Blood Vessel

Structure and
Function
OBJECTIVES MATERIALS
1 Compare and contrast the structure of arteries, • compound microscope, lens paper, prepared
capillaries, and veins microscope slide of transverse section through
2 Identify layers or tunics of an artery and vein artery and vein
3 Measure systolic and diastolic blood pressure at • Blood Pressure Measurements: sphygmomanom-
rest and after exercise eter, stethoscope, alcohol wipes, meterstick,
exercise mat
4 Discuss how exercise and body position affect
blood pressure • Effect of Exercise on Blood Pressure: sphygmoma-
nometer, stethoscope, alcohol wipes, stopwatch
or watch with second hand, graph paper

__
• PowerPhys Experiment: Effect of Exercise on
Blood Pressure and Vascular Resistance
...,
• ABIOPAc• Biopac Laboratory Guide Experiment
~ S)l5tems.Inc. • Effect of Body Position on Resting Blood
Pressure
• Effect of Exercise on Blood Pressure

A rteries carry blood away from the heart and

divide into smaller vessels called arterioles that
branch into the tiniest vessels called capillaries.
At the capillary level, an exchange of nutrients, wastes,
and gases occurs between blood and interstitial fluid (fluid
A. Blood Vessel Structure
1. Arteries
Arterial walls have three layers or tunics: the tunica
surrounding tissue cells). Capillaries join to form small extema, tunica media, and tunica intema. The outer tunica
venules that will merge to form larger veins that carry extema is composed mainly of elastic and collagen fibers
blood back to the heart. The structure of these vessels (proteins) that provide support and protection. The tunica
reflects their functions. media is the middle and thickest layer that contains elastic
There are two main circulatory routes within the body: fibers and smooth muscle fibers (cells) encircling the diam-
the systemic circulation and the pulmonary circulation. eter of the vessel. The sympathetic nervous system regu-
lo the systemic circulation, arteries carry oxygen-rich lates the diameter of the blood vessel by innervating smooth
blood to the body tissues, and veins return oxygen-poor muscle fibers. Contraction of smooth muscle fibers causes
blood to the heart where it will then enter the pulmonary a decrease in lumen diameter or vasoconstriction, whereas
circulation. In the pulmonary circulation, arteries carry relaxation causes vasodilation, an increase in lumen
oxygen-poor blood from the right ventricle to the lungs diameter. Elastic fibers in the tunica media allow the vessel
where gas exchange occurs, and veins return oxygen-rich to be stretched and return to its original shape. The tunica
blood back to the left atrium. intema (intima) contains simple squamous epithelium

473
474 EXERCISE 29 BLOOD VESSEL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

(endothelium), a basement membrane, and elastic tissue tion. Muscular arteries branch into smaller and smaller
(internal elastic lamina) that is adjacent to the tunica arteries that eventually form arterioles, small blood vessels
media. The endothelium lines the lumen of all blood vessels from which capillaries branch. Arterioles have a tunica
and forms a smooth, slick barrier that promotes blood flow. media containing mainly smooth muscle and few elastic
Damage to the endothelium causes platelets to stick to the fibers. These vessels control blood flow into capillaries and
blood vessel wall, forming plaques that narrow the lumen play a large role in controlling blood pressure.
and impede blood flow.
The thickness and exact composition of each tunic
2. Veins
varies according to vessel type. Elastic arteries, such as
the aorta, are large-diameter arteries that have more elas- Blood flows from capillaries into venules (venule = little
tic fibers in their tunica media than other arteries. Elastic vein) that drain into veins. Venule walls contain a tunica
fibers stretch under greater pressure when blood is pumped interna of endothelium only and a tunica media with a few
into them during systole. During diastole, the recoiling smooth muscle fibers.
of elastic fibers in elastic arteries continues blood flow. The walls of veins contain a tunica interna, a tunica
Muscular arteries, smaller in diameter than elastic media, and a tunica extema. Compared with arterial
arteries, have more smooth muscle and fewer elastic fibers vessels, the tunica intema and tunica media are thinner,
in their tunica media than elastic arteries.. However, they and the tunica media contains fewer smooth muscle fibers
have a layer of elastic tissue, the external elastic lamina, and elastic fibers. Veins lack an internal and external elastic
between the tunica externa and the tunica media. Muscu- lamina. The tunica externa is the thickest of the three layers
lar arteries distribute blood to different areas of the body and like arterial vessels is composed of elastic and collagen
(e.g., brachia! artery distributes blood to arm) and control fibers. The lumen of veins is larger than arteries and often
blood flow to these areas by vasoconstriction or vasodila- appears collapsed in tissue sections.

