Driving Solenoids in Automotive Applications: Rev. 1.0 - 4 December 2020 Application Note

AN50003
Driving solenoids in automotive applications

Rev. 1.0 — 4 December 2020 application note
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Keywords solenoid drives, peak-and-hold, avalanche, active-clamp, free-wheeling
Abstract There are a wide variety of solenoid drive circuit topologies. Most of them use MOSFETs in
various configurations and driving modes. In this application note four of them will be discussed:
solenoid driver with free-wheeling diode, solenoid driver with MOSFET avalanching, solenoid
driver with active clamp and solenoid driver with auxiliary boost circuit.
Nexperia AN50003
1. Introduction
Throughout the evolution of modern engineering electromagnetic devices have taken prevalence
in changing electrical energy to mechanical energy or movement. Most commonly we think about
motors for such applications, however the humble solenoid is used even more often, thanks
to its simplicity of construction and ease of driving. Solenoid coils are typically found in relays,
contactors, and valves.
In the automotive sector solenoids are used for a range of applications as well, from starting
the engine to shifting the transmission. Solenoids are used to activate four-wheel drive system,
fuel injection systems, locking the doors of the car and controlling the air flow in the vehicles air
conditioning system. The vast number of valves in the vehicle are also controlled by solenoids.
2. Solenoid operating principles

Consisting of a fixed coil and a movable core or slug (termed the armature) the solenoids are able
to push, pull or even do both as the current through them changes direction. The armature is used
to assert mechanical force to the driven system. The motion is usually reversed by a spring that
is attached to the core. The armature movement changes the inductance of the coil, which in turn
acts as an electromagnet. The magnetic force applied to the armature is proportional to the change
of this inductance and the current flowing through the core, as shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Solenoid principle of operation
From the electrical viewpoint, the solenoid acts as an inductive component, consisting of multiple
wound coils. The current flowing through them creates a magnetic field. The sluggish nature of
this highly concentrated field creates a voltage (termed Electro Motive Force, EMF) that opposes
change in the magnetic field, and therefore in the current as well. In this way as voltage is initially
applied to the solenoid coil the current starts rising gradually. The magnetic field, and therefore
the force applied to the armature rises until it reaches a point where it is large enough to move
the armature in the desired direction. Because of this slow response, it is prudent to apply a high
voltage to the solenoid at the start of its actuation to initiate a faster current response. As the
armature starts moving, the solenoid’s inductance (as a function of the armature position) and back
EMF (as a function of the armature speed) rise, limiting the rate of rise of the current.
Once the movement of the coil is mechanically prevented as it reaches its intended resting point,
the back EMF diminishes. At this point the current continues to rise until only the coil resistance
AN50003 All information provided in this document is subject to legal disclaimers. © Nexperia B.V. 2020. All rights reserved
application note Rev. 1.0 — 4 December 2020 2 / 17

Nexperia AN50003
limits its value. This current can be quite high for the power supply, which is normally a battery in
automotive applications
As the system has reached a mechanical steady state the amount of force needed to maintain
this state is much lower than for moving the armature. Besides, the armature is usually part of a
magnetic circuit with an air gap. This air gap is closed by actuating the solenoid and moving the
armature, therefore rendering the magnetic reluctance (equivalent for resistance in electric circuits)
very small. This in turn allows the magnetic field flux (equivalent to current in electric circuits) to
flow in abundance, increasing the applied force to the armature.
For the above reasons it is advisable to decrease the applied voltage to the solenoid after its
armature has reached its intended position, to limit the applied power and avoid depleting the
vehicle battery. An idealised voltage and current waveform are shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Idealised voltage and current waveforms

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3. Current regulated solenoid drives

