ملزمه جديد

1.3 .
The Basis of Translation

Nearly all kinds of translations are based on equivalence between the source
text and the target text. Equivalence is considered essential for translation.
For a text to be considered a translation of another, it must be equivalent in
one way or another to the original; otherwise it will not qualify as a translated
text.

The most common, but not the only, basis for equivalence is meaning. The
translated text is said to be equivalent to the source text in meaning. This
implies that the proposition that
they express is the same .
1.4 .Meaning and Translation

Meaning is essential for translation, but like equivalence, it raises many
problems. Specialists seldom agree what meaning is or how many kinds of
meaning there are.
A distinction will be drawn between three major types of meaning; word
meaning, sentence meaning, and text meaning.
Within these main types, several subtypes will be recognized. For example, for
word meaning, reference, sense, and denotation will be distinguished
The Role of Reference in Translation

Translation preserves the reference of the original.
‫لقد وصل المدير‬The manager has arrived.
‫غادر رئيس الوزراء الى الواليات المتحدة االمريكية‬
The Prime Minister left for the United States .
‫صدق المشرعون على فوز بايدن في االنتخابات‬
US lawmakers approved Biden's election victory. Here, insertion of “US” has
made the reference more explicit.
The referring expression is sometimes reduced instead of expanding it ;
‫ ولكن المدير لم يكن في مكتبه‬،‫سألت عن المدير‬
I asked about the manager, but he wasn’t in his office.
The common noun ” ‫ “المدير‬is reduced to a pronoun “he” in TT.
Thus the principle of preserving reference does not require that a proper
noun, a common noun phrase, or a pronoun to be translated by similar
expression.
There are two main exceptions to the principle of preserving reference in
translation, self-reference and creative writing.
Self-reference means that the expression points to itself .
: ‫خامس كلمة في هذه الجملة لها اداة التعريف‬For example
The fifth word in this sentence is a definite article.
1 .Passion: Translators should be passionate about their translation job. They
should use all their means and efforts to deliver every project in excellent
shape.
2 .Translation Skills: A good translator must have a specific linguistic
education. Translators should master not only the English language they work
with, but also the skills of translation.
3 .Curiosity: A translator must be curious and motivated to keep on learning
new words and expressions. The learning process of a translator should be
never-ending.
4 .RichVocabulary:Agoodtranslatormusthaveawidelexicon,notonly in the
English language but also in their mother tongue: Arabic. This will make the
translation process easier and the quality of the translation

higher. It is also convenient for translators to acquire technical terms in
specific fields, such as business, law, sciences, etc.
5 .Clarity:Agoodtranslator’sgoalistoexpresstheideaoftheSTclearly without
ambiguity. They should avoid difficult structures.
6 .Translation Quality: A good translator should be obsessed with quality.
7 .Resources: In order to achieve the aforementioned quality, a good
translator should use all available resources at their disposal.
8 .Accuracy: A good translator should provide an exact transfer of information
without deleting, adding, or neglecting some details of the ST; he/she should
maintain its “spirit” instead.
9 .Honesty: Translators are humans after all, therefore it is normal for them
not know some expressions or words. Nevertheless, they shouldn’t skip it, but
they should conduct research and note it down for future reference.
10 .Humble Pride: A good translator should always deliver a translation that
they can be proud of, but at the same time be humble enough to accept
possible corrections from editor/proof-reader. The most important thing in
the end is always the quality of the translation .
.1 Category Shifts
In this strategy, we resort to change the category of a word in the ST into
another category in the TT, for instance: a verb in the ST may be rendered into
an adjective in the TT.
‫يستحيل معرفة َمن ارتكب الجريمة‬
It is impossible to know who committed the crime.
2 .Addition
By addition, we mean when we have to add more words in the translation
because there is no ready equivalent in the TL.
‫كانوا يروحون ويجيئون إلى المكان المقدس‬
They were keep going back and forth to the holy place
3 .Deletion
When we compare professionally translated texts with their original Arabic
sources, we often find Arabic words and morphemes that have simply been
left out of the translation.
‫هو أعزب لم يتزوج وكانت والدته هي التي ترعى شؤونه‬
He never got married, and it was his mother who used to take care of him.
4 .Morphological Unpacking
Arabic morphological derivation chains sometimes generate words that have
no equivalents in English. Some of these gaps are the result of differences in
the productivity of morphological rules across languages.
One way of dealing with lexical gaps of this nature is to unpack the structure
of the Arabic word and spell out its semantic content in English.
The participle ‫ منتظر‬describes someone who is waiting, but the English

