PART III.

HISTORY OF MEDICINE
LESSON 1. MEDICINE AS A SCIENCE

1. Learn the following words

ACTIVE VOCABULARY

Word/word Pronunciation Translation

combination/phrase
acupuncture ˈækjʊˌpʌŋktʃə(r)
ancient ˈeɪnʃ(ə)nt
brain breɪn
caesarean sɪˈzeəriən
case history keɪs ˈhɪst(ə)ri
common cold ˈkɒmən kəʊld
confidentiality ˌkɒnfɪdenʃiˈæləti
cramp kræmp
cure kjʊə(r)
dissection dɪˈsekʃ(ə)n
earache ˈɪəreɪk
folk wisdom fəʊk ˈwɪzdəm
fracture ˈfræktʃə(r)
heal hiːl
healer ˈhiːlə(r)
malpractice mælˈpræktɪs
maintain meɪnˈteɪn
mankind mænˈkaɪnd
medical discovery ˈmedɪk(ə)l dɪˈskʌv(ə)ri
medical observation ˈmedɪk(ə)l ˌɒbzə(r)ˈveɪʃ(ə)n
medication ˌmedɪˈkeɪʃ(ə)n
medicine plant ˈmed(ə)s(ə)n plɑːnt
painkiller ˈpeɪnˌkɪlə(r)
prayer preə(r)
prescribe prɪˈskraɪb
pressure ˈpreʃə(r)
skull skʌl
spell spel
suggest səˈdʒest
technique tekˈniːk
trephining treˈfiːniŋ
tumour 'tju:mə
X-ray 'eksrei

2. Read and translate the text

MEDICINE AS A SCIENCE

Medical care is one of the oldest professions in the history of mankind.

The goals of medicine are to save lives and to relieve suffering. For this reason medicine is one
of the most respected professions. Many thousands of men and women who work in medical
professions spend their lives caring for the sick.

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 Medical care consists of three main elements: the first is the diagnosis or identification of disease
or injury; the second is the treatment of disease or injury; the third is the promotion of health and
prevention of disease.
Medical care is provided by a variety of specially trained people. Doctors take charge of treating
the sick. Nurses help doctors to care for patients. Other trained workers also help to provide health
care.
In ancient times people believed that diseases were caused by the evil spirits or due to the anger
of the gods. So the earliest “cures” were prayers and use of magic.
In ancient civilization medical advice came not only from healers, but from the folk wisdom of
many generations. Folk medicine prescribed a dirty sock around the neck if you wanted to cure the
common cold or a pair of shoes placed upside down under the bed to relieve leg cramps. Tobacco
juice was supposed to heal an earache and black pepper to cure asthma. Folklore was also full of
warnings. Amulets were trusted medical devices.
However it is surprising that many medical ideas, techniques and medications which are still
used today originated in civilizations hundreds and thousands of years old.
Some medical discoveries of curative value were made by prehistoric and ancient people. As far
back as 10,000 years ago, prehistoric healers performed trephining, in which a hole was cut in the
patient's skull to relieve pressure on the brain.
Fragments of pre-Christian Egyptian writing describe a routine scheme from the patient's
symptoms to physical examination and then to suggested therapy and prognosis. The Babylonian
Code of Hammurabi, dated 2040 B.C., contains statements about the proper conduct of physicians
and prescribes punishments for malpractice. In India, early medical people discovered the
relationship between malaria and mosquitoes, the discovery of more than 700 medicinal plants and
the invention of more than 100 surgical instruments was done in ancient times.
In the fifth century A.D., great Indian physician Susruta was treating fractures, removing
tumours, and delivering babies by Caesarian section.
In China, acupuncture has been a part of Chinese medicine since ancient times. Originally it was
used to treat diseases; nowadays acupuncture's effectiveness in controlling chronic pain has become
more widely used. Scientists believe that the needles may stimulate the brain to produce morphine
like painkillers called endorphins and encephalin.
Hippocrates, the ancient physician commonly considered the father of medicine, was born in
Greece in 460 B.C. He supposed that disease had only natural causes. Though its authorship is
unknown, the famous Hippocratic Oath is named for him. His medical observations became well-
known in the Western world and physicians are still required to take the Hippocratic Oath and they
promise to maintain the utmost respect for human life and to respect the confidentiality of the doctor-
patient relationship. Hippocrates was the first to separate art and science of medicine from the
practice of religion.
In the second century A.D., Greek physician Galen insisted that the study of anatomy is a basis
for medical facts.

3. Match the following Ukrainian word combination with the English one

1) surgical instrument a) медичне відкриття

2) medicine plant b) стародавня цивілізація
3) medical discovery c) народна мудрість
4) remove tumour d) медичний пристрій
5) medical invention e) кесерів розтин
6) ancient civilization f) хірургічний інструмент
7) physical examination g) видалити пухлину
8) medical observation h) лікарська рослина
9) medical device i) стародавній лікар
10) ancient physician j) медичне спостереження
11) Caeserian section k) медичний винахід
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 12) chronic pain l) застуда
13) treat disease m) хронічний біль
14) folk wisdom n) лікувати захворювання
15) common cold o) медичний огляд

4. Read the text "Medicine as a science" and answer the following questions

1) What methods were used in the past to prevent illnesses?

2) Who is called the "father of medicine?"
3) What is acupuncture?
4) What country is famous for using acupuncture in ancient times?
5) Why is the study of human anatomy important for physician's work?
6) How were diseases treated in early societies?
7) Did prehistoric and ancient people make any medical discoveries of curative value? What are
they?
8) Is doctor-patient relationship important for medical career?
9) What country were medicinal plants traditionally used in?
10) Why was Galen's anatomical research of great value?

5. Form a noun from each verb below. Use a dictionary for help

1) prescribe – 5) treat –
2) examine – 6) cure –
3) bleed – 7) breath –
4) control – 8) diagnose –

6. Fill in the gaps with one of the words from the box

ancient, trephining, prayers, acupuncture, discovery, healers, relationship

1) One of the operations performed in the prehistoric time was …

2) Many medical ideas of … civilizations are applied in our time.
3) Chinese medicine used … to treat many disease.
4) Charms, spells and … were commonly used in ancient time.
5) The … of X-ray techniques allowed to make a more accurate diagnosis.
6) Physicians promise to maintain the respect for human life and to respect the doctor-patient … and
the confidentiality.
7) … were the sources of medical advice in ancient civilizations.