A more recent approach to controlling solenoids uses current control as shown in Fig. 3. This
waveform is known as the “peak-and-hold” current waveform, predominantly used in Fuel Injection
applications. Initially, the current is increased rapidly to a high value during the Boost Phase. The
current can be allowed to reach high values at this stage, since it will provide the initial push for the
armature to begin its journey. The slope of the current should be high and, therefore, the applied
voltage should be high as well.
In the Peak Phase, for a time period sufficient for the armature to take its final position the current
is held at a certain value. Then the current is reduced during the Bypass Phase. The rate of
decrease of the current is dependent on the reverse voltage applied to the inductor in this phase.
The current is set to a lower value during the Hold Phase. Therefore, the force applied to the
armature is reduced to a level sufficient to hold the armature in place. The losses are also reduced
since this current can be substantially lower than the one applied in the Peak Phase.
Finally, once the control signal is withdrawn, in the End of Injection Phase, the current is left to
decay to zero, leaving the spring to return the armature to its initial position. Once again, the rate
of inductor current decrease can be influenced by the voltage that appears across the inductor. At
this instant, the speed of current decay might be important for timing reasons. If the current decays
slowly it is hard to predict the instance when the force of the spring will prevail over the magnetic
force, as the mechanical properties of the spring and the whole mechanical system of the solenoid
might change over time. Furthermore, for the same reasons the speed of the armature cannot be
guaranteed. For some time sensitive applications, such as internal combustion engine injector
drive, such timing differences might prove to be crucial.
Fig. 3. Peak and hold solenoid current waveform in a fuel injector application

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4. Discussion of simulation results

Four approaches to driving a current regulated solenoid are explored in simulations. The
simulations had common control parts, for ease of comparison. The difference manifested in the
power electronics driving the solenoid. The MOSFET driver logic relies on the current feedback
being compared to its reference value. When the reference value is higher than the feedback, the
MOSFET is switched at 1 kHz frequency. For the purposes of these simulations the solenoids were
replaced by an inductor with 5 mH inductance.
4.1. Solenoid driver with free-wheeling diode

This is the simplest and easiest way to drive a solenoid. The inductive energy of the solenoid
decays through a diode up to the battery voltage. The schematic is shown on Fig. 4 and the
solenoid current and its reference is shown in Fig. 5.
When the reference signal is received, at 10 ms, both MOSFETs turn on to ensure maximal current
increase in the Boost Phase. Once the peak reference current is reached, the high side MOSFET
is switched so that it controls the current around this reference value, which is chosen to be 3 A in
the simulation. When the MOSFET is turned on the applied voltage equals to the battery voltage;
when the MOSFET is turned off the current circulates through the bottom MOSFET and the bottom
diode. The voltage applied to the inductor is equal to the voltage drop on these two elements, i.e. it
is very low.
After the target time of 10 ms for the Peak Phase has elapsed, at 20 ms, the reference is changed
to 1.2 A. Again, the top MOSFET is used to regulate the current. After the Hold Phase, at 40 ms,
both MOSFETs are turned off and the current free-wheels through the two diodes, making the
effective reverse voltage almost equal to the battery voltage. Considering a simple inductor voltage/
current relation, with a battery voltage of 12 V and 5 mH inductance the duration of the End of
Injection phase can be calculated to be close to 0.5 ms.
Δt = L ΔI
V (1)
Both MOSFETs and diodes will need to withstand the battery voltage. Both MOSFETs and the top
free-wheeling diode need to be rated to the reference Peak current, while the bottom free-wheeling
diode conducts only the Hold current for a short amount of time. The dissipated energy was
calculated for each component during the whole activation process. Comparison of the energies
dissipated in each device for each topology can be found in Section 5. To obtain the power, the
calculated energy value needs to be multiplied with the desired frequency of operation.
P = E.f (2)
aaa-032847
Fig. 4. Schematic of driver with freewheeling diode.

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aaa-032853
4
IL, Iref
(A)
3
Iref
IL
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
t (s)
Fig. 5. Solenoid and reference currents as a function of time.
Compared to the other driver topologies, the free-wheeling driver is simple, has a low component
count, but it is the slowest due to the inductor voltage being approximately equal to the battery
voltage.

