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SECTION 1.1

R1. What is the difference between a host and an end system? List several different types of end systems. Is a Web server an end systems?

Host is Computer or a device connected to a network which provide information, resources or services to users or other host in a network.

End Systems are termed as they are at the edge of internet which does not interact with the users but provide various services. For example, web
servers and e-mail servers which does not interact with users directly but provide resources.

End System are considered same as hosts but with no direct interaction with the user and Web Server is an end system.

R2. The word protocol is often used to describe diplomatic relations. How does Wikipedia describe diplomatic protocol?

 The heads of countries (or) heads of nations represents the diplomatic protocol.

 The word protocol contains set of rules to deals with other nations/countries.

 It is a special type of art to guiding interaction between the different nations/countries.

R3. Why are standards important for protocols?

The reason behind te standards are important for protocols:

 Protocols means set of rules. Protocols is used to sending and construing information in the same order and manner for communicate
computers always.

SECTION 1.2

R4. List four access technologies. Classify each one as home access, enterprise access, or wide-area wireless access.  

Technologies Classification
1. Dial-up modem over telephone line Residential Access
 2. Hybrid fiber-coaxial cable Residential Access
3. 100 Mbps switched Ethernet Enterprise Access
4. Wireless LAN  Home and Enterprise Access
5. Digital subscriber Line Residential Access

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 6. 3G , 4G services wide-area wireless access

R5. Is HFC transmission rate dedicated or shared among users? Are collisions possible in a downstream HFC channel? Why or why not?

 HFC means Hybrid Fiber Coaxial cable. Its combines coaxial cable and fiber opticals.

 HFC transmission rate shared among users.

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No. Collisions  are not possible in a downstream HFC channel.-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Reason behind this, the head end contains single source is sent by the every packet. This is

travel downstream on every link

R6. List the available residential access technologies in your city. For each type of access, provide the advertised downstream rate, upstream rate,
and monthly price.

The available residential access technologies in city mainly as:

 Dial-up; DSL. Cable modem. Fiber-to-the-home

R7. What is the transmission rate of Ethernet LANs?

The transmission rates of Ethernet LANs are 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, 1 Gbps and 10 Gbps

R8. What are some of the physical media that Ethernet can run over?

Ethernet most commonly runs over twisted pair copper wire. It also can run over fibers optic links

R9. HFC, DSL, and FTTH are all used for residential access. For each of these access technologies, provide a range of transmission rates and
comment on whether the transmission rate is shared or dedicated.

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Dial-up modems: Transmission rate: 56 Kbps. Broad cast medium device.

HFC(Hybrid fiber-coaxial cable ): Transmission rate: 10 Mbps to 30 Mbps. Shared broad cast medium.

DSL(Digital subscriber line ): Transmission rate:  <5Mbps Dedicated broad cast medium.

FTTH(Fiber To The Home ): Transmission rate:  Approximately 20Mbps .Shared broad cast medium

R10. Describe the most popular wireless Internet access technologies today. Compare and contrast them.

The comparison between above mentioned wireless Internet access technologies are:

 These two technologies are called computer networks. It is using for wireless data connections.

 WLAN will covers short distance and Wide-area wireless access networks will covers long distance.

 These two networks will used in mobile technology via internet connection.

Contrast between Wireless Local Area Network and Wide-area wireless access network:

Wireless Local Area Network Wide-area wireless access network

In Wireless LAN, data will transmit through radio In Wide-area wireless access network, data will
transmissions. transmit or receive through wireless infrastructure
  to use for cellular telephony.

In a wireless LAN, wireless users transmit (or) In Wide-area wireless access network, data will
receive packets to (or) from a base station or transmit within a radius of tens of kilometers from
wireless access point within a radius of few tens of the base station to users.
meters.

The base station is typically connected to the wired

Internet and thus serves to connect wireless users to
the wired network.

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Wireless LAN is used in  small business, schools, Wide-area wireless access network technology can
universities and homes etc. be used in mobile.