7. Match the words that mean the same. Use a dictionary if necessary

1) examine a) prediction
2) illness b) operation
3) instruments c) method, way
4) physician d) utensils, tools
5) procedure e) inspect, look at
6) prognosis f) disease
7) surgery g) doctor

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8. Match the definition with the words

1) A part of the body having a special function. a) acupuncture

2) Prediction of the course and end of a disease. b) surgery
3) The patient's complete medical background, including past physical and с) heal
mental conditions, medical problems of family members and the patient's d) dissection
present complaints. e) organ
4) The insertion of needles along various nerve root pathways of the body for f) therapy
diagnostic or therapeutic purposes. g) prognosis
5) A branch of medicine dealing with operative procedure h) diagnosis
6) The use of scientific methods to determine the cause and nature of patient's i) examination
illness. j) case history
7) Careful study of the patient's body to determine the presence or absence of
diseases.
8) Treatment of disease or pathological condition.
9) The cutting of parts of the body in order to study them.
10) To cure, make whole or healthy

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LESSON 2. HISTORY OF MEDICINE

1. Learn the following words

ACTIVE VOCABULARY
Word/word Pronunciation Translation
combination/phrase
bandage ˈbændɪdʒ
bile baɪl
blood blʌ̱d
bone bəʊn
catheter ˈkæθɪtə(r)
custom ˈkʌstəm
digestive system d(a)ɪ'dʒestɪv sɪ̱ stəm
disorder dɪsˈɔː(r)də(r)
forceps ˈfɔː(r)seps
germ dʒɜ:m
head hed
heart hɑ͟ː(r)t
herbal medicine (remedy) ˈhɜː(r)b(ə)l ˈmed(ə)s(ə)n
(ˈremədi)
human body ˈhjuːmən ˈbɒdi
hygiene 'haidʒi:n
inflammation ˌɪnfləˈmeɪʃ(ə)n
injury ˈɪndʒəri
intestinal disease ɪnˈtestɪn(ə)l dɪˈziːz
joint dʒɔɪnt
medicine man ˈmed(ə)s(ə)n mæn
prevent prɪˈvent
scalpel 'skælp(ə)l
skin skin
stomach ˈstʌmək
tool tu:l

2. Read and translate the text

HISTORY OF MEDICINE (part 1)

Medicine is the science of diagnosing,

treating, or preventing disease.
History of medicine reflects a gradual
transition from supernatural to natural explanations
of human diseases and disorders. Prehistoric
medicine was a blending of magic, religion, and
social customs with variably effective herbal
medicine. The earliest medical texts (1500B.C.),
containing spells, incantations, and herbal
remedies, was found in an Egyptian tomb. Many
rules of hygiene and health, some with bases in
science and other in tradition, are in the Hebrew
Torah (1200BC.). Medical advances appeared as
technology and social beliefs permitted. Thus,
cellular biology required the development of the compound microscope, and anatomy could not
develop until dissecting the human body was no longer considered a sacrilege.
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 Ancient Egyptian Medicine

The Ancient Egyptians have provided modern

historians with a great deal of knowledge about
their attitude towards medicine and the medical
knowledge that they had. This evidence has come
from the numerous papyruses found in
archaeological searches. Some of the beliefs of the
Egyptians were based on myths and legend.
However, their knowledge was also based on an
increasing knowledge of the human anatomy and
plain common sense. In Ancient Egypt, the treatment of illnesses was no longer carried out only by
magicians and medicine men. We have evidence that people existed who were referred to physicians
and doctors.
Almost all of our knowledge about Ancient Egyptian medical knowledge comes from the
discoveries of papyrus documents. The very dry atmosphere in Egypt has meant that many of these
documents have been very well preserved despite their age. Numerous papyrus documents have
come from the era 1900 BC to 1500 BC. Ancient papyrus inform us that the Ancient Egyptians still
believed that the supernatural caused some disease; they were discovering things about how the
human body worked and they knew that the heart, pulse rates, blood and air were important to the
workings of the human body.
We can learn about Egyptian medicine from a few papyruses: 1) the Edwin Smith Papyrus
describes surgical diagnosis and treatments, has a detailed description of the brain; 2) the Ebbers
Papyrus describes diseases on ophthalmology, diseases of the digestive system, the head, the skin.
It is probable that this knowledge came as a result of the practice the Ancient Egyptians had of
embalming dead bodies. The work of an embalmer was described in detail by Herodotus who was
from Greece but was visiting Ancient Egypt in the 5th Century.

3. Choose the proper continuation on the right. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian

1) Ancient Egyptian doctors knew that the a) into the bandages for the treatment of
body had a pulse, … inflammation.
2) The aim of public health in Ancient Egypt b) They could successfully fix broken bones and
was to … dislocated joints.
3) Egyptian physicians had excellent c) and its reputation spread to neighboring
bandages and would bind certain plant countries.
products such as willow leaves …
4) The Egyptians were treating intestinal d) and that it was associated with the function of
disease and parasites, … the heart.
5) Egyptian physicians were trained and good e) eye and skin problems, and even abscesses and
at practical first aid. … tumors.
6) Egyptian medicine reached a very high f) protect the community from the spread of
standard … disease, and to keep everybody as healthy as
possible.

4. Complete the sentences by choosing appropriate words or expressions from the box.
Translate the completed sentences into Ukrainian

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 affected part, heart beat, dentistry, disease, pulse,
patients, lungs, embalming, diagnosis, examination

1) Ancient Egyptian doctors were specialized in …, pharmacology, gynecology, … and general

healing.
2) The Egyptians examined their … and made their …, with the reference to medical textbooks.
3) These advice the doctor how to do the …, and what a patient’s … might be.
4) The doctors asked questions, took the patient’s … and touched the … .
5) Ancient Egyptians realized the pulse related to the … and the bronchial tubes were related to the
…
antiseptic, first aid, papyrus, remedies,
mint, prescriptions, spell, treat

6) The doctors of Ancient Egypt combined magic … with …

7) The Egyptian doctors were good at practical … .
8) The Egyptian doctors were excellent at bandaging, they could also stitch ….
9) Remedies and … for various ailments, wounds, stomach complains, skin irritations, broken bones
and many other conditions were recorded on sheets of … .
10) The doctors of Ancient Egypt used honey as an excellent … to treat wounds; willow was used to
… toothaches; … was used to treat gastric ailments.

