sustainability

Article
Advances of 2nd Life Applications for Lithium Ion Batteries
from Electric Vehicles Based on Energy Demand
Aleksandra Wewer, Pinar Bilge * and Franz Dietrich

Institute for Machine Tools and Factory Management (IWF), Technische Universität Berlin,
10587 Berlin, Germany; [email protected] (A.W.); [email protected] (F.D.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +49-(30)-314-27091

Abstract: Electromobility is a new approach to the reduction of CO2 emissions and the deceleration
of global warming. Its environmental impacts are often compared to traditional mobility solutions
based on gasoline or diesel engines. The comparison pertains mostly to the single life cycle of a
battery. The impact of multiple life cycles remains an important, and yet unanswered, question.
The aim of this paper is to demonstrate advances of 2nd life applications for lithium ion batteries
from electric vehicles based on their energy demand. Therefore, it highlights the limitations of a
conventional life cycle analysis (LCA) and presents a supplementary method of analysis by providing
the design and results of a meta study on the environmental impact of lithium ion batteries. The study
focuses on energy demand, and investigates its total impact for different cases considering 2nd life
applications such as (C1) material recycling, (C2) repurposing and (C3) reuse. Required reprocessing



methods such as remanufacturing of batteries lie at the basis of these 2nd life applications. Batteries


are used in their 2nd lives for stationary energy storage (C2, repurpose) and electric vehicles (C3,
Citation: Wewer, A.; Bilge, P.; reuse). The study results confirm that both of these 2nd life applications require less energy than
Dietrich, F. Advances of 2nd Life the recycling of batteries at the end of their first life and the production of new batteries. The paper
Applications for Lithium Ion Batteries
concludes by identifying future research areas in order to generate precise forecasts for 2nd life
from Electric Vehicles Based on
applications and their industrial dissemination.
Energy Demand. Sustainability 2021,
13, 5726. https://doi.org/10.3390/
Keywords: circular economy; remanufacturing; multiple life cycles; electromobility; lithium ion bat-
su13105726
tery
Academic Editors: Knut Blind,
Simone Wurster, Rainer Walz,
Katrin Ostertag and Henning Friege
1. Introduction
Received: 23 March 2021 Electromobility is an approach that aims to reduce CO2 emissions and to decelerate
Accepted: 16 May 2021 global warming. Scientific papers, reports and news often compare the environmental
Published: 20 May 2021 impacts of electromobility to traditional mobility solutions with gasoline or diesel en-
gines [1–5]. Some of these investigations address the question of whether electromobility
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral has, among others, a better CO2 footprint. Regardless of whether it is better, the same or
with regard to jurisdictional claims in even worse than combustion technology, electromobility will be present in the future and
published maps and institutional affil-
continue to gain importance following a political urge and past investments. In any future
iations.
case, large quantities of used batteries will occur that need to be treated. The total demand
for batteries is estimated to be 200 GWh by the year 2025, four-fold more than in the year
2020 [6]. If the total impact can be robustly assessed, it can influence the decision for or
against a specific 2nd and End of Life (EoL) strategy. The total environmental impact of a
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. battery, considering multiple life cycles with various 2nd and EoL applications, remains an
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. important, and yet an unanswered, question.
This article is an open access article The aim of this paper is to demonstrate the advances of 2nd life applications for
distributed under the terms and
lithium ion batteries from electric vehicles based on their energy demand within various
conditions of the Creative Commons
multiple life cycles. The total impact of a product consists of multiple factors including
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
environmental, social and economic factors such as the production costs, supply and
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
demand, which are influenced, among other things, by the customers’ acceptance. This
4.0/).

Sustainability 2021, 13, 5726. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13105726 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW  2  of  24 
 

Sustainability 2021, 13, 5726

environmental,  social  and  economic  factors  such  as  the  production  costs,  supply 2and  of 22

demand, which are influenced, among other things, by the customers’ acceptance. This 
study is based on the impact of the energy demand in order to present the potential of 
2nd Life applications in a comprehensible way. Economic factors such as the influence 
study is based on the impact of the energy demand in order to present the potential of 2nd
and  costs  of  supply 
Life applications chain  will  be  way.
in a comprehensible considered 
Economicin  factors
further such
research 
as theactivities 
influenceand 
and
publications. For the demonstration, it presents the design and results of a meta study 
costs of supply chain will be considered in further research activities and publications. For
on  demonstration,
the the  environmental  impact 
it presents of design
the lithium  ion 
and batteries. 
results The study
of a meta study on
focuses  on  energy 
the environmental
demand, and investigates this demand for three different cases, namely (C1) material 
impact of lithium ion batteries. The study focuses on energy demand, and investigates this
demand for three different cases, namely (C1) material recycling, (C2) repurposing and
recycling, (C2) repurposing and (C3) reuse, as visualized in Figure 1 and described in 
(C3) reuse, as visualized in Figure 1 and described in Section 3.2 in detail.
Section 3.2 in detail. 

 
Figure 1. Exemplary cases: C1—material recycling, C2—repurposing, C3—reuse. 
Figure 1. Exemplary cases: C1—material recycling, C2—repurposing, C3—reuse.

2. Method
2. Method 
A meta study is designed to create a data basis that allows the energy demand of the
A meta study is designed to create a data basis that allows the energy demand of 
individual life cycle stages to be estimated in a generally valid manner, rather than just
the individual life cycle stages to be estimated in a generally valid manner, rather than 
for a specific case. The results are described in detail in Section 2.1. Based on the results, a
just for a specific case. The results are described in detail in Section 2.1. Based on the 
mathematical algorithm is presented in Section 2.2, which calculates the energy demand
results, a mathematical algorithm is presented in Section 2.2, which calculates the energy 
for multiple life cycles.
demand for multiple life cycles. 
2.1. Meta Study
2.1. Meta Study 
The environmental impact of a product is dependent on the processes used within
The environmental impact of a product is dependent on the processes used within 
the life cycle stages, but also on location-specific factors such as the available energy mix.
the life cycle stages, but also on location‐specific factors such as the available energy mix. 
Reporting of the environmental impact in units as for example the CO2 equivalent allow the
Reporting of the environmental impact in units as for example the CO2 equivalent allow 
comparison of the total impact for a specific case, but hinders the analysis of the magnitude
the 
of the comparison  of  the 
processes itself. Intotal 
orderimpact 
to decidefor whether
a  specific  case, 
other but  hinders 
processes, such the  analysis  of  the 
as remanufacturing,
magnitude of the processes itself. In order to decide whether other processes, such as 
should be pursued in the future, the influence of these processes must be estimated.
remanufacturing, should be pursued in the future, the influence of these processes must 
Only subsequently should the location-specific impact be considered. This assumption is
be estimated. Only subsequently should the location‐specific impact be considered. This 
contrary to the way of presenting the results of analysis on environmental impact.
assumption is contrary to the way of presenting the results of analysis on environmental 
Within this meta study, 31 scientific articles on the environmental impact of lithium
impact. 
ion batteries were analyzed [1,2,7–35]. For the state of the art, a desktop research performed
Within this meta study, 31 scientific articles on the environmental impact of lithium 
with Google Scholar using combinations of keywords such as life cycle assessment, LCA,
ion  batteries 
lithium-ion-battery, were  electric
analyzed  [1,2,7–35]. 
vehicle, impact For andthe  state  of was
emissions the  conducted.
art,  a  desktop 
The research 
literature
performed 
from the lastwith  Google 
decade Scholar  using 
and additionally the combinations  of  keywords 
most cited publications, such 
despite as publication
the life  cycle 
assessment, 
date, LCA,  lithium‐ion‐battery, 
were considered. The majority stateelectric  vehicle, 
their results in aimpact 
varietyand  emissions 
of units, such aswas the
conducted.  The  literature  from  the  last  decade  and  additionally 
CO2eq ., which cannot be unambiguously converted into a process specific unit without the  most  cited 
fur-
publications, 
ther information. despite 
Otherthe  publication 
publications usedate,  were  considered. 
secondary data. Only eightThe articles
majority  state 
have their 
reported
results  in  a  variety  of  units,  such  as  the  CO .,  which  cannot 
primary data stated in the energy demand [7–14] and were selected to be considered in the
2eq be  unambiguously 
converted into a process specific unit without further information. Other publications 
further analysis.
use secondary data. Only eight articles have reported primary data stated in the energy 
The majority of comparisons regarding mobility solutions is based on LCA, including
demand [7–14] and were selected to be considered in the further analysis. 
the following life cycle stages: (I) raw material extraction, (II) manufacturing, (III) use
in 1stThe life,majority  of  comparisons 
(IV) remanufacturing, (V)regarding 
use in 2nd mobility 
life, (VI)solutions 
material is  based  on 
recycling andLCA, 
(VII)
including the following life cycle stages: (I) raw material extraction, (II) manufacturing, 
disposal. Nevertheless, studies on LCA address all or only a few of these stages. Out of
(III) use in 1st life, (IV) remanufacturing, (V) use in 2nd life, (VI) material recycling and 
the eight selected articles, five consider (I) extraction of raw materials; eleven concentrate
(VII) disposal. Nevertheless, studies on LCA address all or only a few of these stages. 
on (II) material, component production and/or on battery assembly. (III) The use stage is
considered in two studies for a single case. Two studies focus on (VI) recycling. None of
the evaluated studies consider the environmental impact of life cycle stages such as (IV)
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5726 3 of 22

