Children and Adolescent Development

Theories People who are fixated at the oral stage:

Psychosexual Development Theory • maybe overly dependent;

Freud believed that all persons passed through a set • they may want to be babied;
series of stages in personality development. Each of
• to be nurtured and taken care of; and
these stages involves a conflict, and how the person
resolves this conflict gives rise to an aspects of his/her • to have others make decisions for them.
personality.
Note: Drug addition (because it involves pleasure from
In psychoanalytic theory, the source of individual “taking in” is a sign of oral fixation.
differences lies in how the child comes to resolves
conflicts in each of the stages of development. The end
result, after going through all the stages, is a fully Other possible conflicts
formed personality.
They might develop adult personalities that are
Because all this happens in childhood, the famous hostile, quarrelsome or mocking, verbally aggressive,
phrase, “The child is father to the man,” captures a key etc.
Freudian idea.
Second Stage: Anal Stage (18 months - 3 years old)
Freud’s theory of development is called the
Psychosexual Stage Theory, where children seek sexual During this stage the child’s attention shifts to the
gratification at each stage by investing libidinal energy process of elimination. The child obtains pleasure from
in a specific body part. Each stage is named after the the rectum, expelling feces and then, during toilet
body part in which sexual energy is invested. training, from retaining feces.

At first, the id desires immediate tension reduction

whenever there is any pressure in the rectum. This is
First stage: Oral stage (0-8 mos) achieved by defecating whenever and wherever the
During this period the main source of pleasure and urge arises.
tension reduction is the mouth, lips and tongue. Parents work to instill in the child a degree of self-
Ex: Whenever they come across something new, such as control through the process of toilet training.
a rattle or a toy, they usually put it in their mouth. Many conflicts arise around this issue of the child’s
The main conflict during this stage is weaning, ability to achieve self-control. Some children achieve
withdrawing from the breast or bottle. too little control and grow up to be sloppy and dirty.

Ex. Overeating, smoking, nail biting, thumb sucking, Freud characterized the anal-retentive (holding-on)
etc. personality as obstinate, stingy, orderly and
compulsively clean. The anal-expulsive
(letting-go) personality is disorderly, destructive, cruel,
or messy.
If a child fails to fully resolve a conflict at a particular
stage of development, he/she may get stuck in that
stage, a phenomenon known as FIXATION.

Libido - signify the instinctual physiological or psychic

energy associated with sexual urges with all
constructive human activity.
 person and the social world.

Third Stage: Phallic Stage (3 - 6 years old

An unfavorable outcome throws one off balance
In this stage, the child increases sexual interest and makes it harder to deal with later crisis. A string of
causes him/her to become physically attracted to the successes produce healthy development and a
parent of the opposite sex. satisfying life. Those who are plagued with unfavorable
outcomes may experience life as a “rocky road.”
In males, this generates the Oedipus Conflict/Complex,
in which the boy feels rivalry with his father for the Erickson de-emphasized the role of sex as a
affection of the mother. The counterpart is called the motivator for behavior and instead placed a much focus
Electra Conflict/Complex, the girl loves her father and on the role of social relationships.
competes with her mother.
His eight-stage theory of psychosocial development
Adult characteristics of the phallic personality are concentrates on a series of developmental conflicts that
vanity, exhibitionism, sensitive pride and narcissism occur throughout the lifespan, from birth until death.
(self-love). Each stage, people face a crisis that must be resolved to
develop certain psychological strengths.

Fourth Stage: Latency (6 years old – Puberty)

First Stage (1 year old) Trust versus Mistrust
This is not actually a stage, rather, it is a time during
which psychosexual development is temporarily Children are completely dependent on others for safety
interrupted. and comfort. Erikson believes that a basic attitude of
trust or mistrust is formed at this time.
Freud’s contention that psychosexual development is
“on hold” at this time is a bit difficult to accept for those Trust is established by regular satisfaction of a baby’s
who work with children. Nevertheless, Freud saw needs. Babies given adequate warmth, touch, love and
latency as relatively quiet time compared to the stormy physical care learn to view the world as a safe and
first six years of life. dependable place.