Wide-area wireless access network is called as 3G

Wireless LAN is called as Wi-Fi.
and 4G.

SECTION 1.3

R11. Suppose there is exactly one packet switch between a sending host and a receiving host. The transmission rates between the sending host and
the switch and between the switch and the receiving host are R1 and R2, respectively. Assuming that the switch uses store-and-forward packet
switching, what is the total end-to-end delay to send a packet of length L? (Ignore queuing, propagation delay, and processing delay.)

Consider the data:

R1= Transmission rates between the sending host and the switch

R2= Transmission rates between the switch and the receiving host

L=  Packet of length

Therefore, total end-to-end delay to send a packet of length L=L/R1+L/R2

R12. What advantage does a circuit-switched network have over a packet-switched network? What advantages does TDM have over FDM in a
circuit-switched network?

Advantages of a circuit-switched network have over a packet-switched network:

 Circuit switched network is used for voice/video calls, but packet-switched network is not possible do this.

 Circuit switched network's bandwidth is limited, but packet-switched network's bandwidth is not limited. So, packets transfer is time taken
in packet-switched network.

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Advantages of TDM have over FDM in a circuit-switched network:

 TDM means Time Division Multiplexing. FDM means Frequency Division Multiplexing.

 In TDM, same frequency operate all connections, but In FDM, different frequencies operate all connections.

R13. Suppose users share a 2 Mbps link. Also suppose each user transmits continuously at 1 Mbps when transmitting, but each user transmits
only 20 percent of the time. (See the discussion of statistical multiplexing in Section 1.3.)

a. When circuit switching is used, how many users can be supported?

b. For the remainder of this problem, suppose packet switching is used. Why will there be essentially no queuing delay before the link if two or
fewer users transmit at the same time? Why will there be a queuing delay if three users transmit at the same time?

c. Find the probability that a given user is transmitting.

d. Suppose now there are three users. Find the probability that at any given time, all three users are transmitting simultaneously. Find the fraction
of time during which the queue grows.

a) 2 users can be supported because each user requires half of the link bandwidth.

b) Since each user requires 1Mbps when transmitting, if two or fewer users transmit simultaneously, a maximum of 2Mbps will be required. Since
the available bandwidth of the shared link is 2Mbps, there will be no queuing delay before the link. Whereas, if three users transmit
simultaneously, the bandwidth required will be 3Mbps which is more than the available bandwidth of the shared link. In this case, there will be
queuing delay before the link.

c) Probability that a given user is transmitting = 0.2

d) Probability that all three users are transmitting simultaneously =   

Since the queue grows when all the users are transmitting, the fraction of time during which the queue grows (which is equal to the probability that
all three users are transmitting simultaneously) is 0.008.

R14. Why will two ISPs at the same level of the hierarchy often peer with each other? How does an IXP earn money?

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 Using the intermediate ISP provider to carry the traffic by the two ISPs.

 It is an extra burden to the two ISPs.

 If hierarchy often peer with each other then reduces the cost for two ISPs to avoid intermediate ISP provider.

So, the t wo ISPs at the same level of the hierarchy often peer with each other.

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 IXP means Internet eXchange Point. Its contains multple ISPs to exchange traffice in internet.

 Then charge the money to each ISP that connects to it.

So, an IXP earn money.

R15. Some content providers have created their own networks. Describe Google’s network. What motivates content providers to create these
networks?

Google’s network:

 This network provides global data.

 It is used to transfer content within the Google servers.

 Its contains some Tier-1 ISP and interconnect with TCP/IP.

Motivates:

 It is used to save money by transfer data and less time to travel content.

 Content providers to control over the services.

16. Consider sending a packet from a source host to a destination host over a fixed route. List the delay components in the end-to-end delay.
Which of these delays are constant and which are variable?

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 Processing delay: Processing delay is fixed. Processing delays depends on several factors such as time taken to check the packet header, time
taken to check errors in the packet etc.

• Transmission delay: Transmission delay is fixed. It is the time taken to transmit all the bits of the packet into the link.