remanufacturing and (V) use in 2nd life applications or (VII) disposal. Table 1 summarizes
the assumptions and the availability of data for the life cycle stages of the selected studies.

Table 1. Scope of the selected eight studies.

Capacity Weight
Material (I) (II) (III) (IV) (V) (VI) (VII)
[kWh] [kg]
[7] LiMn2 O4 34.2 300 - Yes - - - - -
LiMnO2 - - Yes Yes Yes - - Yes -
[8] Li-NMC - - Yes Yes - - - Yes -
LiFePO4 - - Yes Yes - - - Yes -
[9] Li-NMC 26.6 253 - Yes - - - - -
NiMH - - - Yes Yes - - - -
[10] Li-NMC - - - Yes Yes - - - -
LFP - - - Yes Yes - - - -
[11] LMO-graph. 24 290 Yes Yes - - - - -
[12] NMC111 23.5 165 Yes - - - - - -
[13] LMO/NMC 24 303 - Yes - - - - -
NMC - - - - - - - Yes -
[14]
LFP - - - - - - - Yes -

The energy demand can be divided into the primary energy and process electrical
energy. Within this meta study, we consider the measurable energy demand required for
the process. For the life cycle stages (I) raw material extraction and (VI) material recycling,
the primary energy demand is considered. The required energy for these processes cannot
be precisely converted into electrical energy, as other types of energy are indispensable in
addition to it. For the life cycle stages (II) to (V), the process electrical energy demand is
considered, as it is directly measurable. For these processes, the primary energy demand is
dependent on the available energy mix and is therefore location-dependent.
The available data of the studies are stated in different units as MJ/km, MJ/kg,
MJ/kWh or kg oil eq/kg. Therefore, the data are converted into a consistent unit of kWh/kg.
The exact conversion can be found in Appendix A. The available values for the life cycle
stages are summarized in the Tables 2–4.

Table 2. Data on energy demand for (I) raw material extraction.

(I) Raw Material Extraction [8] [8] [8] [11] [12]

LiMnO2 LI-NCM LiFePO4 LMO-gr. NMC111
Primary Energy in kWh/kg 30.22 42.92 43.63 28.6 44.55

Table 3. Data on energy demand for (II) manufacturing.

(II) LIB
[7] [8] [8] [8] [9] [10] [10] [10] [11] [13]
Manufacturing
LiMn2 O4 LiMnO2 Li-NCM LiFePO4 Li-NCM NiMH Li-NCM LFP LMO-gr. LMO
17.11
Process Energy
10.1 3.70 15.71 20.14 28.03 21.98 19.13 18.72 50.17 11.67
in kWh/kg
67.69

Table 4. Data on energy demand for (VI) recycling.

(VI) LIB Recycling [8] [8] [8] [14] [14]

LiMnO2 LI-NCM NMC NMC LFP
Total −5.81 −12.05 −13.00 −4.49 −7.99
Primary Energy
Effort - - - 10.50 4.55
in kWh/kg
Benefit - - - −14.97 −12.55
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5726 4 of 22

Three studies provide values for “primary energy for material extraction”, convertible
into a comparable unit of kWh per kilogram of battery, as summarized in Table 2. The values
vary considerably, the maximum value being more than 50% higher than the minimum.
However, the distribution is symmetrical to the mean value and can be described as mean
value +/−20%. Due to the small number of values, this description cannot be verified for
its general validity.
Table 3 shows the process energy demand for the life cycle stage (II) battery man-
ufacturing. Five studies provide values for this stage. The value varies considerably
beginning at 3.70 kWh/kg and reaching up to 67.69 kWh/kg. The median of these values is
18.93 kWh/kg. Based on these values, no generally valid estimation of the average energy
demand can be made. The study of Ellingsen et al. [9] provides an explanation that the
values vary greatly even within the same process. This study is fundamental, as the actual
energy consumption in a factory was measured over a period of 18 months, and not only
mathematically calculated. The measured values vary greatly even for the same type of
battery, with the value for the most energy efficient month being 17.11 kWh/kg and the
average value being 67.69 kWh/kg.
Only two studies have published the energy needed for the life cycle stage (VI)
recycling of a battery, as summarized in Table 4. The values are strongly dependent on the
specific recycling process and can hardly be compared. Furthermore, on the one hand, the
recycling process requires energy but, on the other hand, it saves energy in relation to the
new production of the materials. This distinction was made in only one study [14].
In order to understand the environmental impact of batteries, on the one hand, the
influence of all processes within the life cycle stages must be estimated. Yet, the results
from the meta study provide information on the life cycle stages (I) raw material extraction,
(II) manufacturing and (VI) recycling. On the other hand, different cases of a life cycle have
to be considered in order to estimate the total environmental impact of the product and to
provide sufficient information for its further development [36]. In the analyzed articles,
only one case is considered for the (III) use stage. However, this does not correspond to
the reality, in which a wide range of users, from rare to frequent users, coexist. Further, no
information on optional life cycle stages such as (IV) remanufacturing and (V) use in 2nd
life is provided. The consideration of several different cases within a conventional LCA
is difficult due to its functional unit [37,38]. It means that a new LCA would have to be
calculated for each case separately.
In contrast to an LCA, where the functional unit describes the amount of a defined
use, for example a single targeted mileage [37,38], we extend the definition and set the
functional unit as the combination of a continuously operating lithium ion battery of an
electric vehicle (EV LIB) and a continuously operating lithium ion battery for a 2nd life
application, where the use of 2nd life batteries is conceivable, in a defined time period;
compare with Q4 from Figure 2. It allows the functionality to be variable. Further, it
includes the influence of time, as asked in Q2, as well, it considers that more than one
device has to be used to fulfill the requirements for use; compare with Q6. It shifts the
perspective, as not only the impact during the use (value creation) is considered, but rather
the impact during the life cycle of a product, where the product is often not used, but still
in the possession of the user and therefore not available for others. In the calculated cases,
we consider a stationary energy storage (SES LIB) as a conceivable 2nd life application.
This approach allows easy variation of the parameters, to create different cases and to
consider the optional life cycle stages. The results, however, do not calculate the exact valid
values for the processes, but show the tendencies and the interrelation between the stages.
Chapter 2.2 presents the proposed mathematical algorithm.
 but  still  in  the  possession  of  the  user  and  therefore  not  available  for  others.  In  the 
calculated cases, we consider a stationary energy storage (SES LIB) as a conceivable 2nd 
life application. This approach allows easy variation of the parameters, to create different 
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5726 cases and to consider the optional life cycle stages. The results, however, do not calculate  5 of 22
the exact valid values for the processes, but show the tendencies and the interrelation 
between the stages. Chapter 2.2 presents the proposed mathematical algorithm. 