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4.2. Solenoid driver with MOSFET avalanching

In this case there is no free-wheeling diode and the back EMF of the solenoid forces the MOSFET
into avalanche mode of operation. Its schematic is shown in Fig. 6.
The mode of operation is identical to the free-wheeling diode circuit at the start. However, in End of
Injection Phase, when both MOSFETs are turned off, the inductor current has no way to free-wheel.
Therefore, the inductor voltage is increased until it breaks down the bottom MOSFET and drives it
into avalanche mode. This voltage is substantially higher than the battery voltage that was applied
in the case of the free-wheeling circuit. Therefore, the current will decay faster. A close look at the
MOSFET avalanche voltage and current can be seen in Fig. 7. Consulting the inductor equation,
(Eq 1), once again, with a voltage of 68 V, the End of Injection phase duration is now closer to
0.1 ms: a five-fold reduction compared to the free-wheeling case.
Once again, all the components need to be rated above the battery voltage and the target peak
current. However, the bottom MOSFET needs to be repetitive avalanche rugged. The energy
dissipated in each component is compared in Section 5.
aaa-032848
Fig. 6. Schematic of driver with avalanching MOSFET
Fig. 7. Avalanching inductor current (top) and MOSFET voltage (bottom).
Due to the high voltage of avalanche compared to the battery voltage, this method decays and
therefore releases the solenoid faster. However, the energy of the inductor is now dissipated in the
MOSFET in the form of heat. Therefore, careful consideration of a MOSFET is needed to handle
this energy. The selection of the MOSFET is addressed in Section 6.

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4.3. Solenoid driver with active clamp

This option is very similar to avalanche operation. Here a Zener clamp is connected drain to gate
of the MOSFET, as seen in Fig. 8. Once again, the circuit behaviour is identical as with the free-
wheeling and avalanche circuits. However, at the End of Injection Phase as both MOSFETs are
turned on and the inductor voltage starts to increase towards the bottom MOSFET VDS breakdown,
the Zener diode starts conducting and pulls the MOSFET gate up forcing it into its linear region.
The MOSFET then maintains the sum of the Zener diode breakdown voltage, the diode forward
voltage and the gate-source threshold voltage from drain to source.
In the previous case the MOSFET intrinsic diode has broken down in avalanche mode. In this
case the current flows through the MOSFET channel. As the MOSFET is in its linear region
with large current and large voltage applied to it, there is an increased chance of hotspots and
thermal runaway occurring if conditions are met. During active clamp there are high energy charge
carriers generated in proximity of the MOSFET’s gate oxide. These carriers might be injected
into the oxide and cause damage. Over many active clamp cycles the gate oxide can wear out
and cause parametric shift and ultimately device failure. Currently it is not recommended to use
MOSFETs in repetitive active clamp. Alternatively, repetitive avalanche is recommended, as the
long term reliability during repetitive avalanche is better defined. Simulated waveforms of the circuit
behaviour are shown in Fig. 9.
Once again, the components need to be rated for battery voltage and reference current, apart from
the bottom MOSFET, which needs to be rated above the selected Zener diode voltage. The voltage
of the inductor current decay, and therefore the duration of the decay as well, can be tuned with the
selection of the Zener diode with different breakdown voltages.
aaa-032850
Fig. 8. Schematic of driver with active clamp

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Fig. 9. MOSFET gate voltage (top), drain to source voltage (middle) and inductor current
(bottom) for the active clamp topology

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4.4. Solenoid driver with Boost converter

This is the most complicated topology, shown in Fig. 10, with the highest performance. A boost
converter, often operating at an output voltage in the range of 60 V, is used to charge and
discharge the solenoid quickly (five times faster with five times larger voltage) during the Boost
Phase and End of Injection Phase. During the Peak and Hold Phases the nominal battery voltage
is switched, as in the previous cases. This allows for fast actuation of the solenoid, but also the
energy from the solenoid is regenerated into the DC link capacitor of the boost converter. The cost
here is the additional components to make the boost circuit, the additional PCB board space and
overall higher voltage rating of the components. The added component count is reflected in the
losses. However, it needs to be considered that the MOSFETs used in the Boost simulation are of
lower current rating.
All the components need to be rated for the boost voltage (rather than battery voltage) and peak
current. The exceptions are the battery side switching MOSFET that can have the battery voltage
rating and the boost rail connected free-wheeling diode that can be rated to the hold current.
DC/DC
60 V
+12 V
aaa-032851
Fig. 10. Schematic of driver with Boost converter

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5. Summary of the topologies

