have conjectured that the 4:6:9 ratio and the tala have calendrical,
astronomical and cosmological significance, as is the case with the temple of Angkor Wat in
Cambodia.[77]
The main structure can be divided into three components: base, body, and top.[77] The base is 123 m
123 m (404 ft 404 ft) in size with 4 metres (13 ft) walls.[76] The body is composed of five square
platforms, each of diminishing height. The first terrace is set back 7 metres (23 ft) from the edge of
the base. Each subsequent terrace is set back 2 metres (6.6 ft), leaving a narrow corridor at each
stage. The top consists of three circular platforms, with each stage supporting a row of
perforated stupas, arranged in concentric circles. There is one main dome at the center, the top of
which is the highest point of the monument, 35 metres (115 ft) above ground level. Stairways at the
center of each of the four sides give access to the top, with a number of arched gates overlooked by
32 lion statues. The gates are adorned with Kala's head carved on top of each
and Makarasprojecting from each side. This Kala-Makara motif is commonly found on the gates of
Javanese temples. The main entrance is on the eastern side, the location of the first narrative reliefs.
Stairways on the slopes of the hill also link the monument to the low-lying plain.
Reliefs[edit]

The position of narrative bas-reliefs stories on Borobudur wall

Borobudur is constructed in such a way that it reveals various levels of terraces, showing intricate
architecture that goes from being heavily ornamented with bas-reliefs to being plain
in Arupadhatu circular terraces.[80] The first four terrace walls are showcases for bas-relief sculptures.
These are exquisite, considered to be the most elegant and graceful in the ancient Buddhist world.[81]
The bas-reliefs in Borobudur depicted many scenes of daily life in 8th-century ancient Java, from the
courtly palace life, hermit in the forest, to those of commoners in the village. It also depicted temple,
marketplace, various flora and fauna, and also native vernacular architecture. People depicted here
are the images of king, queen, princes, noblemen, courtier, soldier, servant, commoners, priest and
hermit. The reliefs also depicted mythical spiritual beings in Buddhist beliefs such as asuras,
gods, bodhisattvas, kinnaras, gandharvas and apsaras. The images depicted on bas-relief often
served as reference for historians to research for certain subjects, such as the study of architecture,
weaponry, economy, fashion, and also mode of transportation of 8th-century Maritime Southeast
Asia. One of the famous renderings of an 8th-century Southeast Asian double outrigger ship
is Borobudur Ship.[82] Today, the actual-size replica of Borobudur Ship that had sailed from Indonesia
to Africa in 2004 is displayed in the Samudra Raksa Museum, located a few hundred meters north of
Borobudur.[83]
The Borobudur reliefs also pay close attention to Indian aesthetic discipline, such as pose and
gesture that contain certain meanings and aesthetic value. The reliefs of noblemen, and noble
women, kings, or divine beings such as apsaras, taras and boddhisattvas are usually portrayed
in tribhanga pose, the three-bend pose on neck, hips, and knee, with one leg resting and one
upholding the body weight. This position is considered as the most graceful pose, such as the figure
of Surasundari holding a lotus.[84]
During Borobudur excavation, archeologists discovered colour pigments of blue, red, green, black,
as well as bits of gold foil, and concluded that the monument that we see today a dark gray mass
of volcanic stone, lacking in colour was probably once coated with varjalepa white plaster and
then painted with bright colors, serving perhaps as a beacon of Buddhist teaching.[85] The
same vajralepa plaster can also be found in Sari, Kalasan and Sewu temples. It is likely that the bas-
reliefs of Borobudur was originally quite colourful, before centuries of torrential tropical rainfalls
peeled-off the colour pigments.
 Narrative Panels Distribution[86]

section location story #panels

hidden foot wall Karmavibhangga 160

Lalitavistara 120

main wall

Jataka/Avadana 120

first gallery

Jataka/Avadana 372

balustrade

Jataka/Avadana 128

balustrade Jataka/Avadana 100

second gallery

main wall Gandavyuha 128

main wall Gandavyuha 88

third gallery

balustrade Gandavyuha 88

main wall Gandavyuha 84

fourth gallery

balustrade Gandavyuha 72

Total 1,460

Borobudur contains approximately 2,670 individual bas reliefs (1,460 narrative and 1,212 decorative
panels), which cover the faades and balustrades. The total relief surface is 2,500 square metres
(27,000 sq ft), and they are distributed at the hidden foot (Kmadhtu) and the five square platforms
(Rupadhatu).[86]
The narrative panels, which tell the story of Sudhana and Manohara,[87] are grouped into 11 series
that encircle the monument with a total length of 3,000 metres (9,800 ft). The hidden foot contains
the first series with 160 narrative panels, and the remaining 10 series are distributed throughout
walls and balustrades in four galleries starting from the eastern entrance stairway to the left.
Narrative panels on the wall read from right to left, while those on the balustrade read from left to
right. This conforms with pradaksina, the ritual of circumambulation performed by pilgrims who move
in a clockwise direction while keeping the sanctuary to their right.[88]
The hidden foot depicts the workings of karmic law. The walls of the first gallery have two
superimposed series of reliefs; each consists of 120 panels. The upper part depicts the biography of
the Buddha, while the lower part of the wall and also the balustrades in the first and the second
galleries tell the story of the Buddha's former lives.[86] The remaining panels are devoted to
Sudhana's further wandering about his search, terminated by his attainment of the Perfect Wisdom.