 
Figure 2. Flow chart for the proposed method with questions (Q). 
Figure 2. Flow chart for the proposed method with questions (Q).

The following flowchart (see Figure 2) presents the approach for the proposed method
including the algorithm. The method provides the values for the variables in the algorithm
by answering eight questions (Q1 to Q8). Figure 2 also presents the difference to LCA.
If the answers from Q1 to Q5 are denied, LCA remains the only applicable method. In
the case of denying any answers between Q6 and Q8, further information about a certain
product and its use are required to continue with the proposed method.
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5726 6 of 22

2.2. Mathematical Algorithm

The total impact can be described as the sum of individual cases, as shown in the
Equation (1):
z = x + y, (1)
with z, the total environmental impact of the functional unit; where x describes the environ-
mental impact of the life cycle of the EV LIB; where y describes the environmental impact
of the life cycle of the SES LIB.
A total life cycle of electric vehicle lithium ion batteries includes the seven life cycle
stages, described in Section 2.1. Each life cycle stage of a single battery causes an environ-
mental impact, which is independent of the other. This means that the (II) manufacturing
causes the same impact, whether a battery is (III) used or not. The presented method
considers this aspect, as shown with Q1 in Figure 2. On the other hand, if the life cycle of
several batteries over a defined time period is considered, especially the (III) use stage has a
significant influence on the required number of repetitions of the other stages. Equations (2)
and (3) show the described relationship:

x = ∑ ni × (xi + txi ), (2)

y = ∑ mi × (yi + tyi ), (3)

where i, i = I, . . . , VII, describing the life cycle stage from (I) to (VII); ni or mi , describes the
amount of EV LIB/SES LIB in the life cycle stage; xi or yi , describes the energy demand
of the EV LIB/SES LIB life cycle stage, compare with Q5 and Q8; txi or tyi describes the
energy demand of transportation to each life cycle stage.
The use stage, both during the (III) 1st and (V) 2nd life application, is dependent on
the energy consumption of the electric vehicle, the kilometers driven and the charging
efficiency:
xi = 3 or i = 5 = (vi × di )/ei (4)
where ei , charging efficiency; vi , energy consumption; di , kilometers driven;
The use stage, both during the (III) 1st and (V) 2nd life application, determines the
demand for batteries. Their lifetime is limited either by calendrical age or the maximum
total range, compare with Q6 and Q7:

n = n3 + n5 (5)

with n, the total number of batteries required;

ni = max (na , nd ), (6)

with na , the number of batteries resulting by their age; with nd , the number of batteries
resulting by their total driving range;

nai = integer (T/abat ) (7)

ndi = integer (d/dbat ) (8)

with T, describing the considered time period, compare with Q3; abat , describing the
maximum battery age, before reaching critical value of its original capacity; with dbat ,
describing the maximum total range of a battery, before reaching the critical value of its
original capacity.
The amount of reprocessed batteries is dependent on the production of new units:

n3 = f × n5 (9)

with f, a factor describing how many new batteries have to be produced in order to enable
the remanufacturing of one battery for a 2nd life application.
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5726 7 of 22

The mathematical model allows a simple calculation of the total impact within a
defined time period. The focus on the useful time and the definition of use of functionality
as a variable enables the consideration of additional factors as the aging of a product. These
allow the interpretation of the total impact from a new perspective.
Additionally, this model uses only process-related variables, which allows the com-
parison of the impact of the individual process steps, without the distortion of the values
due to local influences.

3. Case Study
The values for the case studies are based on the results of the meta study and comple-
mented by further assumptions in order to estimate the real situation in the best possible
way. All assumptions are stated and explained in Section 3.1. In Section 3.2, the results of
the case studies are presented, discussed and compared to one another.

3.1. Assumptions
To calculate the impact of the stated cases and estimate the real situation, assumption
on the battery characteristics, the energy demand of the single life cycle stages and the use
behavior have to be made. Table 5 summarizes the following assumptions on the product
characteristics.

Table 5. Assumption for the case study—product characteristics.

Max. Charging Energy Use

Weight Max. Age
Mileage Efficiency [kWh/100 km]
EV LIB Efficient High
new 300 kg 150,000 km 10 0.8 10 16
reprocessed 300 kg 120,000 km 6 0.8 10 16
SES LIB
new 240 kg - 15 - - -
reprocessed 300 kg - 10 - - -

In our calculation, the EV LIB weighs 300 kg and has a useful time of 150,000 km or
10 years, which corresponds to the most common assumptions for a real case. The electric
vehicle requires optimistically, 10 kWh/100 km and, pessimistically, 16 kWh/100 km with
a charge efficiency, both for new and reprocessed batteries, of 80%, based on the energy
consumption stated in [22]. A new SES LIB weighs 240 kg, has 80% capacity compared to
an EV LIB and has a useful time of 15 years.
In the case study, reprocessed batteries are used. The total capacity as well as the life
time and total mileage of a reprocessed EV LIB must be lower than the equivalent new
battery. The capacity is assumed to be 80% compared to a new one. For the application
in SES, the life time is assumed to be ten years and, in EV, six years accordingly. The
maximum total mileage for the EV application is assumed to be 120,000 km.
The energy demand is based on the findings of the meta study. For the first life cycle
stage, (I) the raw material extraction, the energy demand is assumed to be 36 kWh/kg. For
the sensibility analysis, this value will be varied by +/−20% corresponding to 43 kWh/kg
and 29 kWh/kg.
As the energy demand for (II) the manufacturing varies strongly, the median of the
available data, valued at 19 kWh/kg, is considered for the calculation. For the sensibility
analysis, two further cases are considered. The future technological development may
influence the demand for energy positively. In this case, the energy demand is assumed to
be 10 kWh/kg. On the other hand, the study of Ellingsen et al. [9] shows that the average
energy demand might be significantly higher than the theoretically possible value. In this
case, the energy demand is assumed to be 68 kWh/kg.
In the meta study, no information on the energy demand for the remanufacturing
process could be found. Therefore, this value is estimated based on the values for the
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5726 8 of 22