NE added

~
Tunica
externa . ~ - - . . _ ~~::--
-....
Tunic I.. -
medi Y#f 0.5mm
Tunica -
interna

Tunica
media

.'"',
~-
;
l

..'
..

25 µ,

(a) (b)

FIGURE 29.1 Transverse sedions through a frog arteriole.

 EXERCISE 29 BLOOD VESSEL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 475

The blood pressure gradient in the veins is very small

and often is not enough to overcome gravity. Muscular Before Going to Lab
activity squeezes the veins and pushes blood toward the 1 In Figure 29.1 compare the lumen diameter, thickness of
heart while venous valves, found in many veins, prevent tunics, and shape of tunica intema in two sections of a
the backflow of blood, especially in the limbs. Valves are frog arteriole. Nm-epinephrine (NE) was applied to one
tunica intema folds whose flap-like cusps point toward area of the arteriole to induce vasoconstriction. Identify
the heart. Faulty or incompetent valves allow backflow of which cross-section is vasoconstricted, (a) or (b).
blood and result in pooling of blood in veins, a condition
2 Label the components of a muscular artery wall in
called varicose veins. Figure 29.2.
3 Label the components of the wall of a vein in Figure 29.3.

t.C J {7 4------==,-:;----=~
,\ I
5 ----
I

i·' r
;'(
I '

• basement membrane • basement membrane

• endothelium • endothelium
2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ 2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
• external elastic lamina • tunica externa
• internal elastic lamina 3 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ • tunica interna 3 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
• smooth muscle • tunica media (smooth
• tunica externa 4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ muscle) 4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
• tunica interna • valve
• tunica media s _________ s _________
6 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ 6 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

7 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

8 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

FIGURE 29.2 Strudure of a muscular artery. FIGURE 29.3 Strudure of a vein.

 476 EXERCISE 29 BLOOD VESSEL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

3 . Capillaries
Before Going to Lab
Capillaries have the smallest diameter and thinnest walls
1 Identify and label the tunics of the blood vessels in
of any blood vessels. Their lumen is so small that red blood
Figure 29 .4.
cells can pass through only one at a time. Capillary walls
are composed of a single layer of endothelial cells (simple
squamous endothelium) supported by a basement mem-
brane. The endothelial cells of capillaries can exhibit:
■ij =@•¢hA• Arteries and Veins
1 Examine a prepared microscope slide containing a • tight junctions-fusion of plasma membranes of
transverse section of a small artery and vein. adjacent cells
• Using the low-power objective lens, focus and center • intercellular clefts-spaces between cells
one blood vessel in the field of view and switch to • fenestrations (fenestra = window)- pores in plasma
high power. membrane covered by a diaphragm (thin membrane)
• Using the high-power objective lens, focus with fine • vesicles
adjustment knob only and examine the three tunics
in the vessel. Note the thickness of the tunica media. Only substances that are lipid soluble or have mem-
• Repeat procedure with other blood vessel. brane carriers can cross capillary walls with tight junctions
• Decide which vessel is the artery and which is the between cells. However, many other substances can cross
vein. ■ capillary walls containing fenestrations, intercellular clefts,
and vesicles. The size of the fenestrations and intercellular
clefts between endothelial cells determines which molecules
2 4 5 6 7 8 can cross. Molecules can also be transported across capillary
walls by vesicles, a process called transcytosis (trans- =
across; cyto = cell).
Hydrostatic pressure (blood pressure) at the arterial end
of the capillaries causes plasma to be filtered across the
capillary wall into the interstitial fluid. The filtered plasma
containing nutrients, hormones, and other substances is

I
called interstitial fluid once it leaves the capillaries and
enters the space around tissue cells. Blood osmotic pressure
draws interstitial fluid into the venous end of the capillary
(reabsorption) bringing fluid, metabolic wastes, honnones,
8 or other substances into the blood. The combination of
these opposing pressures causes some filtered plasma to
remain in the interstitial fluid to bathe the tissue cells.

~ = ""-..-.;;...._...;;.;......;..;................_ _......________...__"'"-.........."'--'

• lumen of artery
• lumen of vein
• tunica externa of artery 2 ----------
• tunica externa of vein
• tunica interna of artery 3 ----------
• tunica interna of vein
• tunica media of artery 4 ----------
• tunica media of vein
5 ----------

6 ----------

7 ----------

8 ----------

FIGURE 29.4 Transverse section through small

artery and vein.
 EXERCISE 29 BLOOD VESSEL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 477

2
Before Going to Lab
1 Label the blood vessels in Figure 29.5. Identify the
arteriole and a capillary.
2 Observe the capillaries in Figure 29.6(a), (b), and (c) and
label the capillary structures.