Table 1 shows the losses encountered in each device for each topology, as well as their total loss.
The MOSFETs used in the free-wheeling and active-clamped simulations were BUK9K13-60E,
in the repetitive avalanche simulation BUK9K13-60RA and in the boost converter simulations
BUK9Y38-100E, as these MOSFETs need to withstand higher voltages. Although the losses
appear to be higher in the Boost topology, the recuperation of the energy means that it’s efficiency
is on par with the free-wheeling topology, despite using higher RDSon components.
Table 2 shows a summary of the pros and cons of the surveyed topologies. The avalanche and
active clamp circuits are positioned between the low cost and low speed free-wheeling topology
and the high cost and high speed boost topology. While there are risks in the longevity of the
devices in the middle two topologies, Nexperia’s repetitive avalanche rugged components are
extensively tested and their data sheets are equipped with the necessary data to make an informed
choice and have the MOSFET last the full application lifetime.
Table 1. Energy losses comparison of surveyed topologies (mJ).

Topology Free- Avalanche Active clamp Boost
wheeling
Switching MOSFET (top) 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.9
Selector MOSFET 1 5.1 3 4
(bottom)
Boost MOSFET - - - 0.03
Switching diode (bottom) 15.5 15.3 15.4 15.6
Freewheeling diode (top) 0.1 - - 0.25
‘OR’ diode - - - 3.8
Zener diode - - 2 -
Total losses 17 20.7 20.7 26
Table 2. Performance comparison of surveyed topologies.

Topology Free- Avalanche Active clamp Boost
wheeling
Cost Low Low Low High
Speed Low Medium Medium High
Efficiency High Low Low High
Reliability Long term Long term Questionable Long term

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6. How to select a repetitive avalanche rugged part

Existing MOSFET data sheets give scarce data about repetitive avalanching a MOSFET. The ones
that do, give a very conservative rating. Nexperia’s repetitive avalanche products provide a way
to objectively assess the suitability of the chosen part for the aimed application. From Fig. 7 the
avalanche voltage can be read as 68 V, the avalanche current 1.4 A and the avalanche time is
0.1 ms. The inductance is 5 mH.
Let’s consider the BUK9K35-60RA. In the device data sheet, there are two figures (Fig. 11 and
Fig. 12) that can help with choosing the device. From the avalanche current it can be seen from
Fig. 11 that repetitive avalanche can be allowed to last for up to 0.2 ms. Eq 3 shows the amount of
energy contained in the inductor and dissipated by the MOSFET:
1 2
E = 2 LI (3)
This gives a value of 4.9 mJ. From Fig. 12 it can be seen that the number of cycles that can be
allowed is approximately 2.5 billion.
Fig. 11. Avalanche current as a function of avalanche time
Fig. 12. Maximum number of avalanche events as a function of avalanche energy

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We are left only to ensure that we are within the allowable junction temperature. As for the fuel
injection frequency we can take a low value of 20 - 30 Hz, the junction temperature is of low
concern as the MOSFET junction will have plenty of time to cool.
As these values satisfy the application requirements with small margins, a MOSFET with slightly
higher current rating is chosen for the simulations.
7. Avalanche portfolio
Nexperia’s application specific FET portfolio for Repetitive Avalanche offers an alternative between
the high-performance/high-cost boost and low-performance/low-cost freewheeling diode solenoid
drives. The avalanching method has been made possible using planar technology, however by
technology optimisation of the vertical structure, the Repetitive Avalanche products can comfortably
handle avalanche breakdown currents. The devices are tested rigorously for up to 1 billion cycles
to ensure reliability.
Placed within the LFPAK package the device operating point is ensured to be below 175 °C.
For more information please visit the links below:
• Nexperia application note AN10273: Power MOSFET single-shot and repetitive avalanche
ruggedness rating
• YouTube video: Selecting repetitive avalanche rugged MOSFETs
• YouTube video: Repetitive avalanche rugged MOSFET applications
• Nexperia product category Repetitive Avalanche ASFETs
8. Revision history
Table 3. Revision history
Revision Date Description
number
1.0 2020-12-04 Initial version

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9. Legal information
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List of Tables
Table 1. Energy losses comparison of surveyed
topologies (mJ)...................................................................11
Table 2. Performance comparison of surveyed topologies.11
Table 3. Revision history....................................................13