production process. Remanufacturing describes a method to reprocess products to at least

the same performance as that of the new device [39], reusing as many components of this
product as possible [40].
The process of remanufacturing consists of a mix of subprocesses such as (a) iden-
tification, (b) condition check, (c) disassembly, (d) repair, (e) prophylactic treatment, (f)
reassembly and (g) inspection.
(a) The identification of the product type is done manually and requires no process
energy.
(b) The condition of the battery cannot usually be determined by its appearance, requiring
energy-intensive charging tests. We assume that the condition of a battery can be
determined after five charging cycles, corresponding approximately to 0.6 kWh per
kg of a battery.
(c) & (f) Next, the battery is (c) disassembled. Precise values for a disassembly are not
available, therefore the assembly of the batteries is considered in detail and equated
with disassembly. According to [11], the process of assembly is not energy intensive
and is estimated to account 0.03 kWh per kilogram of battery. As in our case, used
and therefore possibly deformed batteries are disassembled and (f) reassembled. The
process energy consumption of one process step is assumed as 0.05 kWh per kilogram
of battery.
(d) & (e) In general, within these processes, only few components have to be replaced by
new units. Thus, the calculation assumes for both processes that all components are
reused, and no additional material extraction is needed. If the energy consumption
during (d) the repair equals that of the production and, further, it is assumed that
around 10% of the batteries have to be (e) treated, the energy expenditure of this
process is estimated to be 3.6 kWh/kg.
(g) The final inspection requires repeated charging and discharging of the battery and is
considered to cause energy expenditure in the amount of 0.6 kWh/kg.
In total, the energy consumption of the (IV) remanufacturing process is estimated to be
around 5 kWh/kg, which corresponds to 26% of the energy demand for (I) manufacturing.
The meta study could not provide a sufficient database for the accurate estimation of
the energy demand for (VI) recycling. For this calculation, it is assumed that the energy
demand for the process is 7 kWh/kg and the benefit compared to new material production
is 15 kWh/kg, corresponding to the mean value of the processes presented by the study of
Buchert et al. [14].
Due to the objective that all stages should be considered location independent, the
transport routes cannot be determined. We assume that in contrast to the production,
remanufacturing as well as reuse and repurposing will be done locally, for example within
the boundaries of a country. A study on the subject [41] shows that the recollection of
used batteries within only one day is possible for Germany with a single recollection point.
The exact values for the transportation are not calculated. However, their magnitude is
discussed in relation to other results.
The influence of (VII) disposal was neither stated in any document found, nor could
sufficient assumptions be made to estimate it. Therefore, it is disregarded and its value
will be set to zero for the calculation of the cases. The assumptions on the energy demand
in the life cycle stages are summarized in Table 6.
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5726 9 of 22

Table 6. Assumption for the case study—energy demand in the life cycle stages.

Min. Max.
Assumed Value
Assumed Value Assumed Value
(I) Material extraction 36 kWh/kg 43 kWh/kg 29 kWh/kg
(II) Manufacturing 19 kWh/kg 10 kWh/kg 68 kWh/kg
(IV) Remanufacturing 5 kWh/kg - -
(VI) Recycling (effort) 7 kWh/kg - -
(VI) Recycling (benefit) 15 kWh/kg - -

3.2. Case Study-Results

Three cases based on the described assumptions are developed to demonstrate the
results of the meta study, see Table 7 and Figure 3:

Table 7. Life cycle stages within the cases.

Produce Use Reprocess Reuse Recycle Dispose

(I & II) (III) (IV) (V) (VI) (VII)
EV LIB Yes Yes Yes
C1
SES LIB Yes Yes Yes
EV LIB Yes Yes Yes Yes
C2
SES LIB Yes
EV LIB Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
C3
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 
SES LIB Yes Yes Yes 10  of  24 
  The colors are consistent with the cases visualized in the figures. These colors are the same as in Figures 1 and 3.

 
Figure 3. Product life cycle stages within the cases. 
Figure 3. Product life cycle stages within the cases.

Based on the extended definition of the functional unit, our approach considers the 
In the first case (C1, material recycling), all batteries are newly produced, used and
total energy demand over a period of time, rather than over a defined reputational use 
recycled at the end of their 1st life.
of a product function. 
In the second case (C2, repurposing), the electric vehicle batteries are newly produced.
The electric vehicle batteries are reprocessed after their 1st life and repurposed as stationary
3.2.1. C1—Material Recycling 
energy storages.
In the third case (C3, reuse), the electric vehicle batteries are newly produced, repro-
C1 describes the case where all batteries considered are newly manufactured and 
cessed and
recycled  at reused as electric
their  EoL.  vehicle
The  stages  (I) batteries.
material  extraction,  (II)  manufacturing  and  (VI) 
Based on the extended definition of the functional unit, our approach considers the
recycling cause an energy demand for one EV LIB of around 18,600 kWh and for one SES 
total energy demand over a period of time, rather than over a defined reputational use of a
LIB 14,900 kWh, accordingly. Extended by the energy demand during the use stage for 
product function.
a defined repetition of use, here the total mileage driven, and converted into comparable 
values such as CO2 eq., this result can be directly compared with other LCAs. However, 
in  contrast  to  these  LCAs,  the  use  during  a  time  period  of  20  years  and  not  only  the 
repetition of use is considered in this analysis. It means that also the amount of batteries 
needed is considered here. 
For rarely used electric vehicles, two batteries are required due to their maximum 
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5726 10 of 22

3.2.1. C1—Material Recycling

C1 describes the case where all batteries considered are newly manufactured and
recycled at their EoL. The stages (I) material extraction, (II) manufacturing and (VI) re-
cycling cause an energy demand for one EV LIB of around 18,600 kWh and for one SES
LIB 14,900 kWh, accordingly. Extended by the energy demand during the use stage for a
defined repetition of use, here the total mileage driven, and converted into comparable
values such as CO2 eq ., this result can be directly compared with other LCAs. However, in
contrast to these LCAs, the use during a time period of 20 years and not only the repetition
of use is considered in this analysis. It means that also the amount of batteries needed is
considered here.
For rarely used electric vehicles, two batteries are required due to their maximum
assumed age (na ). For frequently used vehicles, up to six batteries within the time span of
20 years are needed (nd ). This amount of batteries influences the total energy demand for
their production and recycling. This means that a rarely used electric vehicle causes for the
(I & II) production and (VI) recycling of its batteries around 37,200 kWh in energy demand,
whereas a frequently used one requires around 111,600 kWh. This approach shifts the
consideration from the battery as a product to the battery as a part of the car. This allows
easier interpretation of the overall impact of the batteries required.
For the overall impact, the use stage has to be considered. Its impact is dependent
on the distance driven. A calculation for only one case, as used in LCA, does not reflect
the reality sufficiently, as a high variety of users exist. Here, we analyze the impact for
the targeted mileage of 3000 km, 9000 km, 15,000 km, 25,000 km and 40,000 km per year.
Rarely used cars, driven for 3000 km/year and with an assumed energy consumption
of 10 kWh/100 km, cause within the considered time period of 20 years, 7500 kWh in
energy demand. Frequently used cars, driven for 40,000 km/year, cause 100,000 kWh
under the same assumptions. An x times higher distance causes an x times higher energy
consumption. More interesting, however, is the question of how this use stage relates to
the stages I, II and VI.
Driving a car for 3000 km per year require two batteries and the energy used for
their production (I & II) and recycling (VI) is around 37,200 kWh. The use stage causes
7500 kWh, which corresponds to 20% of the stages I, II and VI. A frequently used car needs
six batteries, causes 3-fold the energy demand for stages I, II and VI, and more than 13-fold
for the use stage compared to the rarely used car. The ratio between the use stage and
the stages I, II and VI are 90%. This example shows that the analysis of the impact per
battery for a single case gives a basis to compare battery types or processes, but it is not
sufficient to estimate the total impact during a real use. If multiple life cycles are considered,
the combined impact of all the batteries used requires consideration, as enabled by the
presented algorithm.
In our case study, additionally to the EV LIB, SES LIBs are considered. Hence, the total
energy demand for this case, meaning the (I) raw material extraction, (II) manufacturing,
(III) use and (VI) recycling of EV LIB and SES LIB amounts to around 74,500 kWh if rarely
used vehicles are considered, and around 241,400 kWh in the case of frequently used
vehicles. These values are the comparative values for the total energy demand of a case.
The uniqueness of this case is the calculation based on the measurable energy, resulting
in the consideration of two different energy demands. While the primary energy is taken
for the life cycle stages I and VI, the process energy is considered for the life cycle stages II
and III. To make the result comparable with other studies, the primary energy is assumed
for all processes. The conversion factor between primary and process energy is assumed to
be 0.3 [42]. The exact calculation is described in detail in Appendix B. In the case of a rarely
used car, the use stage makes around 39% of stages I, II and VI and, for the frequently used
car, 174% accordingly. Also, this result confirms that the production (I & II) and recycling
(VI) of the batteries have a significant influence on the total energy demand, even if the
percentage share may vary.
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5726 11 of 22