• Propagation delay: Propagation delay is fixed. It is the time taken to travel from the beginning of the link to router B.

• Queuing delay: Queuing delay is variable. It is the time spent waiting in the queue to be transmitted onto the link. If the packet is the only
packet to be transmitted then the queuing delays will be zero.

the processing delay, transmission delay, and propagation delay are constant.  Reason is that, time taken to transmit data bits.

The queuing delay is variable .Reason is that, Only single packet transfer in queue process and waiting time depends on packet size.

17. Visit the Transmission Versus Propagation Delay interactive animation at the companion Web site. Among the rates, propagation
delay, and packet sizes available, find a combination for which the sender finishes transmitting before the first bit of the packet
reaches the receiver. Find another combination for which the first bit of the packet reaches the receiver before the sender finishes
transmitting.

Given the Transmission Versus Propagation Delay applet at the companion Web site:

s=Propagation speed = 2.8*108 m/s 

E=End-to-End delay = 3.620 ms

L=Packet length=1 KBytes

d=link length=1000 km

R=Transmission rate=10Mbps

R18. How long does it take a packet of length 1,000 bytes to propagate over a link of distance 2,500 km, propagation speed 2.5 # 108
m/s, and transmission rate 2 Mbps? More generally, how long does it take a packet of length L to propagate over a link of distance d,

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propagation speed s, and transmission rate R bps? Does this delay depend on packet length? Does this delay depend on transmission
rate?

Transmission delay = L/R = 8 bits/byte * 1,000 bytes / 2,000,000 bps     = 4 ms

Propagation delay = d/s     = 2,500 / 2.5×105   = 10 ms

Therefore, the total time = 4ms + 10 ms = 14 ms

No, the delay depend on packet lenght is not true.

No,  the delay depend on transmission rate is not true.

R19. Suppose Host A wants to send a large file to Host B. The path from Host A to Host B has three links, of rates R1 = 500 kbps, R2
= 2 Mbps, and R3 = 1 Mbps. a. Assuming no other traffic in the network, what is the throughput for the file transfer? b. Suppose the
file is 4 million bytes. Dividing the file size by the throughput, roughly how long will it take to transfer the file to Host B? c. Repeat
(a) and (b), but now with R2 reduced to 100 kbps

a) Consider given data:R1 = 500 kbps, R2 = 2 Mbps, and R3 = 1 Mbps

The throughput for the file transfer=min{R1,R2,R3}

                                      =min{500 kbps, 2 Mbps, 1 Mbps}

                                          =500 kbps So, the throughput for the file transfer=500 kbps

b)Consider given data:

The file size= 4 million bytes

Convert million bytes to bits    =32000000 bits.

 From (a), Throughput for the file transfer=500 Kbps

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                                                           =500000 bps

Dividing the file size by the throughput,roughly how long will it take to transfer the file to Host B:

=file size/hroughput for the file transfer

=32000000 bits/500000 bps =64 seconds

c) Consider the given data: Repeat (a) and (b), but now with R2 reduced to 100 kbps.

That means R2=100 kbps , R1 = 500 kbps,  and R3 = 1 Mbps

The throughput for the file transfer=min{R1,R2,R3}

                                                  =min{500 kbps, 100 kbps, 1 Mbps}

                                                  =100 kbps So, the throughput for the file transfer=100 kbps

Dividing the file size by the through put, roughly how long will it take to transfer the file to Host B:

=file size/h rough put for the file transfer =32000000 bits/100000 bps =320 seconds

R20. Suppose end system A wants to send a large file to end system B. At a very high level, describe how end system A creates
packets from the file. When one of these packets arrives to a router, what information in the packet does the router use to determine
the link onto which the packet is forwarded? Why is packet switching in the Internet analogous to driving from one city to another and
asking directions along the way?

Consider given data: Suppose end system A wants to send a large file to end system B.

The following steps to end System A creates packets from the file at very high level:

 Divide file into chunks.

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 Create a packet by attach header to chunk.

 Each packet maintain an address of the destination.