5. Complete the sentences by choosing appropriate words or expressions from the box.
Translate the completed sentences into Ukrainian

injuries, diagnosis, surgical, physicians,

drug preparation, treatment, specialists, dentistry

1) Doctors in Egypt, like today, were … in their particular field.

2) These fields included pharmacology, … , gynaecology, … procedures.
3) In Ancient Egypt surgery was a common practice among … as treatment for physical…
4) Ancient Egyptians were also familiar with … from plants and herbs.
5) Ancient Egyptians were fully aware that accurate … of diseases and their symptoms was
fundamental for effective … .

6. Match to make phrases, translate them into Ukrainian

1) human a) illness
2) herbal b) microscope
3) cellular c) rate
4) pulse d) wound
5) papyrus e) searches
6) treatment of f) practical first aid
7) archaeological g) remedy
8) compound h) biology
9) to be good at i) document
10) to stitch j) disease

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7. Read and translate the text

Ancient Rome Medicine

Medicine in ancient Rome combined various techniques using different tools and rituals. Ancient
Roman medicine included a number of specializations such as internal medicine, ophthalmology and
urology.
The Romans did believe that illnesses
had a natural cause and that bad health
could be caused by bad water and sewage.
In this sense, the Romans were the first
civilization to introduce a programme of
public health for everyone. Personal
hygiene was a major issue in the day-to-
day life of Romans. However, the Romans
did not fully understand the involvement
of germs in disease.
The Romans were great believers in a
healthy mind equaling a healthy body. There was a belief that if you kept fit, you would be more able
to combat an illness.
Romans did have a wide range of herbal medicines and other remedies: doctors said garlic was
good for heart; fennel was used to treat people with nervous disorders; elecampane was given to
patients with digestive problems; willow was used as an antiseptic.
Roman doctors learnt a lot about the human body as they tended gladiators wounded in the
amphitheatres. The Roman doctors were highly skilled; they had great knowledge of anatomy.
Roman surgeons carried a tool kit which contained forceps, scalpels, and catheters. The tools had
various uses and were boiled in hot water before each use. The Romans perform many surgical
operations.

Ancient Greece Medicine

Ancient Greek medical knowledge forms
the spine of the modern medicine. Ancient
Greeks were curious to know the cause of a
disease and how it could be cured. They
followed a method of using scientific
observation to figure out the causes of a disease.
Ancient Greeks developed a logical system
to analyse a disease. It was based on four
humours or substance of the human body. The
four humours were blood, yellow bile, black bile and phlegm. The Greeks believed if the four
humours were balanced the person is healthy and any unbalance would cause health problems.
Another point worth mentioning are ancient Greek physicians believed that reducing the amount
of blood would help to bring down the body temperature. The Greek physicians used to create a
small cut on the arm of a patient or put leeches on the arm to drain blood. Hence, ancient Greek
physicians were often called “leeches”.

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8. Fill in the gaps in the text

HISTORY OF MEDICINE (part 2)

hospitals, medical problems, scientific approach, population, scientists

A) During the Middle Ages many 1) … were built in Europe. In the middle of 14 th century the
bubonic plague killed one-fourth of the European 2) … and the 3) … tried to find effective methods
of dealing with 4)… This marked the beginning of the 5) … to medicine.

dissection, heart, human anatomy, stomach, physicians, nerves

B) During the Renaissance, laws forbidding the 1) … of human body were relaxed and as a result, the
first accurate textbook on 2) … was published. Dissection enables 3) … to identify the 4) … and its
circulatory system, the major 5) …, the 6) … and other digestive organs.

drugs, pharmacy, prescription, disease

C) In 1545, the first 1) … was opened in London. 2) … of medicine had been administed prior to this
time, but the establishment of this shop indicates means of treating 3) … .Today, many thousands of
4) … are used to treat illness.

microscope, tissue, diagnosis, technicians, blood

D) The 1) … was invented in 1590. Laboratory 2) … use it regularly to analyze 3) …, urine and 4)
…. Their reports help physicians to make the 5) … of a disease.

medical book, blood, heart, transfusion, physician

E) In the early 1600s, English 1) … William Harvey discovered how 2) … circulates in the body and
published the first 3) … describing this circulation and the role of the 4) …. In 1667, the first blood
5) … was performed.

X-ray, body, antiseptics, surgery, anesthesia, infection

F) In the 19th century, modern 1) … was made possible by two revolutionary discoveries: the
invention of safe methods of 2) … and the control of wound 3) … by the use of 4) … and sterile
equipment. In 1895, Roentgen discovered the 5) … to detect abnormalities inside the 6) ….

transplants, tomography, medicine, brain, surgery, electrocardiogram

G) The 20th century has brought medical advances in nearly every area of 1) …. Open-heart 2) … has
been developed. Organ 3) … are often successful. The 4) … electroencephalogram and computed 5)
… help physicians to detect heart and 6) … malfunctions.

surgery, lifestyle, X-ray examination, diagnosis, medical care, treatment,

H) Due to early 1) … and more effective 2) … more and more cancer victims are surviving. 3) …
helps to make more accurate diagnosis and more effective treatment. Lasers become very helpful in
4) …. As people change their 5) … and their environment new diseases appear. That’s why health
workers always search for better 6) …

9
9. Read the text "History of Medicine part 2" and answer the following questions

1) Why is the period from about 500 A.D. to about 1000 A.D. called Dark Ages?
2) When were many hospitals built in Europe?
3) What helped to publish the first accurate textbook on human anatomy?
4) When was the first pharmacy opened?
5) How did the invention of the microscope help physicians to make accurate diagnosis of a
disease?
6) Who discovered the role of the heart and blood circulation?
7) When was the first blood transfusion performed?
8) What became a common medical practice in the 19th century?
9) What medical advances were achieved in the 20th century?