The assumed energy consumption during the use stage may be accurate only for small
cars. If a higher energy consumption of 16 kWh per 100 km is assumed, the use stage
corresponds to around 32% of stages I, II and VI for rarely used cars and 143% for frequently
used ones. Even if, for the stages I and II, very efficient processes are considered, the ratio
between the use stage and these stages is 43% and 193% for the described examples. All
presented results show that the ratio between the use stage and the stages I, II and VI vary
strongly, dependent on the considered use stage. To lower the environmental impact of
batteries in reality, both improvements of the processes as well the battery itself are needed.
The results of the case C1 for the different assumptions are summarized in Table 8.

Table 8. C1—material recycling—summary.

Basic Analysis Primary Energy Sens. Analysis

(I) Material extraction 36 kWh/kg 36 kWh/kg 29 kWh/kg
(II) Manufacturing 19 kWh/kg 63.3 kWh/kg 10 kWh/kg
(III) Use in 1st Life 10 kWh/100 km 33.3 kWh/100 km 16 kWh/100 km
(VI) Recycling (effort) 7 kWh/kg 7 kWh/kg 7 kWh/kg
Per SES LIB 14,900 kWh 31,900 kWh 11,000 kWh
Per EV LIB 18,600 kWh 25,500 kWh 13,800 kWh
Stage (III)
Stages (I)+(II)+(VI effort)
For 3000 km/year 20% 39% 43%
For 40,000 km/year 90% 174% 193%
S1: Total energy demand for SES LIB and EV LIB within 20 years
For 3000 km/year 74,460 kWh
For 40,000 km/year 241,360 kWh

3.2.2. C2—Repurposing
In C2, the EV LIBs are newly produced, then reprocessed and repurposed to SES LIB.
This means that no SES LIBs were newly produced. The total energy demand of the EV LIB
is slightly higher than in C1, as the batteries have to be remanufactured. On the other hand,
the energy demand for the production and recycling of SES LIBs is saved. This means that
around 13,400 kWh per battery are saved, which corresponds to a savings of 40%. For
the cases of rarely used cars, the total energy consumption accounts for 47,700 kWh and,
in the case of frequently used ones, 214,600 kWh. It is assumed that, as in C1, only two
SES LIBs are required, despite how many EV LIBs are available for the remanufacturing.
In comparison to C1 in the case of rarely used vehicles, around 36% of the total energy
demand is saved and, in the case of frequently used vehicles, around 11%. The total energy
demand for C2 is summarized in Table 9.

Table 9. C2—repurpose—summary.

Energy Demand per Battery

Per SES LIB 0 kWh
Per EV LIB 20,100 kWh
C2: Total energy demand for SES LIB and EV LIB within 20 years
For 3000 km/year 47,700 kWh
For 40,000 km/year 214,600 kWh

3.2.3. C3—Reuse
In the third case, the EV LIBs are reprocessed and used again in the electric vehicles.
The SES LIBs are newly produced, used for this application and recycled. Remanufacturing
is performed on used batteries. It requires spare parts. Therefore, the amount of reprocessed
batteries is always lower than that of produced unitsAdditionally considering that not
every battery can be collected, for example, due to sales abroad, the assumed amount of
reprocessed batteries requires further reduction. In our calculation, we therefore assume
that two used batteries are required for the remanufacturing of one battery.
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5726 12 of 22

For rarely used cars, however, no reprocessed battery would exist in the calculation, as
during the time period considered only two batteries are needed. However, especially these
customers are assumed to have a higher acceptance for used batteries, as their requirements
of total mileage are lower. Therefore, we assume that a pool of batteries exists, so that
batteries from frequently used vehicles are reprocessed and used in rarely used vehicles.
Still, the impact of a shorter maximum age of the reprocessed battery has to be considered.
To calculate the energy demand per battery, as in C1 and C2, first, the total energy
demand for a pool of batteries has to be calculated and divided by the total number of
batteries. Therefore, we use the statistic of German car users classified according to their
annual mileage [43]. The kilometer clusters in the statistics differ slightly from the clusters
we used. The values are therefore adjusted manually. In the calculation, we assume a
distribution, as summarized in Table 10.

Table 10. C3—reuse—amount of used and remanufactured batteries.

n_Repro. n_Repro.
Share n_New n_Repro.
Assumed (1) Assumed (2)
3000 km/year 14% 14 28 28 0
9000 km/year 32% 32 64 64 0
15,000 km/year 30% 60 30 0 30
25,000 km/year 15% 45 15 0 15
45,000 km/year 9% 36 18 0 18
Total 100% 187 155 92 63

Based on the amount of newly produced batteries, the maximum amount of remanufac-
tured batteries can be calculated. If two new batteries are needed to make a remanufactured
one, the maximum number of remanufactured batteries is equal to half of the amount of
new batteries. If this assumption is applied to the considered battery pool, it is shown that
remanufactured batteries can only be used for the rarely used cars up to 9000 km per year
(subcase 3.1) or for frequently used cars from 15,000 km per year (subcase 3.2).
An exact calculation of the energy demand over the considered time period for rarely
or frequently used vehicles cannot be given, as the use of the remanufactured batteries was
divided into two subcases. Based on the results per battery, however, it could be shown
that the reuse of batteries might be desirable from the energy demand perspective, as
summarized in Table 11.

Table 11. C3—reuse—summary.