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The following information in the packet does the switch use to determine the link onto which the packet is forwarded:

 Switch uses the destination address.

 It is easy to find which packet is forward to the header.

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The following the  packet switching in the Internet analogous to driving from one city to another and asking directions along the way:

 Each packet maintain an address of the destination.

 Reaching packet, packet display outgoing link which road to take to forwarded

R21. Visit the Queuing and Loss interactive animation at the companion Web site. What is the maximum emission rate and the
minimum transmission rate? With those rates, what is the traffic intensity? Run the interactive animation with these rates and
determine how long it takes for packet loss to occur. Then repeat the experiment a second time and determine again how long it takes
for packet loss to occur. Are the values different? Why or why not?

Consider to visit the Queuing and Loss applet at the companion Web site:

The maximum emission rate =500 packets/s

The minimum transmission rate=350 packets/s

The traffic intensity=500/350   =1.42

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SECTION 1.5

R22. List five tasks that a layer can perform. Is it possible that one (or more) of these tasks could be performed by two (or more)
layers

The following list five tasks that a layer can perform:

1. Flow control
2. Error control
3. Segmentation and reassembly
4. Multiplexing
5. Connection setup

R23. What are the five layers in the Internet protocol stack? What are the principal responsibilities of each of these layers?

The following are the five layers in the Internet protocol stack:

1. Application layer
2. Transport layer
3. Network layer
4. Data link layer
5. Physical layer.

Principal responsibilities:

Application layer: HTTP, SMTP, and FTP protocols are used in application layer. it is used to send data over multiple end systems.

Transport layer:  Transfer the content between two endpoints mainly. TCP and UDP protocols are used in transport layer.

Network layer:  Move the packets between any two hosts in the network. IP protocol is used in network layer.

Data link layer:  Move the packets from one node to the next another node. Point-to-point protocol (ppp) used in data link layer.

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Physical layer:  Transfer the individual bits from one node to the next node with in the frame.

R24. What is an application-layer message? A transport-layer segment? A network-layer data

Application layer message: HTTP, SMTP, and FTP protocols are used in application layer. it is used to send data over multiple end
systems.

Transport layer segment:  Transfer the content between two endpoints mainly. TCP and UDP protocols are used in transport layer.

Network layer datagram:  Move the packets between any two hosts in the network. IP protocol is used in network layer.

link-layer frame:  Move the packets from one node to the next another node. Point-to-point protocol (ppp) used in data link layer.

R25. Which layers in the Internet protocol stack does a router process? Which layers does a link-lay

The layers in the internet protocol stack which does router processes are: Physical layer, Link layer, Network layer

The layer which does a link layer switch process are:-Physical layer, Link layer

The layer which does a host process are all the five layers which are :-

 Physical layer ,Link layer, Network layer, Transport layer, Application layer

SECTION 1.6

R26. What is self-replicating malware?

R27. Describe how a botnet can be created and how it can be used for a DDoS attack

The following steps to create a botnet:

 Prepare host systems to find the vulnerability attacker tries.

 Using the Trojan to fight against attackers or compromises the host system.

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 This process is called botnet.

DDoS attack:

 DDoS means Distributed Denial-of-Service.

 The host systems can scan the environment and control the systems from the attacker.

R28. Suppose Alice and Bob are sending packets to each other over a computer network. Suppose Trudy positions herself in the
network so that she can capture all the packets sent by Alice and send whatever she wants to Bob; she can also capture all the packets
sent by Bob and send whatever she wants to Alice. List some of the malicious things Trudy can do from this position.

Consider the given data:

 Alice and Bob are sending packets to each other over a computer network.
 Trudy positions herself in the network so that she can capture all the packets sent by Alice and send whatever she wants to Bob

The following steps to list some of the malicious things Trudy can do from this position:

 She can observe the contents of all the packet and possiblity to modify content of packets and sent appropriate receiver.
 Trudy is chance to drop the packets from Alice to Bob or from Bob to Alice.