10. Match English word-combinations to the Ukrainian ones and use some of them in the
sentences of your own
A
1) archeological searches a) особиста гігієна
2) treatment of disease b) робити внесок у
3) to make input into c) проводити операцію
4) to introduce a program d) археологічні пошуки
5) public health e) добре відомий лікар
6) personal hygiene f) запровадити програму
7) to keep fit g) робити внесок в медицину
8) to perform an operation h) лікування захворювання
9) well-known doctor i) підтримувати форму
10) to make the contribution to medicine j) здоров’я суспільства

B
1) the cause of a disease a) медики-науковці
2) to cure disease b) високий кров’яний тиск
3) physicians-scientists c) медичні засоби
4) computed tomography d) причина хвороби
5) health lifestyle e) ефективне лікування
6) high blood pressure f) рак
7) effective treatment g) комп’ютерна томографія
8) heart attack h) інфаркт
9) cancer i) здоровий спосіб життя
10) medical devices j) вилікувати хворобу

C
1) scientific experiment a) бути під впливом
2) modern medicine b) науковий експеримент
3) рlague c) фітотерапія
4) make accurate diagnosis d) чума
5) herbal medicine e) курс лікування
6) to be influenced by f) поставити точний діагноз
7) to make a diagnose g) сучасна медицина
8) a course of treatment h) клятва Гіппократа
9) medical advances i) ставити діагноз
10) Hippocratic Оath j) прогрес в галузі медицини

10
LESSON 3. HIPPOCRATES – THE FATHER OF MODERN MEDICINE

1. Learn the following words

ACTIVE VOCABULARY
Word/word Pronunciation Translation
combination/phrase
clinical observation ˈklɪnɪk(ə)l ˌɒbzə(r)ˈveɪʃ(ə)n
conduct an experiment kənˈdʌkt ən ɪkˈsperɪmənt
consider kənˈsɪdə(r)
cope with kəʊp wɪð
found faʊnd
founder ˈfaʊndə(r)
Hippocratic Oath hɪˈpɒkɹəˌtiːz əʊθ
medicine ˈmed(ə)s(ə)n
outstanding aʊtˈstændɪŋ
physiology ˌfɪziˈɒlədʒi
pneumonia njuːˈməʊniə
religion rɪˈlɪdʒ(ə)n
separate ˈsep(ə)rət
symptom ˈsɪmptəm

2. Read and translate the text

HIPPOCRATES – THE FATHER OF MODERN MEDICINE

Greek doctors had started to look at the issue of poor health and disease by using a process of
reasoning and observation. The most famous of these was Hippocrates.
Hippocrates was born in Greece in 460 B.C.
Hippocrates was an ancient Greek physician and is
considered one of the most outstanding figures in the
history of medicine. He is considered the father of
medicine. He is the founder of the Hippocratic School of
Medicine. This intellectual school revolutionized medicine
in ancient Greece, establishing medicine as a profession.
Hippocrates was the first who believed that diseases
were caused naturally. He collected data and conducted
experiments to show that disease was a natural process and
was caused by the natural reactions of the body to the
disease process. He based his medical practice on
observations and on the study of the human body. He held
the belief that illness had a physical and a rational
explanation. He accurately described disease symptoms and was the first physician to accurately
describe the symptoms of pneumonia as well as epilepsy in children. He noted that there were
individual differences in the severity of disease symptoms and that some individuals were better able
to cope with their disease and illness than others. He was also the first physician that held the belief
that thoughts, ideas, and feelings come from the brain and not the heart as others of his time believed.
Hippocrates was the first to separate the discipline of medicine from religion. He believed and
argued that disease was not a punishment inflicted by the gods but rather the product of
environmental factors, diet, and living habits.
Medicine at the time of Hippocrates knew almost nothing of human anatomy and physiology
because of the Greek taboo forbidding the dissection of humans. But The Hippocratic School
11
achieved greater success by applying general diagnoses and treatments. Its focus was on patient care
and prognosis, not diagnosis. It could effectively treat diseases and allowed for a great development
in clinical practice. Hippocrates recommended that physicians record their findings and their
medicinal methods, so that these records may be passed down and employed by other physicians.
Hippocrates and other Greek doctors believed that the work done by a doctor should be kept
separate from the work done by a priest. They believed that observation of a patient was a vital aspect
of medical care. Ancient Greek doctors did examine their patients but Hippocrates wanted a more
systematic period of observation and the recording of what was observed. Today, we would call this
“clinical observation”.
Hippocrates travelled throughout Greece practicing his medicine. He founded a medical school
on the island of Kos, Greece and began teaching his ideas. He soon developed an Oath of Medical
Ethics for physicians to follow. This Oath is taken by physicians today as they begin their medical
practice. He died in 377 BC. Today Hippocrates is known as the "Father of Medicine".

3. Answer the questions:

1) Who is the most famous of all the Greek doctors?

2) Who was regarded as the founder of medicine?
3) Why is Hippocrates called "the Father of Medicine?
4) When was Hippocrates born?
5) What country was he born?
6) What school did Hippocrates found in Greece?
7) How did he practice the art of medicine?
8) What did Hippocrates base his medical practice on?
9) Was Hippocrates an excellent doctor and a teacher of medicine?
10) How did Hippocrates teach his pupils to examine the patient?
11) How did Hippocrates treat diseases?
12) Symptoms of what hard diseases were described by Hippocrates?
13) What are the words, added to the medical language, by Hippocrates?
14) Throughout of what country did he travel practicing his medicine?
15) What oath did he develop for physician to follow?

4. Insert the prepositions where it is necessary:

1. Hippocrates was a Greek physician born … -460 ВС … the island .. Cost Greece,
2. He became known as the founder ... medicine.
3. He based his medical practice ... observations and ... the study ... the human body.
4. He believed ... the natural healing process ... rest, a good diet, fresh air and cleanliness.
5. He noted that some individuals were better able to cope ... their disease and illness than others.
6. He founded a medical school... the island of Cost, Greece.
7. This Oath is taken ... physicians today as they begin their medical practice.
8. He died... 377 ВС.