counterparts waiter, anticipant, and expectant have very different meanings;
therefore, we resort to unpack the morphological structure of .as those who
are waiting‫المنتظرين‬
‫و بعض هؤالء المنتظرين يمكنهم الحصول على االقامة‬
Some of those who are waiting can get residency
5 .Paraphrasing
Translation by paraphrasing involves providing additional information to help
readers recognize the referents of the source words in the absence of direct
equivalents. Basically, we use examples, definitions, descriptions, and the like
to facilitate comprehension.
.‫أعلن المركز الثقافي االسالمي في لندن اعتبار اليوم هو االول من شهر شوال بعد ثبوت الرؤية‬
Following confirmation of the sighting of the new moon, the Islamic Cultural
Centre in London announced that today marks the beginning of the lunar
month of Shawwal.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
6 .Transliteration
Transliteration basically entails writing the source Arabic word in English
letters, just as we do with most foreign names. This strategy amounts to
lexical borrowing, and many Arabic words have entered the English language
this way—for example, alcohol, algebra, algorithm, and, more recently, jihad
and hijab
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
1.2. Characteristics of Legal Language
1. Terms of Latin and French Origin
One of the many noticeable features of English legal lexicon is the existence of
Latinism (Latin terms) in its terminology. Here are some Latin phrases and
words in common use nowadays.
Bona fide (good faith or in good faith)
Alibi (elsewhere; the fact or state of having been elsewhere when an
offence was committed)
Like Latinisms, the existence of legal French items within English legal
language is also apparent.
The following terms are originally French:
Contract, proposal, schedule, terms, conditions, policy, alias, quash and so on.
2. Archaisms
An archaism, according to Webster dictionary (1989), is an ancient word or
idiom; an antiquity of style or use; and the survival of something from the
past. English legal lexicon is considerably loaded with archaic legal terms.
Among archaisms are the ones realized in 'portmanteau' words of compounds
which consist of an adverbial place to which a preposition- like word has been
suffixed. Examples are 'hereto', 'hereon', 'hereunder', 'herein', 'hereunto',
'hereinbefore', 'hereinafter', 'thereof', 'thereafter', 'whereof', and so on.
3. Collocations
Words which go together in definable combinations can be said to collocate.
Actually, there is a common use of collocations in which synonyms or near
synonyms are combined in pair ‘doublets.’ Such words can be either nouns,
verbs, adjectives or even prepositions.
null and void ‫الغ وباطل‬
4. Lexical Repetition
In legal writing, draftsmen avoid the use of anaphoric reference devices or
referential pronouns, and these are: the personal pronouns (he, she, it, etc.)
or the demonstrative ones (this, that, etc.).
... ‫يدفع المستأجر الى المؤجر في مكتب المؤجر‬The Lessee shall pay to the Lessor at
the office of the Lessor ...
5. Modality
5.1. Using "Shall"
Shall is used to express the following:
A. Obligation
The modal "shall" is used almost exclusively to express obligation in legal
texts. In ordinary English, shall is used to mainly to talk about the future, to
ask for instructions or decisions, but sometimes it can also express obligation.
.‫ (يجب) على العامل التقيد بمواعيد العمل الرسمية‬.1Employee shall adhere to official
working times.
.‫ يجب على الشركة االنتهاء من المشروع في الموعد المحدد لذلك‬.2Company shall complete
the Project as scheduled.
‫ يعوض صاحب العمل المقاول عن كل المطالبات و األضرار و التكاليف و المصاريف و النفقات‬.3
.‫التي تنشأ عن أي عمل او اهمال من جانب صاحب العمل‬
The Employer shall indemnify the Contractor against all claims, damages,
costs, charges and expenses resulting from any act or neglect of the Employer.
B. A Legal Rule
.‫ تخضع كل السلع الغذائية لضريبة المبيعات‬.1
All food commodities shall be subject to Sales Tax.
.‫ يجب ان يكون االخطار مكتوبا‬.2
Notice shall be in writing.
5.2. Using "May" and "May not"