Problems

1. Design and describe an application-level protocol to be used between an automatic teller machine and a bank’s centralized
computer. Your protocol should allow a user’s card and password to be verified, the account balance (which is maintained at
the centralized computer) to be queried, and an account withdrawal to be made (that is, money disbursed to the user). Your
protocol entities should be able to handle the all-too-common case in which there is not enough money in the account to cover
the withdrawal. Specify your protocol by listing the messages exchanged and the action taken by the automatic teller machine
or the bank’s centralized computer on transmission and receipt of messages. Sketch the operation of your protocol for the case
of a simple withdrawal with no errors, using a diagram similar to that in Figure 1.2. Explicitly state the assumptions made by
your protocol about the underlying end-to-end transport service

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P2. Equation 1.1 gives a formula for the end-to-end delay of sending one packet of length L over N links of transmission rate
R. Generalize this formula for sending P such packets back-to-back over the N links

Consider the given data

           N = Total number of links

           R = Transmission rate

           L = Packet length

           P = packets that transmit over the N link

The following is the formula of back-to-back delay of sending P packets, each of length L over N links of transmission rate

P3. Consider an application that transmits data at a steady rate (for example, the sender generates an N-bit unit of data every k
time units, where k is small and fixed). Also, when such an application starts, it will continue running for a relatively long
period of time. Answer the following questions, briefly justifying your answer: a. Would a packet-switched network or a
circuit-switched network be more appropriate for this application? Why? b. Suppose that a packet-switched network is used
and the only traffic in this network comes from such applications as described above. Furthermore, assume that the sum of the
application data rates is less than the capacities of each and every link. Is some form of congestion control needed? Why?

a) Circuit-switched network is the more appropriate for this application.

Reason: Fixed bandwidth and long sessions involved.

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b) Consider that a packet-switched network is used and the only traffic in this network comes from such applications as described above.
Furthermore, assume that the sum of the application data rates is less than the capacities of each and every link. In that time congestion control is
needed. The reason is that sufficient bandwidth of the link is enabled to completed the task of application.

p4. Consider the circuit-switched network in Figure 1.13. Recall that there are four circuits on each link. Label the four switches A, B,
C, and D, going in the clockwise direction. a. What is the maximum number of simultaneous connections that can be in progress at
any one time in this network? b. Suppose that all connections are between switches A and C. What is the maximum number of
simultaneous connections that can be in progress? c. Suppose we want to make four connections between switches A and C, and
another four connections between switches B and D. Can we route these calls through the four links to accommodate all eight
connections?

a) Between the switch in the upper left and the switch in the upper right we can have 4 connections. Similarly we can have four
connections between each of the 3 other pairs of adjacent switches. Thus, this network can support up to 16 connections.

b) We can 4 connections passing through the switch in the upper-right-hand corner and another 4 connections passing through the
switch in the lower-left-hand corner, giving a total of 8 connections.

c) Yes. For the connections between A and C, we route two connections through B and two connections through D. For the
connections between B and D, we route two connections through A and two connections through C. In this manner, there are at most 4
connections passing through any link.

P5. Review the car-caravan analogy in Section 1.4. Assume a propagation speed of 100 km/hour. a. Suppose the caravan travels 175
km, beginning in front of one tollbooth, passing through a second tollbooth, and finishing just after a third tollbooth. What is the end-
to-end delay? b. Repeat (a), now assuming that there are eight cars in the caravan instead of ten

a) Suppose the caravan travels 150 km, beginning in front of one tollbooth, passing through a second tollbooth, and finishing just after a third
tollbooth.

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Assume a propagation speed of 100 km/hour.

Delay time=total distance/propagation speed

               =150/100km/hr.

              =1.5 hrs.

Time for taken by 3 tollbooths to reach 10 cars= 2*3=6 minutes.

So, end-to-end delay = 1hr 30 minutes + 6 minutes

                                      = 1hr 36minutes.

b) Assuming that there are 8 cars in the caravan instead of 10.

Time for taken by 3 tollbooths to reach 8 cars= 96*3=288 minutes=4 minutes 48 seconds.

