宇都宮大学国際学部研究論集　2016　第42号,　37−42 37

Behaviorist Theory and Task Based Language Learning

Andrew Reimann

Abstract physical variables such as environmental or material

Behaviorist Learning Theory is a psychology reinforcement. By dismissing the influence of mental
grounded pedagogical line of thought, based on the variables, behaviorist theories propose that free will is
idea that behavior can be researched scientifically an illusion and that responses can be determined and
without consideration of cognitive states. The primary conditioned. Key figures essential to the development
hypothesis is that learning is influenced solely by of these theories include Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson
physical variables such as environmental or material and B.F. Skinner.
reinforcement. By dismissing the influence of mental
variables, behaviorist theories propose that free will is Framing the Issue
an illusion and that responses can be determined and Behaviorist Learning Theory is based on principles
conditioned. Key figures essential to the development of Behaviorism, which were developed during the
of these theories include Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson first half of the 20th century. Learning was understood
and B.F. Skinner. Much of behaviorist learning theory as a process, which created a permanent change in
requires the creation, application, processing and behavior as a result of experience. Behaviorism was
generalization of stereotypes. Conditioning is the belief established as an alternative to introspective methods
that an event, stimulus or process will be repeated of understanding psychological processes involved in
with the same results in the future thereby reinforcing learning. This approach was considered unscientific
an appropriate response. However in order to explain and subjective as learning outcomes and process could
human behavior as diverse and variable as language, not be accurately observed or measured. Behaviorism
culture, customs and beliefs, a system of learning grew out of the premise that learning is a process
based on stereotypes can be inefficient and dangerous. influenced by changes in the environment and resulting
Nevertheless, aspects of this approach have several in changes in behavior. As such learning can be
implications for language learning especially in regard understood by observing the context and environment
to learning complex and hidden elements of language and subsequent behavior. The dominant theory was
such as culture and communication styles. Some that both humans and animals learn in the same way
practical examples of how cultural and communicative through conditioning, by responding to stimulus and
behavior tasks might be applied to language teaching modifying behavior accordingly. In this way learning
are also included. analysis became observable and scientific as opposed
to a subjective description of invisible and internal
Introduction processes.
Behaviorist Learning Theory is a psychology The basic assumptions of behaviorist learning are
grounded pedagogical line of thought, based on the as follows:
idea that behavior can be researched scientifically ・ Behavior is a product of environment
without consideration of cognitive states. The primary ・ Internal process cannot be observed or measured
hypothesis is that learning is influenced solely by scientifically and should be excluded.
38 Andrew Reimann

・ Learning is a form of stimulus response and of unrelated but similar stimuli. In contrast being
described through the relationship between able to distinguish between different and irrelevant
observable events. stimuli is discrimination. Based on these elements,
・ Learning is a process which results in a change in classical conditioning became a dominant theory
behavior explaining how all organisms are able to adapt to their
・ Learning is evident when certain events coincide environment and learn new behaviors.
・ Humans and animals learn new behavior in the Watson further developed Pavlov’s theories
same way proposing that psychology focus on being able to
predict responses to various stimuli and completely
Early research on behaviorist learning focused disregard internal process of learning. Watson’s
on animals conditioning variations in behavior by main premise was that all human behavior could
eliciting responses to controlled stimulus in a closed be explained or understood through conditioned
environment. Later research and experimentation responses. Many of his studies were controversial
began to look at human learning to determine if the and even considered unethical. In particular was his
same theories could be applied. Notable pioneers in experimentation and observation of an 11 month infant
developing behaviorist learning theories include; Ivan known as “Little Albert”. These studies established
Pavlov (1849-1936), John Watson (1878-1958), B. F. Pavlov's original theories as applicable to human
Skinner (1904-1990). learning and had a profound influence on modern
Pavlov proposed a theory of classical conditioning, psychology in particular areas concerned with therapy
which implies that learning or changes in behavior and emotions. In a very short period of time Watson
occur when neutral stimuli are paired with behavior was able to condition irrational fear of otherwise
at a specific time to associate the stimulus with the neutral or pleasing stimuli. When a cute stuffed animal
behavior. By studying the salivation reflex of his dog, was associated with loud noise, “Little Albert” became
Pavlov found that he could trigger the reflex through a afraid of the toy. This learned fear was generalized
new and unrelated stimulus. Thereby proving learning to other stimulus and included all small animals
on the part of the dog. The presence of food made and white fluffy objects, which would under normal
the dog salivate. Pavlov associated the ringing of a conditions, be harmless or pleasing to a child.
bell and other stimuli with the presence of the food. These experiments and theories are significant
Finally the dog became conditioned to respond to in that they provide a model and framework for
the new stimulus alone and would salivate without objectively studying internal process such as learning.
the presence of food. During this research, which Skinner extended these theories to include more
became known as classical conditioning, he made complex elements of learning that went beyond
several important discoveries, which are still used to basic reflexes and tried to explain higher cognitive
describe learning processes. These include acquisition, and social phenomena. He explained this type of
extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and learning of involuntary responses or behavior as
discrimination operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is a non-
Acquisition refers to the initial learning of a reflexive behavior that is learned in order to operate
conditioned response. The weakening or disappearance on the environment to produce a reward (positive
of a conditioned response in the absence of an reinforcement) or avoid a punishment (negative
unconditioned stimulus is extinction. If the conditioned reinforcement). Working on the premise that classical
response returns after a short period of time, this is conditioning works with the environment to elicit
known as spontaneous recovery. Generalization is behaviors that allow an organism to adapt, survive or
the ability to associate responses with other types evolve, Skinner went one step further and conditioned
 Behaviorist Theory and Task Based Language Learning 39

