Ethics: Foundations of Moral Values

Unit 2 – The Ethical Dimension of Human Existence

Ethics, generally speaking, is about matters such as the good thing that we
should pursue and the bad thing that we should avoid; the right ways in which
we could or should act and the wrong ways of acting. It is about what is
acceptable and unacceptable in human behaviour. It may involve obligations
that we are expected to fulfil, prohibitions that we are required to respect, or
ideals that we are encouraged to meet. Ethics as a subject for us to study is
about determining the grounds for the values with particular and special
significance to human life.

Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 identify the terms associated with ethics and its distinction; and
 express ideas about certain real-life situations that require moral valuation .

Pre-test

Exercise 1 : What I Know About Ethics.

Directions : Fill out the shapes below with words that come into your mind
when you see the word “Ethics.”

Ethics

Exercise 2 : Multiple Choice Test

Directions : Answer the following questions and encircle the letter of the
correct answer.
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1. What word is derived from the Greek word aisthesis which means ‘sense’ or ‘feeling’
and refers to the judgements of personal approval or disapproval that we make about
what we see, hear, smell, or taste?

a. thesis c. aesthetics
b. anesthesis d. antithesis

2. It is a term used to refer to specific beliefs or attitudes that people have or to describe acts
that people perform.

a. morals c. ethics
b. values d. behaviours

3. This is the term used to refer to the discipline of studying and understanding ideal human
behaviours and ideal ways of thinking.

a. ethics c. behaviours
b. morals d. values

4. A study of ethics which reports how people, particularly groups, make their moral
valuations without making any judgement either for or against these valuations. This kind
of study is often the work of social scientists, either a historian or a sociologist or
anthropologist.

a. normative study of ethics

b. philosophical discussion of ethics
c. descriptive study of ethics
d. foundations of ethics

5. The study of ethics, as is often done in philosophy or moral theology, which engages the
question: What could or should be considered as the right way of acting? In other words,
it prescribes what we ought to maintain as our standards or bases for moral valuation.

a. foundations of ethics
b. descriptive study of ethics
c. philosophical discussion of ethics
d. normative study of ethics

6. When one is placed in a situation and confronted by the choice of what act to perform,
that person is called to make a _____________________.

a. moral issue c. moral decision

b. moral judgement d. moral dilemma
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7. When one is torn between choosing one of the two goods or choosing between the lesser
of two evils, that person is said to have a ____________.

a. moral issue c. moral judgement

b. moral dilemma d. moral decision

8. When one cannot afford a certain item, but then the possibility presents itself for that
person to steal that item, that person is said to have a _____________.

a. moral issue c. moral dilemma

b. moral decision d. moral judgement

9. When a person is an observer who makes an assessment on the actions or behaviours of

someone, that person is making a ____________.

a. moral issue c. moral judgement

b. moral dilemma d. moral decision

10. Which of the following is NOT a source of authority?

a. law c. religion
b. culture d. social media

Hi, thank you for answering the pre-test. The answer key
is found at the end of this unit. Meanwhile, read the next
section as it contains information relevant to our topic!

Stay safe. Stay home. We Heal As One.

Content

CLARIFICATIONS AND TERMINOLOGY

Recognizing the notions of good and bad, and right and wrong, are the primary concern
of ethics. In order to start, it would be necessary and useful to clarify the following points.

A. KINDS OF VALUATION (Value Judgements)

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Our first point of clarification is to recognize that there are instances when we make
value judgements that are not considered to be part of ethics.

For instance, I could say that this new movie I had just seen was a “good” one because I
enjoyed it, or a song I had just heard on the radio was a “bad” one because it had an
unpleasant tone, but these are NOT part of the discussion of ethics.

There are three kinds of valuation: aesthetics, etiquette, and technique.

 Aesthetics is derived from the Greek word ‘aisthesis’ which means “sense” or
“feeling” and refers to the judgements of personal approval or disapproval that we
make about what we see, hear, smell, or taste.

For instance, I may have an opinion as to what is the “right” dip (sawsawan) for
my chicken barbecue, or I may maintain that it is “wrong” to wear a leather vest
over a Barong Tagalog, and these are not concerns of ethics.

 Etiquette is concerned with right and wrong actions, but those which might be
considered not quite grave enough to belong to a discussion on ethics.

For instance, we can differentiate how I may be displeased seeing a healthy young
man refuse to offer his seat on the bus to an elderly lady, but my indignation and
shock would be much greater if I were to see a man deliberately push another one
out of a moving bus.

 Technique or ‘technical’, both from the Greek word ‘techne,’ are often used to
refer to a proper way (or right way) of doing things.

For instance, this could be when learning how to bake. I am told that the right
thing to do would be to mix the dry ingredients first, such as flour or sugar before
bringing in any liquids, like milk or cream; this is the right thing to do in baking,
but not one that belongs to a discussion of ethics.

Something to think about…

One implication that can be noted is that the distinction between what belongs
to ethics and what does not is not always so clearly defined.

Are clothes always just a matter of taste or would provocative clothing call for
some kind of moral judgement? Can we say that a man who verbally abuses
his girlfriend is simply showing bad manners or does this behaviour deserve
stronger moral condemnation?
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B. ETHICS AND MORALS

Our second point of clarification is on the use of the words “ethics” and “morals.” We
should be careful particularly on the use of the word “not” when applied to the words
“moral” or “ethical” as this can be ambiguous.