So, end-to-end delay = 1hr 30 minutes + 4 minutes 48 seconds

                                      = 1hr 34 minutes 48 seconds

P6. This elementary problem begins to explore propagation delay and transmission delay, two central concepts in data networking.
Consider two hosts, A and B, connected by a single link of rate R bps. Suppose that the two hosts are separated by m meters, and suppose the
propagation speed along the link is s meters/sec. Host A is to send a packet of size L bits to Host B.

a. Express the propagation delay, d prop, in terms of m and s.

b. Determine the transmission time of the packet, d trans, in terms of L and R.

c. Ignoring processing and queuing delays, obtain an expression for the endto-end delay.

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d. Suppose Host A begins to transmit the packet at time t = 0. At time t = d trans, where is the last bit of the packet?

e. Suppose d prop is greater than d trans. At time t = d trans, where is the first bit of the packet? f. Suppose d prop is less than d trans. At time t = d
trans, where is the first bit of the packet?

g. Suppose s = 2.5 # 108 , L = 1500 bytes, and R = 10 Mbps. Find the distance m so that d prop equals d trans.

a) The propagation delay, d prop=m/s sec

b) The transmission time of the packet, d Trans=L/R sec

c)  The end-to-end delay=(L/ R+ m/s) sec

d) Suppose Host A begins to transmit the packet at time t = 0. At time t = d trans.

Then, the last bi of the packet t = d trans

e) Suppose d prop is greater than d trans. At time t = d trans

Thus, the first bit of the packet is dprop> dtrans.

f)Suppose dprop is less than dtrans. At time t = dtrans,

Thus, the first bit of the packet is dprop< dtrans.

Suppose the network layer provides the following service. The network layer in the source host accepts a segment of maximum size
1,200 bytes and a des- tination host address from the transport layer. The network layer then guaran- tees to deliver the segment to the
transport layer at the destination host. Suppose many network application processes can be running at the destination host.

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a. Design the simplest possible transport-layer protocol that will get applica- tion data to the desired process at the destination
host. Assume the operat- ing system in the destination host has assigned a 4-byte port number to each running application
process.

b. Modify this protocol so that it provides a “return address” to the destina- tion process.

c. In your protocols, does the transport layer “have to do anything” in the core of the computer network?

a) The Simple Transport Protocol takes data not exceeding 1196 bytes at the sender side.

 It accepts four byte of destination port number and host address.

 The Simple Transport Protocol gives the destination host address and the resulting segment to the network layer.
 The network layer sends the segment to Simple Transport Protocol at the destination host.
 The Simple Transport Protocol observes the port number.
 Abstracts the data from the segment in the Simple Transport Protocol.
 Finally, send the data to the process recognized by the port number. 

b) Consider the two header fields in the segment:

1. Source port field

2. Destination port field

The Simple Transport Protocol creates application data, source  and destination port numbers in the segment. It sends the destination
host address to the network layer. Then, The Simple Transport Protocol is receiving host  address and provides the process the source
port number and the application data.

c) No, the transport layer does not have to do anything in the core.

The reason is that, the transport layer "lives" in the end systems.

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3 Consider a planet where everyone belongs to a family of six, every family lives in its own house, each house has a unique address,
and each person in a given house has a unique name. Suppose this planet has a mail service that delivers letters from source house to
destination house. The mail service requires that (1) the letter be in an envelope, and that (2) the address of the destination house (and
nothing more) be clearly written on the envelope. Suppose each family has a delegate family member who collects and distributes
letters for the other family members. The letters do not necessarily provide any indication of the recipients of the letters.

a. Using the solution to Problem R1 above as inspiration, describe a protocol that the delegates can use to deliver letters from a
sending family member to a receiving family member.

b. In your protocol, does the mail service ever have to open the envelope and examine the letter in order to provide its service?

a)

 Sender has to provide the address of the destination name. It is written by the delegate to the planet’s mail service..
 After receive the destination address, the envelop the written on the top details.

b) No. The mail service ever have not to open the envelope and examine the letter in order to provide its service.

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