• arteriole
• capillary 2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

FIGURE 29.5 Photomicrograph showing capillary

network.

(a)

• fenestration
• intercellular cleft
• tight junctions 2 -----------
• vesicles involved in trans-
cytosis. 3 -----------
4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

19,000X
FIGURE 29.6 Transmission electron micrographs 4
showing capillary walls. (c)
478 EXERCISE 29 BLOOD VESSEL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

B. Blood Pressure be heard until blood flow returns to normal. These sounds
are called the Korotkoff (koh-ROf-koff) sounds. Although
Blood pressure, the pressure exerted by blood against there is a range of values considered normal, the average
normal systolic pressure (the first sound heard) is 120 mm
blood vessel walls, is highest in the aorta and large elastic
arteries, and decreases as the arteries branch and blood Hg, and normal diastolic pressure (the last, faint sounds
travels farther from the heart. Blood pressure drops sig- heard) is 80 mm Hg, usually written as 120/80.
nificantly in the arterioles and steadily decreases through Venous blood pressure can also be measured directly
capillaries, venules, and veins, and drops to zero in the with a pressure transducer inserted into a venous vessel
right atrium. The difference in blood pressure between or indirectly. Indirect measurement of venous pressure,
two areas of the circulatory system is the blood pressure described in Lab Activity 2, is an estimate at best because
gradient. The blood pressure gradient between the aorta blood pressure in veins is very low. The average venous
and right atrium causes blood to flow through the systemic blood pressure is 16 mm Hg.
circulation, and the blood pressure gradient between the
pulmonary trunk and the left atrium causes blood to flow
through the pulmonary circulation.
With each ventricular contraction, blood pressure fluc- ■ @:fJS•faffj Blood Pressure
Measurements
tuates in the large arteries (i.e., the aorta, pulmonary trunk,
and other elastic and large muscular arteries). Blood pres- 1 Measure resting systemic arterial blood pressure.
sure during ventricular systole, systolic blood pressure, is • Work in teams of two, alternating who will be the
higher than blood pressure during ventricular diastole, or subject and who will measure blood pressure.
diastolic blood pressure. During diastole, the ventricles • The subject should sit and rest for 5 minutes before
are in relaxation, and blood is not being ejected. These blood pressure is measured.
fluctuations diminish within the arterioles, and little or no • Wipe the earpieces of the stethoscope with alcohol
fluctuations in blood pressure between systole and diastole and completely deflate the blood pressure cuff.
are observed in the capillaries and venous vessels. • Place the cuff of the sphygmomanometer around
The blood pressure gradient between veins and the right the arm as shown in Figure 29.7. If the cuff does
atrium is low, making it difficult for venous blood flow to not fit the arm, the blood pressure measurements
overcome the force of gravity. Therefore, when standing will probably be inaccurate. The inflatable portion
with arms hanging down, blood may pool in the large veins of the cuff should be over the anterior surface of the
of the limbs. arm. If there is an arrow on the cuff, place it over the
brachia! artery. The brachia] artery is located in the
anterior arm, immediately superior to the antecubital
1. Blood Pressure Measurements
fossa and lateral to biceps brachii. The bottom of
Arterial blood pressure is reported in millimeters of mer- the cuff should be approximately 1 inch above the
cury (mm Hg) and can be measured directly by inserting a elbow.
pressure transducer into a large artery or indirectly with a • Close the valve on the rubber bulb.
sphygmomanometer. A spbygmomanometer (SFIG-moe- • Insert earpieces; place the large bell of the stetho-
mah-NOH-meh-ter), or blood pressure cuff, can be used to scope over the brachia! artery inferior to the cuff, and
measure systolic and diastolic blood pressure in any large listen for the brachia! pulse.
artery. Clinically, the brachial artery is used most often. The • Inflate the cuff to 160 to 180 mm Hg.
sphygmomanometer contains a pressure gauge attached to • Immediately use the valve on the hand pump to
an inflatable rubber cuff that is connected by a rubber tube slowly release air to deflate the cuff, and listen for
to a hand pump (rubber bulb) or automatic pump. Clinically, the first sound.
it is important to use the right size cuff-pediatric, standard, • The first sound, the systolic pressure, is the return of
or large arm-to obtain an accurate reading. The pump is blood flow through the partially occluded brachia!
used to inflate the rubber cuff to a pressure greater than the artery. Watch the pressure gauge and continue to
systolic pressure. This puts pressure on the artery, flattens it, listen; the sound will increase, then muffle, and stop.
and stops blood flow in the artery. A stethoscope is placed The diastolic pressure is the pressure when the last,
over the brachia! artery in the antecubital area, and the pres- faint sound is heard.
sure in the cuff is slowly released by opening a valve. When • Record blood pressure measurements in Table 29. I.
blood pressure is greater than the pressure in the cuff, the • Deflate cuff and have subject rest for 2 minutes
artery opens and blood flow returns. The examiner listens before repeating the blood pressure measurement.
for the sound caused by the turbulent flow of blood that can Record second value in Table 29.1.
 EXERCISE 29 BLOOD VESSEL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 479