One might say that cooking is not ethical, that is, the act of cooking does not belong to a
discussion of ethics; on the other hand, one might say that lying is not ethical, but the
meaning here is that the act of lying would be an unethical act.

The term morals may be used to refer to specific beliefs or attitudes that people have or
to describe acts that people perform. Thus, it is sometimes said that an individual’s
personal conduct is referred to as his morals, and if he falls short of behaving properly,
this can be described as immoral.

On the other hand, the term ethics can be spoken of as the discipline of studying and
understanding ideal human behaviour and ideal ways of thinking. However, acceptable
and unacceptable behaviours are also generally described as ethical and unethical,
respectively.

Various thinkers and writers posit a distinction between the terms “moral” and “ethics”
and they may have good reason for doing so, but there is no consensus as to how to make
that distinction. So, in this module, we will be using the terms “ethical” and “moral”
interchangeably.

C. DESCRIPTIVE AND NORMATIVE

Our third point of clarification is to distinguish between a descriptive and a normative

study of ethics.

 Descriptive study of ethics reports how people, particularly groups, make their
moral valuations without making any judgement either for or against these
valuations. This kind of study is often the work of the social scientist: a historian,
a sociologist, or an anthropologist.

 Normative study of ethics, as is often done in philosophy or moral theology,

engages the question: What could or should be considered as the right way of
acting? In other words, a normative discussion prescribes what we ought to
maintain as our standards or bases for moral valuation.

D. ISSUE, DECISION, JUDGEMENT, AND DILEMMA

As the final point of clarification, it may be helpful to give a distinction of the following
terms.
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 Moral issue

For instance, when a person cannot afford a certain item, but then the possibility
presents itself for that person to steal that item. This is a matter of ethics (and not
just law) insofar as it involves the question of respect for one’s property.

 Moral decision

This happens when one is placed in a situation and confronted by the choice of
what act to perform.

 Moral judgement

This is made when a person is an observer who makes an assessment on the

actions or behaviours of someone.

 Moral dilemma

We have a moral dilemma when an individual can choose only one from a
number of possible actions, and there are compelling ethical reasons for the
various choices. For instance, a mother may be conflicted between wanting to
feed her hungry child, and then recognizing that it would be wrong for her to
steal.

SOURCES OF AUTHORITY

Several common ways of thinking about ethics are based on the idea that the standards of
valuation are imposed by a higher authority that commands our obedience.

A. AUTHORITY OF THE LAW

The law does not tell us what we should do; it works by constraining us from performing
acts that we should not do. To put it slightly differently, the law cannot tell us what to
pursue, only what to avoid.

B. AUTHORITY OF ONE’S RELIGION

Many of us had been brought up with one form of religious upbringing or another, so it is
very possible that there is a strong inclination in us to refer to our religious background to
back up our moral valuations.

Unlike law, religion is not simply prohibitive, but it also provides ideals to pursue. For
instance, one may be called to forgive those sinned against him or be charitable to those
who have less.
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Our religion does not only provide us with a set of commands but also a Supreme
Authority that can inspire and compel our obedience in a way that nothing else can.

C. AUTHORITY OF ONE’S OWN CULTURE

Our exposure to different societies and cultures makes us aware that there are ways of
thinking and valuing that are different from our own, that there is in fact a wide diversity
of how different people believe it is proper to act.

What is ethically acceptable or unacceptable is relative to, or that is to say, dependent on

one’s culture. This position is referred to as cultural relativism.

Learning Activities

Activity 1 : Post it!

Directions : Answer the tasks given below. Write your answers on the post-it
notes.

1. Comment on this statement: “What I believe must be true if I feel very strongly about it.”

2. Imagine that you are a legislator. What rules or laws that currently prohibit certain acts or
practices would you want to amend or repeal?
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Activity 2 : List it!

Directions : Read the instructions below carefully and write your answers on
the space provided.

Identify a list of (a) obligations we are expected to fulfil, (b) prohibitions we are required to
respect, and (c) ideals we are encouraged to meet.

A. Obligations I am expected to fulfil

1. ___________________________________________________________

2. ___________________________________________________________

3. ___________________________________________________________

4. ___________________________________________________________

5. ___________________________________________________________

B. Prohibitions I am required to respect

1. ___________________________________________________________

2. ___________________________________________________________

3. ___________________________________________________________

4. ___________________________________________________________

5. ___________________________________________________________

C. Ideals I am encouraged to meet

1. ___________________________________________________________
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2. ___________________________________________________________

3. ___________________________________________________________

4. ___________________________________________________________

5. ___________________________________________________________

Assessment

Directions : Read each item carefully and write your answer on the space
provided.

1. Give one example, i.e. a scenario, for each kind of valuation.

Aesthetics

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Etiquette

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Technique

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
2. What are some of the distinctions between ‘ethics’ and ‘morals’? Use the Venn diagram
below to show your answer. In the middle, give one reason why these terms are used
interchangeably.

ethics morals

3. Think of a common Filipino value and discuss its strengths and weaknesses below.

Hi, thank you for completing the entire task. If you have
encountered problems in any of these tasks, please
message me through our group chat, google classroom,
email, or text.

Stay safe. Stay home. We Heal As One.

 Ethics: Foundations of Moral Values
11

ANSWER KEY

Pre-test | Exercise No. 2

1. c
2. a
3. a
4. c
5. d
6. c
7. b
8. a
9. c
10. d