12
LESSON 4. FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE

1. Learn the following words

ACTIVE VOCABULARY
Word/word Pronunciation Translation
combination/phrase
anaesthetic ˌænəsˈθetɪk
cholera ˈkɒlərə
dress wounds dres wuːnds
dysentery ˈdɪs(ə)ntri
founder ˈfaʊndə(r)
honour ˈɒnə(r)
ill ɪl
infection ɪnˈfekʃ(ə)n
manage ˈmænɪdʒ
nutrition njuːˈtrɪʃ(ə)n
responsibility rɪˌspɒnsəˈbɪləti
sanitation ˌsænɪˈteɪʃ(ə)n
soldier ˈsəʊldʒə(r)
surgeon ˈsɜː(r)dʒ(ə)n
tend to tend tʊ
typhus ˈtaɪfəs
well-connected wel kəˈnektɪd
wounded ˈwuːndɪd

2. Read and translate the text

FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE

Florence Nightingale (1820 - 1910)

Florence Nightingale was one of the greatest women in the history of England. She is the
founder of modern nursing.
Florence Nightingale is famous for her nursing work during the Crimean War (1854 - 56), where
she tended to wounded soldiers. She changed the face of nursing
from a mostly untrained profession to a highly skilled and well-
respected medical profession with very important responsibilities.
Florence Nightingale was born on May 12, 1820, in the Italian
city of Florence after which she was named. She was born into a
rich, upper-class, well-connected British family.
At the time when Florence was born, many girls did not receive
any type of education. Florence was very lucky because her father,
William Nightingale, believed that all women should receive an
education. He taught Florence and her sister a variety of subjects
ranging from science and mathematics to history, philosophy and
literature. Florence was a highly educated woman. She excelled in
mathematics and languages and was able to read and write in
French, German, Italian, Greek, and Latin at an early age.
During her childhood and youth she was chiefly interested in taking care of poor people in
hospitals; her dream was to become a nurse. Her parents were totally opposed to that idea as nursing
was associated with working class women. Nurses were not respectable or trained at that time. At
first her parents refused to allow her to become a nurse because, at that time, it was not thought to be
a suitable profession for a well-educated woman. Hospitals at this time were dirty and horrible.
Doctors did operations with no anaesthetic. Many people who went into hospital died. Florence could
13
not possibly work as a nurse. But Florence did not give up. Whenever she was abroad she visited
hospitals, read books on nursing, reports of medical societies, histories of hospitals. Nightingale
worked hard to educate herself in the art and science of nursing. She spent some weeks as a sister in a
hospital in Paris and three months in a nursing school in Germany. It was hard work, but she loved it.
In 1853 was running a hospital in London.
In 1854 Florence Nightingale went to Turkey to manage the nursing of British soldiers wounded
in the Crimean War (1854 - 56). “Soldiers are dying, I must do something” she said. Florence arrived
at a hospital in Scutari on the 4th November 1854.
She found the hospital conditions to be in a very poor state. Many of the wounded were sleeping
in overcrowded, dirty rooms without blankets or decent food. There was hardly any clean water, no
medicines, no bandages, no soap or towels. In these conditions diseases such as typhus, cholera and
dysentery spread quickly. As a result, the death rate amongst wounded soldiers was very high.
Florence Nightingale often worked for twenty-four hours on end dressing wounds, helping
surgeons in their operations, easing the pain of the sick, comforting the dying.
The soldiers called her “The Lady with the Lamp” because at night Florence carried a little oil
lamp to light her way and walked around the wards, to make sure the men were comfortable. The
injured soldiers loved Florence. She did everything she could to help them get better. She sat with
dying soldiers. She wrote letters home for men who could not write.
Florence and her nurses changed the whole system of the hospital organization of the army.
Nightingale worked towards improvements in sanitation, nutrition, and activity for the patients of the
hospitals. She wrote books on nursing. She started the Nightingale Training School for nurses at St.
Thomas’s Hospital in London. She changed the whole idea of hospital planning and is the founder of
modern nursing.
In 1907 she was given the Order of Merit, the highest civil honour the Government can give and
the first ever given to a woman. Three years later Florence Nightingale died.
The Nightingale Pledge taken by new nurses was named in her honour, and the annual
International Nurses Day is celebrated around the world on her birthday.

3. Match the sentence beginnings and their endings

1) Florence Nightingale was … a) she worked at the hospital in Scutari.
2) She was born … b) one of the greatest women.
3) Her dream was … c) the founder of modern nursing.
4) Florence was not .. d) “The Lady with the Lamp”.
5) During the Crimean War … e) on May 12, 1820.
6) To the soldiers she was … f) to be turned aside.
7) She wrote … g) books on nursing.
8) Florence Nightingale is … h) to become a nurse.

4. Answer the following questions

1) Why did Nightingales name their daughter Florence?
2) Was Florence Nightingale a highly educated woman?
3) What was Florence’s dream?
4) Why didn't her parents want her to be a nurse?
5) Why did she go to Germany?
6) What did Florence and her nurses do at the hospital in Scutari?
7) Why did lots of men die in the army hospitals?
8) How did she improve the hospital?
9) How did she help the soldiers?
10) Why was Florence called “The Lady with the Lamp”?
11) What did she do when she returned to Britain?
12) Why was it special for her to get the Order of Merit medal?
13) What kind of woman was Florence Nightingale?