Subject has Inflate cuff to Pressure in Pressure

normal blood 160-180 mm Hg; cuff 120; first in cuff
pressure brachia! artery Korotkoff 80; last
120 systolic closes; no sound audible faint
80 diastolic audible sounds Korotkoff
sound

.I~
audible
180

- 120
80

I
(a) (b) (c) (d)

FIGURE 29. 7 Measuring arterial blood pressure with a sphygmomanometer.

TABLE 29.1 Resting Blood Pressures

SYSTOLIC DIASTOLIC PULSE VENOUS
SUBJECT PRESSURE PRESSURE PRESSURE MAP PRESSURE

Subject 1 1. 1. 1. 1. 1.

2. 2. 2. 2. 2.

Avg. Avg. Avg. Avg. Avg.

Subject 2 1. 1. 1. 1. 1.

2. 2. 2. 2. 2.

Avg. Avg. Avg. Avg. Avg.

2 Calculate pulse pressure and mean arterial pressure. • Calculate the mean arterial pressure (MAP) and
• The pulse pressure is the difference between the record in Table 29.1.
systolic and diastolic blood pressure. The larger . . BP (pulse pressure)
the pulse pressure, the greater the volume of blood MAP = d 1asto11c + 3
ejected from the ventricle. Mean arterial pressure
3 Estimate systemic venous pressure.
(MAP or MABP) is the average blood pressure (BP)
• Decide who will be the subject, the observer, and the
over the course of the cardiac cycle.
recorder.
• Calculate the pulse pressure and record in Table 29.1.
Pulse pressure = systolic pressure - diastolic pressure.
480 EXERCISE 29 BLOOD VESSEL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

• Have the subject stand with arms hanging at the side. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
Observe the blood pooling in the veins on the dorsal Blood Pressure Measurements
surface of the hands.
• Have the subject abduct one arm and observe the 1 Did the subject's BP change after altering body position?
veins become smaller in size and flatten (collapse) as
the arm is raised above the level of the right atrium.
2 Did the subject's HR change after altering body position?
When the force of gravity exceeds venous pressure,
the blood in the veins drains away quickly and does
not exert enough pressure on the walls of the veins
to keep them open. 3 Explain what happens in regard to BP when a person
• Lower the arm to pool blood in the veins of the hand changes from a supine to a standing position. Why does
this occur?
again.
• Have the subject stand in front of a white (or black)
board. With the subject's hands at the sides, locate the ■
level of the right atrium (approximately 2 inches above
the nipple). Mark on the board where the subject's 2. Regulation of Blood Pressure
hand touches the board.
The body maintains blood pressure (BP) to ensure adequate
• Have the subject abduct the arm and hand until the
blood flow to body tissues (tissue perfusion). If blood
veins on the surface of the hand flatten (collapse).
pressure is too low, tissue perfusion may not be sufficient
Mark where the hand touches the board. Using a
to provide oxygen and nutrients to cells, especially brain
meterstick, measure the vertical distance above the
neurons, or to remove metabolic wastes. If blood pressure
right atrium that the hand has traveled in millimeters
is too high, it may cause damage to capillaries and the
(1 cm = 10 mm): _ _ _ _ _ mm. Each 12.88
endothelial lining of blood vessels. Eye exams can often
mm elevation of the hand above heart level repre-
detect early hypertension. Damaged retinal vessels can be
sents an approximately I mm rise in Hg.
observed with an ophthalmoscope.
• Venous pressure (mm Hg) =
During exercise, cardiac output increases to provide
mm measured adequate tissue perfusion. The increased stroke volume puts
12.88 mm elevation/mm Hg more pressure on the blood vessel walls, causing arterial
• Repeat measurement and record in Table 29.1. systolic blood pressure to increase. During aerobic exercise,
diastolic blood pressure stays the same or decreases slightly
4 Observe the effect of body position on blood pressure.
due to vasodilation. Even though there is a greater volume
• Decide who will be the subject, who will do the
of blood in the arteries due to increased stroke volume, the
measuring, and who will record.
amount of vasodilation causes diastolic pressure to remain
• Have subject lie on a mat (supine position) for
the same as resting or to decrease slightly. During resistance
2 minutes. Measure BP and heart rate (HR). Record
exercise (weight training), diastolic pressure may increase.
in Table 29.2.
The skeletal muscle contractions required to lift weight
• Have subject stand and immediately measure BP and
squeezes the arteries in muscles, effectively causing vaso-
HR. Record in Table 29.2.
constriction. This causes peripheral resistance to increase,
• Take the BP and HR again after the subject stands
resulting in an increase in both systolic and diastolic blood
for 2 minutes. Record in Table 29.2.
pressure during exercise. The changes in blood pressure
5 Answer Discussion Questions with your lab group. that occur during exercise are temporary; however, exer-
6 Complete Biopac Laboratory Guide Experiment: cising regularly will reduce resting systolic and diastolic
Effect of Body Position on Resting Blood Pressure. pressures.