behavior that was irrelevant to an organism’s wellbeing However with regards to people such generalization
or survival. His experimentation with pigeons can result in discrimination, racism, bias, ignorance
teaching them to play ping pong or walk in a figure and generally block or prohibit the acquisition of new
8 showed that learning is not necessarily a product information especially if it conflicts with previously
of innate ability, biological tendencies or natural held or well established beliefs. Observation, is a
instincts designed to keep us safe. Previous theories key element of learning and can either reinforce or
supported the idea of behaviorism as supporting the challenge and dispel previous knowledge. In order to
ideas of natural selection and survival of the fittest apply observation scientifically, in a way that can lead
and that organisms have a higher propensity to learn to objective learning and the dissolution of inaccurate
behavior that allows them to flourish and survive. or overgeneralized stereotypes, a form of ethnographic
Skinner was able to challenge this by teaching animals methodology is required. Ethnographic principles were
uncharacteristic behaviors. However in consideration first applied and developed by anthropologist Margaret
of higher cognitive process, social influences and Mead as she studied the behavior of aboriginal people
biological predispositions, Skinner’s model of learning in Papua New Guinea. Ethnography here required
was inadequate as it failed to consider the essential that in order to learn and understand the culture in an
internal processes involved in learning that classical unfamiliar society or environment, it was necessary to
behaviorists ignored as unscientific. Chomsky was observe and take detailed notes describing all aspects
one of the main opponents to Skinner’s theory, of the context, subjects and behavior. In this way
particularly as it applied to language learning. He learning could take place objectively without bias or
concluded that essential factors influencing language the influence of stereotypes, expectations or previously
learning, acquisition and subsequent proficiency held assumptions. James Spradley (1980) applied these
were innate and that all languages had an underlying methods to studying phenomena in modern society,
universal grammar that enabled all humans to learn subcultures and other communities. He coined phrases
and produce an infinite number and variation of such as thick description and participant observation
intelligible language regardless of culture, background to emphasize the need to observe and describe
or experience. In this way linguistic theory of learning, subjects and context carefully and objectively. In this
a human propensity for language; Universal Grammar way learning is carried out by not only observing
could account for the diverse variation and creativity and copying behavior, rather through processing
of language in a way that behaviorism could not. observations, analyzing information and applying
results objectively to any response.
Making the Case
Much of behaviorist learning theory requires the Pedagogical Implications
creation, application, processing and generalization of This approach has several implications for
stereotypes. Conditioning is the belief that an event, language learning especially in regard to learning
stimulus or process will be repeated with the same complex and hidden elements of language such
results in the future thereby reinforcing a response. as culture and communication styles. Byram
However in order to explain human behavior as diverse (1997) proposed a form of ethnographic learning
and variable as language, culture, customs and beliefs, which involved students immersing themselves
a system of learning based on stereotypes can be in a language community in order to develop a
inefficient and dangerous. Using a stereotype to learn set of skills or culturally appropriate behaviors to
that a flame or stove is hot is valuable as that lesson accompany language proficiency. He referred to this
can be logically and easily generalized to any other as Intercultural Communicative Competence and
stove, flame or hot object in another unfamiliar context. highlighted 5 savoirs/ abilities required in becoming
40 Andrew Reimann