Energy Demand per Battery (Rarely Used Cars—Subcase C3.1)

Per SES LIB 14,900 kWh
Per EV LIB 19,300 kWh
Energy demand per battery (frequently used cars—subcase C3.2)
Per SES LIB 14,900 kWh
Per EV LIB 13,800 kWh

On the one hand, the reuse of reprocessed batteries in rarely used cars is possible. Due
to the low targeted mileage, the real requirement of the batteries is lower. The willingness
to pay a high price for a new battery without taking advantage of all of its properties is
expected to be low. However, due to the lower expected calendric life time of the battery,
two remanufactured batteries are needed in our case. For this reason, the energy demand
per battery in this subcase is higher than in C1. However, if the ageing behavior of batteries
under different stresses is sufficiently understood, the results of our calculation can be
positively influenced.
On the other hand, there is the opportunity to use reprocessed batteries in frequently
used cars. Especially fleet vehicles with a high mileage per year but short driving distances
might be an interesting application. The energy demand is lower than in C1, even though
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5726 13 of 22

many new batteries have to be produced. The calendric life time is not significant in this
case, as the battery has to be replaced often due to the targeted mileage.
The results of the case studies show that the use of remanufactured batteries leads to
significant energy savings. Further, in the case studies, the influence of the transport was
neglected. As remanufacturing would likely be performed locally, the energy demand for
transportation is expected to be lower than the transport from China or Brazil. This effect
strengthens the results positively. The ratio of the individual cases as compared to C1 is
summarized in Table 12.

Table 12. Comparison of the cases C1, C2 and C3.

Energy Demand C1 C2 C3.1 C3.2

per SES LIB 14,900 kWh 0 kWh 14,900 kWh 14,900 kWh
per EV LIB 18,600 kWh 20,100 kWh 19,300 kWh 13,800 kWh
Total 33,500 kWh 20,100 kWh 34,200 kWh 28,700 kWh
Cx/C1 100% 60% 102% 86%

4. Discussion and Conclusions

This section summarizes the key findings regarding the calculation with an emphasis
on (i) the limitations and potentials, and (ii) the results and impacts of a lithium ion battery
and its life cycle stages. Later, it concludes with a look at (iii) the future research agenda.
(i) Calculation of impact: limitations and potentials
Challenges of resource scarcity can be met by using products, components and ma-
terials in multiple life cycles instead of a single life cycle if EoL scenarios and life cycle
extensions are environmentally and economically valuable. In order to estimate the envi-
ronmental impact of a product, such as a lithium ion battery, an LCA can be conducted.
Within this paper, three limitations of LCA regarding multiple life cycles were identi-
fied. First, an LCA is valid for rigid system boundaries and for a single use case. In general,
it accounts for a single life cycle of the product, neglecting the multiple uses, especially in
different applications. Second, for the consideration of the overall environmental impact,
it may be disadvantageous that a sensitivity analysis cannot simply be performed, due
to the rigid system boundaries. Therefore, the analysis needs to be recalculated for the
changed parameters. Especially, the variation in the use phase can strongly influence the
overall result. In reality, however, products are used differently to satisfy the requirements
of various customers. Third, concerning multiple life cycles, both the impact of the process
as well as the location, where it is performed, should be possible to interpret: 2nd life
loops are characterized by uncertainties about the amount, the location and the demand for
products. Therefore, more cases, such as the type of 2nd life application, its market share
or the locations for reprocessing and distribution, are possible compared to the forward
oriented production and distribution. The results of the LCA are stated in units as the
CO2 eq ., which combine the impact of both processes and location. On the one hand, it
simplifies the interpretation of the impact for the calculated case. On the other hand, it
limits the ability of the interpretation of the impact of processes and location to identify the
main influence factors.
Resulting from the limitations of an LCA, three requirements have to be met: (A) in
contrast to an LCA, the functional unit of the approach has to enable the comparison of
multiple applications, as the function of a 1st and 2nd life application may differ; (B) the
approach has to be easily adapted to different use cases to reflect reality as best as possible;
(C) the results have to be location-independent in order to enable an impact analysis of the
processes.
Based on the requirements from (A) to (C), a meta study is designed to demonstrate
an LCA-complementing approach for 2nd life applications. A mathematical algorithm
presents the calculation of energy demand for a case considering a product in multiple
life cycles. It uses values from previous LCA studies, simplifying the effort of use and
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5726 14 of 22

allows the estimation of the magnitude of the individual processes and to identify the main
influencing factors.
The algorithm is based on LCA-values as inputs. However, LCA studies are not
available yet for all life cycle stages of a lithium ion battery. LCA studies with primary data
exist only for the stages (I) raw material extraction, (II) manufacturing or (VI) recycling.
Each study uses unique assumptions, different process boundaries and a specific way
to present values and results. Existing values are converted into comparable units and
areas of application. For the stage (IV) remanufacturing, no quantitative data could be
found. The value for remanufacturing is estimated based on the general definition of the
remanufacturing process and the energy demand for the comparable subprocesses stated
in the LCA studies on manufacturing processes. It accounts for approximately 26% of the
energy demand for the manufacturing process, saving accordingly 74% of the energy. This
value gives a first estimation of the energy demand for the remanufacturing process as no
calculation, experimental or experience value, and an exact definition of the process for
a lithium ion battery exists. Further research on the technical feasibility of the processes
combined with statistics on the expected state of health and longevity of a used battery
will enable the validation of the proposed algorithm.
The state of health is particularly important for the determination of the use stage.
The maximum life time or range of a battery determines the demand on units over a time
period for a defined use intensity. This demand determines the amount of batteries to be
produced and the energy demand in the considered time period.
(ii) Impact of a lithium ion battery and its life cycle stages
The impact of a lithium ion battery was calculated based on three cases: C1—production
and recycling on LIBs; C2—production of new batteries for electric vehicles (EV LIB) and
repurposing them into stationary energy storages (SES LIB); C3—remanufacturing the EV
LIB and reuse again in electric vehicles.
Case C1—recycling discusses the ratio between the (III) use stage and stages (I) raw
material extraction, (II) manufacturing and (VI) recycling. The results show that, dependent
on the use intensity, this ratio accounts from 20% to 90%. As there exist different car users
in real life, both the product, influencing stage (III), as well as process efficiency, influencing
stages (I, II and VI), should be improved and researched in more detail.
Case C2—repurpose estimates the energy savings for the case, where the EV LIBs are
remanufactured and repurposed to SES LIBs. This case requires the least amount of energy,
saving up to 40% compared to C1—recycling.
Case C3—reuse highlights the influence on the expected life time of a battery. In the
calculation, the assumption for the calendrical lifetime of a remanufactured battery for the
reuse in electric vehicles is approximately six years. In the considered time span of 20 years,
this means that for rarely used vehicles three (one new and two remanufactured) instead
of two (new) batteries are needed. This higher demand for batteries implies no savings in
energy demand. Further, the calculation assumes the maximum range of a remanufactured
battery to be 120,000 km. This value is considered to be constant, regardless of the intensity
of use. However, as explained in Section 2, the use intensity has a significant influence on
the ageing behavior of a battery. Nevertheless, this assumption simplifies the calculation.
Adapting and specifying them for different areas of use intensity can provide new insights
into whether and when reuse is appropriate. However, the aging behavior of 2nd life
batteries remains insufficiently understood.
With the new method, the question of which treatment after the 1st life should be
preferred, can be considered in more detail due to new findings. For example, in a certain
case, the results of an LCA can indicate that the use of reprocessed products for the
same application, meaning with the same function, is not reasonable. Then, the new
method can be used to check to what extent the use in other applications, considering
other functions, is reasonable. Further, by taking calendar aging into account, the results
can be more closely adapted to real-life situations. This means that the method presented
can additionally be used to check whether the frequency of the function assumed in the
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5726 15 of 22