TABLE 2 9. 2 Effect of Body Position on Blood Pressure

SUBJECT SYSTOLIC/DIASTOLIC BP (mm Hg) HR

Supine

Immediately after standing

After standing for 2 minutes

 EXERCISE 29 BLOOD VESSEL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 481

Mean arterial blood pressure increases when cardiac • Immediately count the number of heartbeats (or
output increases and when resistance to blood flow increases. pulses) in 15 seconds and multiply by 4 to obtain
Blood viscosity, total blood vessel length, and blood vessel HR. Record the results in Table 29.3.
diameter affect resistance to blood flow. However, blood 4 Data Analysis:
vessel diameter is the only variable that can be changed • Calculate resting and post-exercise pulse pressures
to make immediate changes in blood pressure. Increasing and MAP. Record in Table 29.3.
blood vessel diameter (vasodilation) decreases resistance • Pool heart rate and MAP class data, calculate
and lowers BP, while decreasing blood vessel diameter averages, and record in Table 29.3.
(vasoconstriction) increases resistance and raises BP. • If graph paper is available, graph your data.
5 Clean up your lab area as directed by your instructor.

Iti =Wi m'ti• Experiment: .

Effed of Exercise
6 Complete the Experimental Report with your lab
group.
on Blood Pressure 7 Complete the PowerPhys Experiment: Effect of
Exercise on Blood Pressure and Vascular Resistance.
1 Prediction: Circle the correct choice (in italics) in each
statement. 8 Complete Biopac Laboratory Guide Experiment:
• Exercise will cause systolic and diastolic BP to Effect of Exercise on Blood Pressure.
increase or decrease.
• Exercise will cause pulse pressure to increase or EXPERIMENTAL REPORT
decrease. Effed of Exercise on Blood Pressure
• Exercise will cause MAP to increase or decrease. Results:
2 Materials: Obtain materials for the Regulation of Blood
• State whether systolic and diastolic BP increased or
Pressure experiment from Materials list.
decreased after exercise.
3 Data Collection: • State whether pulse pressure and MAP increased or
• Decide who will be the subject, who will measure decreased after exercise.
BP and HR, and who will be the recorder and timer. • State whether HR increased or decreased after exercise.
The subject should not have heart problems and
should be in good health. Discussion:
• Measure the effect of exercise on BP and record the
results in Table 29.3. • Why was the resting blood pressure taken standing
rather than sitting?
BP and HR at rest
• Have the subject stand still at rest for 2 to 3 minutes. • Discuss how the body changes BP during exercise.
• Measure systolic and diastolic BP, and record the • Discuss why the body changes BP during exercise.
results in Table 29.3.
• Measure the number of heartbeats (or pulses) in 15 Conclusion:
seconds and multiply by 4 to obtain HR. Record the
• Write a statement that postulates how increasing levels
results in Table 29.3.
of exercise affect BP, pulse pressure, and MAP.
BP and HR immediately after exercise
• Have the subject run in place for 5 minutes.
• Immediately measure systolic and diastolic BP, and
record the results in Table 29.3. •
TABLE 2 9. 3 Effed of Exercise on Blood Pressure
SYSTOLIC BP DIASTOLIC BP PULSE PRESSURE MAP
(mm Hg) (mm Hg) HR (mm Hg) (mm Hg)

Subject
At rest

Post-exercise

Class Average
At rest

Post-exercise