culturally competent communicator. This required do in the real world, incorporate what is known about
that learners not only mimic target culture behavior the nature of successful communication, and embody
but also try to understand through observation and what is known about second language acquisition
exploration. In order to incorporate higher aspects (Widdowson, 1987).
of communication such as culture, communication Some practical examples of how cultural and
styles and other differences, Reimann (2012) proposed communicative behavior tasks might be applied to
a form of participant observation and ethnographic language teaching include the following:
research to objectively consider all variables affecting
language learning. In this research, tasks, which Perception and Perspective Analysis
raise cultural awareness, were found to be essential Using images or videos to have students confront,
in adapting behaviors, mannerisms and cultural evaluate and reconsider their cultural sterotypes and
appropriacy necessary to communicate effectively social expectations in order to develop more flexible
with a target community. This methodology used communicative behavior. People tend to see only what
behaviorist principles to include hidden aspects and they expect or want to see. Individual differences of
influences of communication without relying on perception and perspective affect how we experience
stereotypes, which may be inaccurate or subjective. reality. Stereotypes, generalizations, and prejudices
In this regard a stimulus from an unfamiliar culture lead people to interact with the world in a limited
would be observed, experienced and evaluated before way. By understanding this process, learners are able
generating a culturally appropriate response. The to broaden their outlook by reevaluating their first
successful interaction or communication would then impressions and initial expectations, which enables
be the positive reinforcement to support the behavior them to become more tolerant and flexible.
occurring in future situations. In contrast relying on
stereotypes or behaviors which are preconceived and Self and Group Awareness Raising
not experienced could result in negative reinforcement, Answering reflective questions through interviews,
miscommunication or culture shock having an adverse surveys and discussions, learners can find out more
impact on the learning process. about themselves and each other. By looking inward
With regards to language and culture learning, and understanding the influences that shape their
Widdowson (1998) asserted that learners cannot be identity, learners are able to understand the extent to
rehearsed in patterns of cultural behaviour because which individual differences can vary and how diverse
these are too unpredictable and cannot be reproduced their communities really are.
in the classroom. However, he also suggests that
the classroom context is a community with its own Critical Incident Analysis
cultural reality and conventions, and that this offers Critical incidents are short dialogues and
a unique environment in which language and culture scenarios, which highlight an aspect of intercultural
are not just learned but learned from. Tasks more communication, which may be unfamiliar or
representative of the real world can then be integrated challenging if encountered in the real world.
into the classroom as a methodology that will Witholding overt cultural information or references,
provide for communicative competence by functional such as names and nationalities, allows the learners
investment, engaging the learners in problem-solving to form their own interpretations and evaluate the
tasks as purposeful activities but without the rehearsal language and culture of each scenario, independent of
requirement that they should be realistic or “authentic” preconceptions or stereotypes. This allows free thought
as natural social behavior. These tasks should then be and a more complete synthesis of cultural differences
systematically linked to the things learners need to and understanding of intercultural communication.
 Behaviorist Theory and Task Based Language Learning 41

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are also directly in control as they collaborate to Pearson Education, Inc.
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helping them synthesize concepts, and establish 49-66), TESOL.
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42 Andrew Reimann

行動主義理論とタスク中心の言語学習

ライマン アンドリュー
概要
行動主義学習理論とは、態度や振る舞いの分析は認知プロセスの分析を必ずしも必要としない、とい
う心理学の研究成果に基づいた教授法のまとまりである。基本的な仮説は、学習は環境や物質の変化と
いった物理的な要因のみによって影響される、というものである。心理的要因の影響を考慮しないことで、
行動主義理論は自由な意思は虚構であり、反応は規定され条件づけることができると考える。こうした
理論の発展には、イヴァン・パブロフ、ジョン・ワトソン、スキナーなどが貢献した。行動主義学習理
論を主張する研究者の多くは、ステレオタイプの創造、適用、定着、一般化という一連の学習の流れを
重要視している。条件付けとは、生物が、ある出来事や刺激、手続きが将来も同じ結果をもたらすと確
信した場合、結果的に一定の反応が強化されることである。しかしながら、人類の行動が、言語や文化、
慣習や進行のように多様性を反映するものだと考える立場からは、ステレオタイプに基づく学習システ
ムの理解は、非効率的であり、またある種の危険性を伴うものと考えざるを得ない。一方で、文化やコミュ
ニケーションスタイルといった複雑で不可視的な言語要素の学習には、このような行動主義理論に基づ
いたアプローチが有効な場合があるのも事実である。本稿では、文化やコミュニケーション行動のタス
クが言語教育に応用できる複数の実践例について述べることにする。

（2016 年 5 月 31 日受理）