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LESSON 5. ROBERT KOCH, EDWARD JENNER

1. Learn the following words

ACTIVE VOCABULARY
Word/word Pronunciation Translation
combination/phrase
bacilli bəˈsɪləs
bacteria bækˈtɪəriə
bacteriologist bækˌtɪəriˈɒlədʒist
discover dɪˈskʌvə(r)
discovery dɪˈskʌv(ə)ri
epidemic ˌepɪˈdemɪk
immunology ˌɪmjʊˈnɒlədʒi
investigation ɪnˌvestɪˈɡeɪʃ(ə)n
investigator ɪnˈvestɪˌɡeɪtə(r)
laboratory ləˈbɒrət(ə)ri
microbiology ˌmaɪkrəʊbaɪˈɒlədʒi
prominent ˈprɒmɪnənt
recovery rɪˈkʌv(ə)ri
research rɪˈsɜː(r)tʃ
science ˈsaɪəns
side effect saɪd ɪˈfekt
smallpox ˈsmɔːlˌpɒks
spread spred
tuberculosis tjuːˌbɜː(r)kjʊˈləʊsɪs
vaccine ˈvæksiːn

2. Read and translate the text

ROBERT KOCH
(1843 - 1910)
Robert Koch was a prominent German bacteriologist, the
founder of modern microbiology. He was born in 1843, died in
1910. When Koch became a doctor he carried on many
experiments on mice in a small laboratory. In 1882 he discovered
tuberculosis bacilli (the bacteria responsible for tuberculosis).
Being a scientific investigator of the first rank, Robert Koch
obtained a position in Berlin in the Imperial Health Office, where
he set up a laboratory in bacteriology. With his collaborators, he
devised new research methods to isolate pathogenic bacteria. Koch
determined guidelines to prove that a disease is caused by a
specific organism. In his report made in the Berlin Physiological
Society Koch described the morphology of tuberculosis bacilli and the ways to reveal them. Due to
his discovery Koch became known all over the world.
In 1883 Koch went to Egypt to study cholera. At that time there was a widespread epidemic of
cholera. The disease spread very rapidly from one place to another and thousands of healthy people
died. Nobody knew the origin of this disease; there were not any protective measures against it.
Koch carried out his investigation during the cholera epidemic in Egypt and then in India. In
1884 Koch published his book on cholera which included the investigation of his research work.
From the intestines of the men with cholera Koch isolated a small comma-shaped bacterium. He
determined that these bacteria spread through drinking water. In 1905 Koch got the Nobel Prize for
his important scientific discoveries.
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3. Complete the sentences

1) Robert Koch was the founder ...

2) He was born … died ...
3) In 1882 Koch discovered ...
4) ... made him know all over the world.
5) In 1884 Koch published his book on ...
6) Koch isolated a small... bacterium.
7) He determined that these bacteria spread through ...
8) In 1905 Koch got... for his important scientific discoveries.

4. Fill in the gaps with the appropriate word or words combination from the box

blood poisoning, human body, to experiment, infection,

medical officer, anthrax, laboratory, etiology, bacteriology

1) The German doctor Robert Koch is considered the founder of modern ….

2) The first disease that Koch investigated was … .
3) Koch was a doctor and he had a detailed knowledge of the … .
4) In 1872, Koch became district … for a rural area near Berlin. He started … with microbes in a
small … .
5) In 1878 Robert Koch summarized his experiments on the … of infection.
6) In 1878, he identified the germ that caused … and septicaemia.
7) By inoculation animals with material from various sources, he produced six types of … , each
caused by a specific microorganism.

5. Complete the following list with the names of specialists in particular fields

Science scientist
Chemistry ________
Physics ________
Microbiology ________
Surgery ________
Physiology ________

6. Fill in the gaps in the sentences

professor, researcher, physician, scientist, surgeon, genius, lecturer

You call a person a:

1) … when he (she) is an expert in one of the natural or physical sciences;
2) … when he (she) gives a lecture (course) being a person lower in rank than a professor;
3) … when he (she) is a university teacher at the highest level;
4) … when he (she) is a doctor of medicine and surgery;
5) … when he (she) performs medical operations;
6) … when he (she) has exceptional intelligence;
7) … when he (she) is engaged in investigation.

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7. Read and translate the text
EDWARD JENNER
(1749 - 1823)
Also known as the “Father of Immunology”, Edward Anthony Jenner
was an English scientist and is famous for his discovery of smallpox
vaccine. This was the first successful vaccine and the only effective
preventive treatment for the fatal smallpox disease. His discovery was an
enormous medical breakthrough and has saved countless lives.
Edward Jenner was born on May 17, 1749, in Berkely, England. As a
child, Jenner was a keen observer of nature and in 1770 he went to St.
George’s Hospital, London to study anatomy and surgery. After finishing his studies, he returned to
Berkeley and spent most the rest of his career as a doctor in his native town.
Jenner worked in a rural society where most of his patients
were farmers or worked on farms with cattle. In the 18th
century Smallpox was considered to be the most deadly and
persistent human pathogenic disease.
In 1796 as a forward-thinking doctor who liked to
experiment, Jenner conducted an experiment on one of his
patients called James Phipps, an eight year old boy. In 1796 he
inserted pus taken from Sarah Nelmes, a milkmaid with
cowpox, into a cut made in the arm of a local boy. James became ill but after a few days made a full
recovery with no side effects. He was found to be immune. It seemed that Jenner had made a
brilliant discovery. Jenner did not patent his discovery as it would have made the vaccination more
expensive. It was his gift to the world.

8. Answer the questions

1) When was the new method of "vaccination" published?
2) Who was the author of the new method of "vaccination"?
3) Where was Edward Jenner born?
4) Where did E. Jenner start medicine?
5) Is smallpox a rare illness now?

9. Fill in the gaps with the appropriate word or words combination from the box
thanks to, against, at, vaccination, for, put off, from
Edward Jenner’s great gift to the world was his 1) … for smallpox. He was the first doctor to
vaccinate people 2) … smallpox. Today, we are safe 3) … smallpox, thanks to Edward Jenner. A
disease that once killed thousands of people every year was beaten, 4) … his work. Some people
laughed 5) … his ideas, but Jenner was not 6) … . And people all over the world are grateful 7) …
what he did.