LCA can also be realized by the product. One example described in the paper is the use
of a car for a long period of time for very low ranges. The influence of calendric aging is
higher than the influence of functionality. This relationship is not considered in an LCA
and is complemented by the method presented here. The presented method adds new
perspectives to the results of an LCA. It does not claim to replace them.
(iii) Future research agenda
The aging behavior and the corresponding state of health of a 2nd life battery can
be determined by practical tests and theoretical considerations such as energy intensive
tests, including multiple charging and discharging, or post mortem analysis. A continuous
condition monitoring for batteries with a capacity lower than 80% of their original capacity,
or for remanufactured batteries, which have a higher capacity due to the exchange of single
cells, is not possible yet. Further, sufficient data for this case are missing.
Theoretical considerations may lessen the practical test intensity. One possible solution
is the evaluation of the exact history of the battery, for example by means of a battery log or
passport. However, due to the large number of stakeholders involved during the life cycle
of the battery, data storage becomes a challenging task for 2nd life applications. Further,
due to possible conflicts of interest, the free use of these data will hardly be possible in
the near future. A battery passport or data storage with new technologies, such as the
blockchain, offer possible solutions. Nevertheless, these data should be applicable down to
the module or cell level in order to enable the continuation of the data in further life cycles.
However, if it is assumed that the exact history of the battery will not be freely
available, further approaches can be considered. Service providers of overall equipment
manufacturers (OEMs) such as remanufacturing companies or contracted logistics com-
panies have, on the one hand, experience data on the state of health of their take-back
products and, on the other hand, some information on the previous owners. These data
do not refer to the specific characteristics of a single battery, but to the characteristics
of the delivery from a particular customer. For example, the location, with its climatic
parameters, can affect the condition of the battery. In order to determine a probability for
the expected condition of the battery batch, for example based on its origin, methods of
artificial intelligence such as machine learning can be used. This assessment can help to
carry out the required practical tests in a more targeted manner and thus reduce the energy
requirement for them. This would further lessen the impact of remanufactured batteries
and increase the potential for a 2nd life.
As shown in the case C3—reuse, the expected life time and range of a battery have a
significant influence on the total energy demand over a time period. In this context, it was
considered that a battery is used until a specific state of health, which does not allow further
use in this application. Neither the technical feasibility, nor the market characteristics, such
as the availability of comparable battery types, was considered. These aspects must be
investigated separately.
The availability of comparable battery types for their remanufacturing may be a
challenging task as the technical progress of batteries is very fast. The exchange of new
batteries, available in the market in large quantities, may reduce this problem. Nowadays,
the majority of users lease electric vehicles from the OEMs or their third parties, and the
batteries remain the property of the distributor. This ownership enables new business
models, such as battery pooling. These can be implemented, among other things, thanks
to a network of battery exchange stations, where an empty battery is exchanged against a
fully charged one. The empty battery can be checked for its condition and, if necessary,
remanufactured at an early stage. This application would combine the stages (IV) remanu-
facturing and (V) use in 2nd life in a new manner. On the one hand, the lifetime of a battery
could be extended. However, it remains unclear whether the lifetime would be as durable
as the conventional one. On the other hand, the remanufacturing would occur more often,
increasing the energy demand. The interaction of these two factors should be investigated
in more detail.
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5726 16 of 22

The results of the case studies demonstrate the high potential of energy savings by
implementing multiple life cycles of batteries. It has been shown that both the repurposing
of EV LIBs into SES LIBs, as well as the reuse of EV LIB in electric vehicles, can reduce the
total energy demand. The calculation, however, is based on assumptions that have to be
verified by real cases. Especially the characteristics of used or remanufactured batteries
and their handling is insufficiently known.
Future research should verify and/or revise these conclusions. The research field on
multiple life cycles of EV LIBs is untapped from various perspectives. There exist many
topics to investigate in the future that range from required processes over the demand or
availability of the batteries to real-life applications with their benefits and disadvantages.
To fully explore the potential of multiple life cycles in a battery, a broader consideration
of these research fields is needed, in parallel to investigations on optimization of single
processes and life cycle stages.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization; methodology, investigation; data curation; writing—

original draft preparation, A.W., writing—review and editing; visualization, case studies, A.W., P.B.;
supervision, F.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A
Reference [7] Data for battery production including battery assembly, cell production,
component manufacturing and material processing Original data: 104 MJeq /kg Converted
into: 10.1 kWh/kg with 0.35 for converion from primary energy to process energy. Refer-
ence [8].

Table A1. Original and converted data for LIMNO2 [8].

LIMNO2 Original Data Converted Into

Material extraction 0.169 MJ/km 30.22 kWh/kg Primary Energy
Material Processing 0.0591 MJ/km 3.7 kWh/kg Process Energy
EoL −0.0325 MJ/km −5.81 kWh/kg Primary Energy

Table A2. Original and converted data for Li-NMC [8].

Li-NCM Original Data Converted Into

Material extraction 0.24 MJ/km 42.92 kWh/kg Primary Energy
Material Processing 0.251 MJ/km 15.71 kWh/kg Process Energy
EoL −0.0674 MJ/km −12.05 kWh/kg Primary Energy

Table A3. Original and converted data for LiFePO4 [8].

LiFePO4 Original Data Converted Into

Material extraction 0.244 MJ/Battery 43.63 kWh/kg Primary Energy
Processing 0.322 MJ/Battery 20.14 kWh/kg Process Energy
Material Processing 0.0531 MJ/Battery 3.32 kWh/kg Process Energy
Component Manufacturing 0.0287 MJ/Battery 1.80 kWh/kg Process Energy
Product Manufacturing 0.24 MJ/Battery 15.02 kWh/kg Process Energy
EoL −0.0727 MJ/Battery 13.00 kWh/kg Primary Energy
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5726 17 of 22

Converted with 193,120 referred kilometers and 300 kg battery weight. Reference [9]
Data for the energy demand for the production.

Table A4. Original and converted data for [9].

Original Data Converted Into

Lower-bound value 586 MJ/kWh 17.11 kWh/kg
Asymptotic value 960 MJ/kWh 28.04 kWh/kg
Average value 2318 MJ/kWh 67.70 kWh/kg

Converted with the produced battery capacity of 26.6 kWh and a weight of 253 kg.
Reference [10] Data for the battery production

Table A5. Original and converted data for [10].

Original Data Converted Into

NiMH 5.4 kg oileq /kg Primary Energy 21.98 kWh/kg Process Energy
Li-NMC 4.7 kg oileq /kg Primary Energy 19.13 kWh/kg Process Energy
LFP 4.6 kg oileq /kg Primary Energy 18.72 kWh/kg Process Energy

Converted with factor 11.63 for converion of kg oileq into kWh and 0.35 for converion
from primary energy to process energy. Reference [11] Data for material extraction and
battery manufacturing

Table A6. Original and converted data for [11].

Original Data Converted Into

Materiel extraction 29.9 GJ/Battery 28.64 kWh/kg
Manufacturing 50.17 kWh/kg 50.17 kWh/kg

Converted with the battery weight of 290 kg. Reference [12] Data for material extrac-
tion. Original data: 1126 MJ/kWh Converted into: 44.55 kWh/kg Converted with the
battery capacity of 23.5 kWh and weight of 165 kg. Reference [14] Data for battery recycling

Table A7. Original and converted data for [14].