Mistrust is caused by inadequate or unpredictable

care and by parents who are cold, indifferent or
Fifth Stage: Genital Stage (Puberty - Adolescence) rejecting. Basic mistrust may become the core of later
In this stage, a resurgence of sexual energies activates insecurity, suspiciousness or inability to relate to others.
all the unresolved conflicts of earlier years. It is the Second Stage (1 - 3 years) Autonomy
reason why adolescence can be such a trying time, filled versus Shame and Doubt
with emotion and turmoil.
This stage is the age of exploration, muscular
It is marked by a growing capacity for mature and development allows children to take charge of their
responsible social sexual relationships. The genital behavior. Growing independence is expressed by
stage culminates in heterosexual love and the climbing, touching, exploring and a general desire to do
attainment of full adult sexuality. things for themselves.

Parents help their children develop a sense of

Psychosocial Development Theory autonomy by encouraging them to try new skills and by
reassuring them if they fail. Consistent overprotection
Erik Erikson suggests that individual faces a specific may limit development by denying opportunities for
psychosocial dilemma or “crisis” at each stage of life. self-direction.
Resolving these crisis creates a new balance between a
 become as important as parents in shaping attitudes
toward oneself.

Second Stage (1 - 3 years) Autonomy

versus Shame and Doubt Fifth Stage (Adolescence) Identity
versus Role Confusion
Parents can foster a sense of autonomy by encouraging
children to try new skills. However, the child’s first Adolescence is often a turbulent time. Caught between
efforts can be crude. Often, they result in spilling, childhood and adulthood, the adolescent faces some
falling, wetting and other “accidents.” Thus, parents unique problems.
who ridicule or overprotect their children, may cause
Erikson considers a need to answer the question
them to doubt their abilities and feel shameful about
“Who am I?” the primary task during this stage of life.
their actions.
Mental and physical maturation bring new feelings, a
Erikson feels that parents who made fun of their new body and new attitudes. Adolescent must build a
children cause them to feel ashamed of their actions consistent identity out of their talents, values, life
and to doubt their abilities. Thus, feelings of shame history, relationships and the demands of their culture.
and doubt are the unfavorable outcome of this stage.
Conflicting experiences as a student, friend, son or
daughter, and so forth, must be integrated into a
unified sense of self. Persons who fail to develop a
Third Stage (3 - 5 years) Initiative
sense of identity suffer from role confusion, an
versus Guilt
uncertainty about who they are and where they are
Children move beyond simple self-control and begin going.
to take initiatives. Through play, children learn to make
plans and carry their tasks.
Sixth Stage (Young Adulthood) Intimacy versus
Parents reinforce initiative by giving children freedom
Isolation
to play, ask questions, use imagination and choose
activities. In this stage, the individual feels a need for
intimacy in his or her life. After establishing a stable
Feelings of guilt about initiating activities are
identity, a person is prepared to share meaningful love
formed if parents criticize severely, prevent play or
or deep friendship with others.
discourage a child’s question.
By intimacy, Erikson means an ability to care about
others and to share experiences with them. People who
Fourth Stage (6 - 12 years) Industry fail to develop intimacy during this stage face emotional
versus Inferiority isolation. They may pass through many superficial
relationships without finding the satisfaction of
Erikson describes the elementary school years as the closeness promised by genuine relationship. Indeed,
child’s “entrance into life.” In school, children begin to they may avoid emotional commitment.
learn skills valued by society and success or failure can
affect a child’s feelings of adequacy. The single-person’s lifestyle has its advantages and may
be pleasant for a while, but failure to move beyond this
Children learn a sense of industry if they win praise for lifestyle can seriously inhibit emotional growth and
productive activities such as building, painting, cooking happiness.
reading and studying.

If a child’s efforts are regarded as messy, childish or

inadequate, feelings of inferiority result. For the first
time, teachers, classmates and adults outside the home
 Cognitive Development Theory

Jean Piaget’s theory focused on cognitive development,

how thinking changes.
Seventh Stage (Middle Adulthood) Generativity versus
Stagnation
His theory began with naturalistic observation of
According to Erikson, an interest in guiding the next children including his own, in real life situations. On
generation is the main source of balance in mature the basis of his observation Piaget hypothesized that
adulthood and he called this quality generativity. young children’s thinking processes might differ from
that of adults.
Helping others as teacher, coach, public servant,
among others and productivity or creative works can According to Piaget, all of us have mental framework or
also express generativity. In any case, a person’s structure for understanding and thinking about the
concerns and energies must broaden to include the world and he called this framework schemata.
welfare of others and society as a whole.

Failure to do this is marked by a stagnant concern with

Schemata or scheme according to Piaget refers to the
one’s own needs and comforts. Life loses meaning and
cognitive structures (pervasive thought patterns) that
the person feels bitter, dreary, and trapped.
first appear during childhood and help children organize
knowledge.