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List of Figures
Fig. 1. Solenoid principle of operation................................. 2
Fig. 2. Idealised voltage and current waveforms..................3
Fig. 3. Peak and hold solenoid current waveform in a
fuel injector application........................................................ 4
Fig. 4. Schematic of driver with freewheeling diode.............5
Fig. 5. Solenoid and reference currents as a function
of time.................................................................................. 6
Fig. 6. Schematic of driver with avalanching MOSFET........ 7
Fig. 7. Avalanching inductor current (top) and
MOSFET voltage (bottom)................................................... 7
Fig. 8. Schematic of driver with active clamp.......................8
Fig. 9. MOSFET gate voltage (top), drain to source
voltage (middle) and inductor current (bottom) for the
active clamp topology.......................................................... 9
Fig. 10. Schematic of driver with Boost converter..............10
Fig. 11. Avalanche current as a function of avalanche
time..................................................................................... 12
Fig. 12. Maximum number of avalanche events as a
function of avalanche energy.............................................12

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Contents
1. Introduction................................................................... 2
2. Solenoid operating principles..................................... 2
3. Current regulated solenoid drives.............................. 4
4. Discussion of simulation results................................ 5
4.1. Solenoid driver with free-wheeling diode..................... 5
4.2. Solenoid driver with MOSFET avalanching................. 7
4.3. Solenoid driver with active clamp................................ 8
4.4. Solenoid driver with Boost converter......................... 10
5. Summary of the topologies....................................... 11
6. How to select a repetitive avalanche rugged part.... 12
7. Avalanche portfolio.................................................... 13
8. Revision history..........................................................13
9. Legal information........................................................14
© Nexperia B.V. 2020. All rights reserved

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For sales office addresses, please send an email to: salesaddresses@nexperia.com
Date of release: 4 December 2020

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AN50003

Driving solenoids in automotive applications

Keywords solenoid drives, peak-and-hold, avalanche, active-clamp, free-wheeling

2. Solenoid operating principles

Fig. 1. Solenoid principle of operation

application note Rev. 1.0 — 4 December 2020 2 / 17

Fig. 2. Idealised voltage and current waveforms

application note Rev. 1.0 — 4 December 2020 3 / 17

3. Current regulated solenoid drives

application note Rev. 1.0 — 4 December 2020 4 / 17

4. Discussion of simulation results

4.1. Solenoid driver with free-wheeling diode

Fig. 4. Schematic of driver with freewheeling diode.

application note Rev. 1.0 — 4 December 2020 5 / 17

Fig. 5. Solenoid and reference currents as a function of time.

application note Rev. 1.0 — 4 December 2020 6 / 17

4.2. Solenoid driver with MOSFET avalanching

Fig. 6. Schematic of driver with avalanching MOSFET

Fig. 7. Avalanching inductor current (top) and MOSFET voltage (bottom).

application note Rev. 1.0 — 4 December 2020 7 / 17

4.3. Solenoid driver with active clamp

Fig. 8. Schematic of driver with active clamp

application note Rev. 1.0 — 4 December 2020 8 / 17

application note Rev. 1.0 — 4 December 2020 9 / 17

4.4. Solenoid driver with Boost converter

Fig. 10. Schematic of driver with Boost converter

application note Rev. 1.0 — 4 December 2020 10 / 17

5. Summary of the topologies

Table 1. Energy losses comparison of surveyed topologies (mJ).

Table 2. Performance comparison of surveyed topologies.

application note Rev. 1.0 — 4 December 2020 11 / 17

6. How to select a repetitive avalanche rugged part

Fig. 11. Avalanche current as a function of avalanche time

Fig. 12. Maximum number of avalanche events as a function of avalanche energy

application note Rev. 1.0 — 4 December 2020 12 / 17

application note Rev. 1.0 — 4 December 2020 13 / 17

application note Rev. 1.0 — 4 December 2020 14 / 17

application note Rev. 1.0 — 4 December 2020 15 / 17

application note Rev. 1.0 — 4 December 2020 16 / 17

© Nexperia B.V. 2020. All rights reserved

application note Rev. 1.0 — 4 December 2020 17 / 17

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