NMC Original Data Converted Into

DM-Last 3701 MJ/1000 kg 1.03 kWh/kg
DM-Gut −29,324 MJ/1000 kg −8.15 kWh/kg
zz_Last 4195 MJ/1000 kg 1.17 kWh/kg
zz_gut −4823 MJ/1000 kg −1.34 kWh/kg
KS-Last 3080 MJ/1000 kg 0.86 kWh/kg
KS_Gut −3553 MJ/1000 kg −0.99 kWh/kg
HA_Last 26,757 MJ/1000 kg 7.43 kWh/kg
HA_Gut −16,206 MJ/1000 kg −4.50 kWh/kg
Total −16,173 MJ/100 kg −4.49 kWh/kg
Effort −53,906 MJ/1000 kg −14.97 kWh/kg
Benefit 37,733 MJ/1000 kg 10.48 kWh/kg
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5726 18 of 22

Table A8. Original and converted data for [14].

LFP Original Data Converted Into

DM-Last 4552 MJ/1000 kg 1.26 kWh/kg
DM-Gut −37,548 MJ/1000 kg −10.43 kWh/kg
zz_Last 3668 MJ/1000 kg 1.02 kWh/kg
zz_gut −4192 MJ/1000 kg −1.16 kWh/kg
KS-Last 2786 MJ/1000 kg 0.77 kWh/kg
KS_Gut −3075 MJ/1000 kg −0.85 kWh/kg
HA_Last 5387 MJ/1000 kg 1.50 kWh/kg
HA_Gut −375 MJ/1000 kg −0.10 kWh/kg
Total −28,797 MJ/1000 kg −8.00 kWh/kg
Effort −45,190 MJ/1000 kg −12.55 kWh/kg
Benefit 16,393 MJ/1000 kg 4.55 kWh/kg

Appendix B
Assumptions for the case study

Table A9. Assumptions for EV LIB.

EV LIB
New
Weight 300 kg
Maximum mileage 150,000 km
Maximum age 10 years
Energy use
efficient 10 kWh/100 km
high 16 kWh/100 km
Charging efficiency 0.8
Remanufactured
Maximum mileage 120,000 km
Maximum age 6 years

Table A10. Assumptions for SES LIB.

SES LIB
New
Weight 240 kg
Capacity 0.8 of EV LIB
Maximum age 15 years
Remanufactured
Weight 300 kg
Maximum mileage 0.8 of EV LIB
Maximum age 10 years
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5726 19 of 22

Table A11. Assumptions for the energy demand for the processes.

Process
(I) Material extraction
main value: 36 kWh/kg
+20% 43 kWh/kg
−20% 29 kWh/kg
(II) Production
main value 19 kWh/kg
efficient 10 kWh/kg
high value 68 kWh/kg
(V) Usage
Targeted mileage
3000 km/year
9000 km/year
15,000 km/year
25,000 km/year
40,000 km/year
(IV) Remanufacturing
main value 5 kWh/kg
(VI) Recycling
Effort 7 kWh/kg
Benefit 15 kWh/kg
Time period 20 years

Results of the case studies C1: Recycling

Table A12. Battery amount for case C1.

Target Mileage d [km] nd3/5 na3/5 n3/5

3000 km/year 60,000 1 2 2
9000 km/year 180,000 2 2 2
15,000 km/year 300,000 2 2 2
25,000 km/year 500,000 4 2 4
40,000 km/year 800,000 6 2 6

Table A13. Energy demand for case C1 in [kWh].

Material Usage Recycling Recycling

Manufacturing Remanufacturing
Extraction (Efficient) Effort Benefit
EV LIB
3000 km/year 21,600 11,400 7500 - 4200 9000
9000 km/year 21,600 11,400 22,500 - 4200 9000
15,000 km/year 21,600 11,400 37,500 - 4200 9000
25,000 km/year 43,200 22,800 62,500 - 8400 18,000
40,000 km/year 64,800 34,200 100,000 - 12,600 27,000
SES LIB 17,280 9120 - - 3360 7200

C2: Repurposing

Table A14. Battery amount for case C2.

Target Mileage d [km] nd3/5 na3/5 n3/5

3000 km/year 60,000 1 2 2
9000 km/year 180,000 2 2 2
15,000 km/year 300,000 2 2 2
25,000 km/year 500,000 4 2 4
40,000 km/year 800,000 6 2 6
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5726 20 of 22

Table A15. Energy demand for case C2 in [kWh].

Material Usage Recycling Recycling

Manufacturing Remanufacturing
Extraction (Efficient) Effort Benefit
EV LIB
3000 km/year 21,600 11,400 7500 3000 4200 9000
9000 km/year 21,600 11,400 22,500 3000 4200 9000
15,000 km/year 21,600 11,400 37,500 3000 4200 9000
25,000 km/year 43,200 22,800 62,500 3000 8400 18,000
40,000 km/year 64,800 34,200 100,000 3000 12,600 27,000
SES LIB - - - - - -

C3: Reuse

Table A16. Battery amount for case C3.

Target Mileage d [km] nd total nd new. nd reman. na new. na reman. n new C3 n reman. C3
3000 km/year 60,000 1 1 0 2 4 1 2
9000 km/year 180,000 2 2 0 2 4 1 2
15,000 km/year 300,000 3 2 1 2 4 2 1
25,000 km/year 500,000 4 3 1 2 4 3 1
40,000 km/year 800,000 6 4 2 2 4 4 2

Table A17. Types and amount of battery users.

Driven km Up to 3000– 9000– 15,000– 25,000–

per Year 3000 km 9000 km 15,000 km 25,000 km 40,000 km
14% 32% 30% 15% 9%

Table A18. Battery amount for case C3 (battery pooling).

Pool of EV nnew nreman

3000 km/year 14 28
9000 km/year 32 64
15,000 km/year 60 30
25,000 km/year 45 15
40,000 km/year 36 18
Total 187 -

Table A19. Energy demand for case C3.1 remanufacturing of frequently used batteries in [kWh].

Material Usage Recycling Recycling

Manufacturing Remanufacturing
Extraction (Efficient) Effort Benefit
EV LIB
3000 km/year 151,200 79,800 7500 42,000 29,400 63,000
9000 km/year 345,600 182,400 22,500 96,000 67,200 144,000
15,000 km/year 648,000 342,000 37,500 0 126,000 270,000
25,000 km/year 486,000 256,500 62,500 0 94,500 202,500
40,000 km/year 388,800 205,200 100,000 0 75,600 162,000
SES LIB 17,280 9120 - - 3360 7200

Table A20. Energy demand for case C3.2 remanufacturing of rarely used batteries in [kWh].

Material Usage Recycling Recycling

Manufacturing Remanufacturing
Extraction (Efficient) Effort Benefit
EV LIB
3000 km/year 151,200 79,800 7500 0 29,400 63,000
9000 km/year 345,600 0 22,500 0 67,200 144,000
15,000 km/year 648,000 0 37,500 45,000 126,000 270,000
25,000 km/year 486,000 0 62,500 22,500 94,500 202,500
40,000 km/year 388,800 0 100,000 27,000 75,600 162,000
SES LIB 17,280 9120 - - 3360 7200
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5726 21 of 22

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