Eight Stage (Late Adulthood) Integrity versus Despair This in turn helps them learn ways to view,
According to Erikson, a person must be able to understand and interpret the world around them, and
look back over life with acceptance and satisfaction. to adapt to the demands of the world.

The person who has lived richly and responsibly Schemas are a way of organizing knowledge, a way
develops a sense of integrity (self- of learning, we use them to understand and respond to
respect). This allows the person to face aging and death situations and they are stored and apply when needed.
with dignity.

If previous life events are viewed with regret, the

elderly person experience despair (heartache and
remorse). In this case, life seems like a series of missed
opportunities, the person feels like a failure and knows
it’s too late to reverse what has been done. Aging and
the threat of death then become source of fear and
depression.
Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 years) Formal Operational Stage (12 years - onward)

Piaget believed that through the senses and motor At this point in development, thinking becomes
abilities the infant or child can gain a basic much more sophisticated and advanced. They can think
understanding of the world around them. With their about abstract and theoretical concepts and use logic to
sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch - combined with come up with creative solutions to problems. Skills such
physical capabilities that continue to develop including as logical thoughts, deductive reasoning and systematic
touching, grasping, and tasting - allows him/her to planning also emerge during this stage.
interact and build awareness of themselves and what is
In deductive reasoning, they develop the ability to use a
around them
general principle to determine a particular outcome.
Until the child learns to develop symbols to represent Science and mathematics often require this type of
events or objects in the world and he/she begins to thinking about hypothetical situations and concepts. In
move towards understanding the world through mental abstract thought, instead of relying solely on previous
operations rather than purely through actions. experiences, they begin to consider possible outcomes
and consequences of actions.

Preoperational Stage (2 - 7 years)

During this stage, children begin to engage in symbolic

play and learn to manipulate symbols. However, Piaget
noted that they do not yet understand concrete
logic, cannot mentally manipulate information, and
are unable to take the point of view of other people,
which he termed egocentrism.

Children are increasingly adept at using symbols, as

evidenced by the increase in playing and pretending.
For example, a child is able to use an object to
represent something else, such as pretending a broom
is a horse.

Concrete Operational Stage (7 -11 years)

During this stage, children demonstrate the ability to

think about ideas. They start to talk authoritatively
about complex relationship, such as cause and effect
and categorization.

They can take other’s perspectives and reverse

operations. Children at this stage show a mastery of
real-world relationship. This mastery is limited,
however, to ideas that have real-world counterparts,
such as brothers and sisters and other family members,
categories of plants or animals, or causes of weather
conditions, etc.
Moral Development Theory Stage 4 - Maintaining the Social Order

The individual becomes more aware of the rules of

Laurence Kolhberg was a student of Jean Piaget and he
society on a broader scale. As a result, they become
expanded upon Piaget’s ideas and developed a method
concerned with obeying laws and maintaining the social
to evaluate the moral reasoning processes of children.
order.
He presented them with stories about moral
dilemmas, such as the story of Heinz and asked them to
say what the main character in the story should do and Level 3: Postconventional Morality
why.
If individual reach the highest level of moral
Kolhberg developed a stage theory of moral development, they start to question if what they see
development and its focus is moral reasoning, how around them is good, In this case, morality stems from
children come to their decision about what is right and self-defined principles.
wrong rather than on the particular decisions that they
make. Stage 5 - Social Contract and Individual Rights.

Level 1: Preconventional Morality Society should function as a social contract where the
goal of each individual is to improve society as a whole.
At the lowest level of moral development, In this context, morality and individual rights like life
individuals haven’t yet internalized a sense of morality. and liberty may take precedence over specific laws.
Moral standards are dictated by adults and the
consequences of breaking the rules. Stage 6 - Universal Principles

Stage 1 - Punishment and Obedience Orientation People develop their own principles of morality
even if they conflict with society’s laws. These
Children believe the rules are fixed and must be principles must be applied to every individual equally.
obeyed and morality is external to the self.

Stage 2 - Individualism and Exchange

Children begin to realize that the rules are not absolute.

Different people have different perspectives and
therefore there isn’t just one correct point of view.

Level 2: Conventional Morality

A majority of adolescents and adults fall into the

middle level of conventional morality. At this level,
people start to internalize moral standards but not
necessarily to question them. These standards are
based on the social norms of the groups a person is a
part of.

Stage 3 - Good Interpersonal Relationship

Morality arises from living up to the standards of a

given group, such as one’s family or community and
being a good group member.