10. Find in the texts the English equivalents for the following Ukrainian word combination
1) питна вода
2) наукове відкриття
3) відкрити лабораторію
4) бути спричиненим (чимось)
5) проводити експеримент
6) побічна дія
7) захисні заходи
8) отримати Нобелівську премію
9) дослідницький метод
10) патогенний мікроорганізм
11) наукова робота
12) вакцина проти віспи
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LESSON 6. HISTORY OF MEDICINE IN UKRAINE

1. Learn the following words

ACTIVE VOCABULARY
Word/word Pronunciation Translation
combination/phrase
asthma ˈæsmə
bacteriological station bækˌtɪəriˈɒ lɒdʒɪk(ə)l
ˈsteɪʃ(ə)n
blood circulation blʌd ˌsɜː(r)kjʊˈleɪʃ(ə)n
bronchitis brɒŋˈkaɪtɪs
epidemiologist ˌepɪdiːmiˈɒlədʒist
epidemiology ˌepɪdiːmiˈɒlədʒi
folk medicine fəʊk ˈmed(ə)s(ə)n
heal hiːl
heart-lung machine hɑː(r)t lʌŋ məˈʃiːn
herb hɜː(r)b
manuscript ˈmænjʊˌskrɪpt
medical staff ˈmedɪk(ə)l stɑːf
military hospital ˈmɪlɪt(ə)ri ˈhɒspɪt(ə)l
monastery ˈmɒnəst(ə)ri
obstetrician ˌɒbstəˈtrɪʃ(ə)n
ophthalmologist ˌɒfθælˈmɒlədʒɪst
remedy ˈremədi
scientist ˈsaɪəntɪst

2. Read and translate the text

HISTORY OF MEDICINE IN UKRAINE

Traditional medicine goes back to ancient times. People lived on the territory of Ukraine
thousands of years ago. It’s quite probable that they used herbs, minerals and other natural remedies
to treat most disease. Their knowledge was passed down from generation to generation before it was
described in manuscripts and books.
The history of medicine in Ukraine begins with the history of folk medicine.
The first medical hospitals in Kyiv Rus were founded in the 11th century and were mostly in
the form of alms houses attached to churches.
In the 11th century the Kyive-Pechersk Lavra became a real centre of culture. It was also the
place where the first doctors began to treat their patients. The most famous doctor of that time was
Agapetus of Pechersk. He was born in Kyiv and became a monk and later a doctor. A lot of people
came to see him. He was known for his skill and he never took any money from the poor. The
Chronicles say that he healed Volodymyr Monomakh when the prince was close to death. Agapetus
died in 1095 and was buried in the Pechersk caves.
In the 14th and 15th centuries new hospitals were built and many physicians gave the first aid to
the inhabitants of Ukraine and the soldiers of Bogdan Khmelnytsky's troops.
In the 15th—17th centuries, life in the Zaporizhian Sich was marked by military campaigns and
battles. At the end of the 16th century the main Military hospitals were in monasteries. Monasteries
took care over the Cossacks. Those were the first military hospitals in Ukraine.
The Cossacks were keen followers of the medical traditions of the past. Cossacks medicine is
very interesting. Their practice of medicine is full of mysteries and legends. Pauline, thyme, mint,

18
borschivnyk were the main components of content of Cossack pipe. That is why Cossacks almost
never were sick with asthma and bronchitis.

Kyiv-Mohyla academy played a significant role in the preparing of medical staff, with
organization of hospital’s medical schools. During 14 years (1784-1798) more than 300 persons who
were studying at academy, entered medical schools. The Academy was first opened in 1615 as the
Kyiv Brotherhood School. Many graduates of the Academy continued to enrich their knowledge
abroad and received their doctors' degrees there. Many former students of this Academy have become
the well-known scientists. They are the epidemiologist D. S. Samoilovych, the obstetrician N. M.
Ambodyk-Maximovych, the anatomist O. Shumlyansky and many others.
In 1686 the first bacteriological station was organized in Odessa which was of great importance
in the development of microbiology and epidemiology.
At the end of the I8th and during the 19th centuries the medical departments were formed at the
Universities of Kharkiv, Kyiv, Lviv and Odesa. The total number of physicians has increased in
Ukraine.
During the Crimean War (1854-1856), upon Pirogov's initiative the first detachment of nurses
was trained and sent to Sevastopol to help its defenders. It gave the beginning of the organization
"Red Cross".

3. Answer the questions:

1) What does the history of medicine in Ukraine begin with?

2) When were the first medical hospitals founded in Kyiv?
3) What form were the first Kyiv hospitals in?
4) When were new hospitals built?
5) When was Kyiv Academy founded?
6) Where did many physicians receive their doctors’ degrees?
7) What former students of the Academy have become the well-known scientists?
8) When and where was the, first bacteriological station organized?

4. Fill in the gaps in the text

heart-lung machine, treatment, lung resections, defects, heart surgeon, blood, surgical

Mykola Amosov was a Ukrainian doctor, 1) …,

inventor, enthusiast, known for his inventions of several
surgical procedures for treating heart 2) …. In 1955 he
was the first in Ukraine who began 3) … for heart
diseases surgically. Amosov elaborated a number of new
methods of 4) … treatment of heart lesions, the original
model of 5) …
The clinic established by Amosov, produced about
7000 6) …, more than 95000 operations for heart
diseases, including about 36000 operations with extracorporeal 7) … circulation.

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LESSON 7. MYKOLA PIROGOV, DANYLO ZABOLOTNYI
1. Learn the following words
ACTIVE VOCABULARY
Word/word Pronunciation Translation
combination/phrase
abdominal aorta æbˈdɒmɪn(ə)l eɪˈɔː(r)tə
amputation æmpjʊˈteɪʃ(ə)n
anaesthetic ˌænəsˈθetɪk
anatomical atlas ˌænəˈtɒmɪk(ə)l ˈætləs
aorta obstruction eɪˈɔː(r)tə əbˈstrʌkʃ(ə)n
apply plaster cast əˈplaɪ ˈplɑːstə(r) kɑːst
army surgeon ˈɑː(r)mi ˈsɜː(r)dʒ(ə)n
blood circulation blʌd ˌsɜː(r)kjʊˈleɪʃ(ə)n
bone bəʊn
circulatory disturbances ˌsɜː(r)kjʊˈleɪt(ə)ri dɪ
ˈstɜː(r)bənses
complication kɒmplɪˈkeɪʃ(ə)n
diphtheria dɪpˈθɪəriə
dysentery ˈdɪs(ə)ntri
epidemiologist ˌepɪdiːmiˈɒlədʒist
ether ˈiːθə(r)
field surgery fiːld ˈsɜː(r)dʒəri
fracture ˈfræktʃə(r)
gangrene ˈɡæŋɡriːn
ground-breaking ɡraʊnd bɹeɪkɪŋ
perform operation pə(r)ˈfɔː(r)m ˌɒpəˈreɪʃ(ə)n
plague pleɪɡ
plaster casts ˈplɑːstə(r) kɑːst
save seɪv
scientific research scientific rɪˈsɜː(r)tʃ
surgeon ˈsɜː(r)dʒ(ə)n
typhus ˈtaɪfəs
vaccine ˈvæksiːn
wound wuːnd
wounded ˈwuːndɪd

2. Read and translate the text

MYKOLA PIROGOV

Mykola Ivanovych Pirogov, world-famous doctor and surgeon,

was born in Moscow (1810). He is considered to be the founder of
field surgery, and was one of the first surgeons in Europe to use ether
as an anaesthetic. He was the first surgeon to use anaesthesia in a
field operation (1847), invented various kinds of surgical operations,
and developed his own technique of using plaster casts to treat
fractured bones.
At 14, Mykola entered the faculty of medicine in Moscow State
University. At 18, he graduated from Moscow University among best
students; at 22, he became a Doctor of Science; at 26, defended his
PhD and became a professor at the German University of Dorpat,
one of the largest in Europe; and at 30, he headed field surgery clinic.
20
 Pirogov’s life was dedicated to people. He was a field surgeon during four wars, saving the
lives of the wounded in the most difficult conditions.
He created a new medical science, field surgery, and suggested new principles for the grouping,
distribution and evacuating the wounded.
His work, Fundamentals of Field Surgery (1864), had soon become a reference book for field
surgeons in all countries.
He formulated some of the most important principles of treating gunshot wounds,
fractures, shock, and wound infections and developed the most ingenious methods of performing
operations.
When Crimean War began in 1853, Pirogov considered going to the war theatre in Sevastopol
to be his civil duty. The surgeon was the first to apply plaster of Paris bandages in field conditions,
which was a revolution in field surgery.
As an army surgeon in the Crimean War he was first to use ether anesthetic, investigated
cholera, invented several improved surgical techniques for amputation, introduced a five category
system of triage (when some wounded people were operated immediately, and some were
evacuated after first-aid treatment), used plaster casting techniques and compiled a four volume
topographical anatomical atlas of the human body.
Mykola Pirogov was the first to describe abdominal aorta topography or its arrangement in
human body, circulatory disturbances while bandaging, and blood circulation pathways during aorta
obstruction, as well as explained the reasons of post-surgery complications.
Pirogov introduced new type of medical aid – medical nurses started helping injured soldiers.
Therefore, Mykola Pirogov was also the father of military field medicine.
Pirogov made surgery the science, equipping medics with scientifically based techniques of
surgical intervention.

3. Answer the questions

1) Who was Mykola Pirogov?
2) When and where was he born?
3) At what age did he become a professor?
4) Why is Mykola Pirogov considered to be a father of field surgery?

4. Fill in the gaps in the sentences with appropriate word or word combination

plaster cast, appointment, anaesthesia, intravenous administration,

surgeon, amputation, army surgeon

1) M. Pirogov decided to specialize as a … when he completed his studies in 1828.

2) In 1840 M. Pirogov took up an … as professor of surgery at the academy of Military Medicine in
saint Petersburg.
3) M. Pirogov worked as an … in the Crimean War in 1854.
4) M. Pirogov also originated the …of an anaesthetic.
5) He was the first surgeon to use … in a field operation.
6) M. Pirogov was the first to use the … in field conditions.
7) At that time M. Pirogov also developed a new method for … of the foot.

5. Read and translate the text

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 DANYLO ZABOLOTNYI

Danylo Zabolotnyi, was a Ukrainian epidemiologist and

the founder of the world’s first research department of
epidemiology.
D.K.Zabolotnyi graduated from the natural department of
physic-mathematical faculty of the Odessa University and the
medical faculty of the Kiev University. Being a student, he had
done several scientific researches. Together with Savchenko,
Zabolotny in 1883, in his experiments on himself, established
cholera’s vaccine. He also went on expeditions to study plague
in India, Arabia, and Mongolia and helped organize the first
plague-control laboratories.
In 1920, Zabolotnyi organized the world’s first department
of epidemiology in Odessa. In 1921 he founded and became the
first rector of the Odessa Medical Institute and in 1928, in Kiev,
he organized the Ukrainian Institute of Epidemiology and
Microbiology of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, which is now named after him. He was one of
the founders of the International Society of Micro-biologists.
In 1927, he published one of the first texts in his field, Fundamentals of Epidemiology.
Zabolotny conducted ground-breaking research and wrote numerous scientific studies on a
number of infectious diseases, including cholera, diphtheria, dysentery, plague, syphilis and typhus,
as well as on gangrene and other diseases.

6. Fill in the gaps in the sentences with appropriate word or word combination

discovery, bacteriology, academician, treatment, discovered,

infectious, hygiene education, microbiology, plague

1) All his life Zabolotnyu learned the ways of spreading of the plague and its ….
2) During his expedition to Mongolia, Zabolotnyu got ….
3) He learned syphilis, and 2 years before Shaudin and Hoffman … treponema palladium, but didn’t
publish about his ….
4) In1898 he established the first department of … in Petersburg women medical institute, which
was headed by him for a long time.
5) Much work was done for the learning of … diseases.
6) In 1922 Zabolotnyu became the … of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, and in 1928– it’s
president.
7) Zabolotnyu organized the Institute of the …, which is named after him now.
8) A special attention he drew to the widespread of the ... among the population.

7. Match the terms with their explanations

1) surgery a) is a liquid used as an anesthetic

2) aorta b) is the removal of any part of the body
3) anesthesia c) is the branch of medicine that treats injuries or diseases by operation
4) amputation d) is an acute infection disease affecting the small intestine
5) cholera e) is the main artery of the body
6) ether f) is the technique of reducing an individual’s sensation of pain

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