In English, “May" corresponds to "is permitted to" or "has discretion to''
.‫يجوز لالمم المتحدة ان تحتفظ بأموال أو ذهب او عملة من اي نوع‬

The United Nations may hold fund, gold, or currency of any kind.
Theme-Rheme Organization
The theme and the rheme of a sentence are positionally determined, the
former occurring at the beginning of a sentence, the latter composing the rest
of the sentence.
The following examples illustrate Theme-Rheme Organization:
1. The army looted the town.
2. The town was looted by the army.
In (1) and (2), the themes are "the army" and "the town". The rhemes are
"looted the town" and "was looted by the army". As illustrated by these two
examples, the active and the passive have different thematic organization.
The theme represents the beginning of a sentence, and the rheme is the
completion.
3 .‫وصل القطار‬
4 .‫القطار وصل‬
In (3) the theme is the verb, and rheme is the subject; in (4) the theme is the
subject, the rheme is the verb. In Arabic it is possible to change the theme and
rheme in this way, because the position of the elements in a
sentence is relatively free. This is often not possible in English, since the
position of the elements is relatively fixed.
The English sentences corresponding to (3) and (4) must start with the
subject: The train has arrived.
Freight (v.)
To send or carry goods by air, sea or train.
Freight (n.)
Air freight
Plebiscite (n.) (Politics) = referendum

For example: to hold a plebiscite on the country's future system of
government.
Audit (n.) to carry out an audit.
Principles of Translation into English / First-year / Morning and Evening

Studies
Depose (v.)
To remove sb, especially a ruler, from power. For example: The deposed
president
Exhort (v.) (formal) = urge

To try hard to persuade sb to do sth
Muster (v.) = gather

To come together, or bring people, especially soldiers, together for
example for military action.
For example: The troops mustered.
Moratorium (n.)
A temporary stopping of an activity, especially by official agreement

For example: The convention called for a two-year moratorium on commercial
whaling.
Divulge (v.) (formal) = reveal

To give sb information that is supposed to be secret
For example: Police refused to divulge the identity of the suspect.
Rampant (adj.)
Very common and very difficult to control For example: Rampant corruption
Downturn (n.)
A fall in the amount of business that is done; a time when the economy ...
etc.
Reconnaissance (n.) [C, U]

For example: An excellent aircraft for low-level reconnaissance.

Studies
Mint (v.)
To make a coin from metal.
Airdrop (n.)
The act of dropping supplies, soldiers, etc. from an aircraft.
For example: The UN has begun making airdrops of food to refugees.
Incarcerate (v.) (formal) = imprison (v.)
[Usually passive]
To put sb in prison or in another place from which they cannot escape For
example: Thousands were incarcerated in labour camps.
Blatant (adj.)
Very clear or obvious
Cache (n.)
A hidden store of things such as weapons For example: an arms cache
Demote (v.) X promote (v.)

[often passive]
To move sb to a lower position or rank, often as a punishment.
Disperse (v)
To move apart and go away in different directions; to make sb/sth do this For
example: Police used tear gas to disperse the crowds.
Sanction (n.) [C, usually pl.]

An action, especially the stopping of trade, that is taken by other countries
against a country that has broken an international law.
For example: The sanctions against those countries have now been lifted.

Studies
Austerity (n.) [U]

A situation when people do not have much money to spend because there
are bad economic conditions.
For example: Austerity measures and economic reforms
Forfeiture (n.) [U]
The act of forfeiting sth
For example: The forfeiture of property
Loan (n.) [C]

Money, etc. that sb/sth lends you
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Declarative sentences give information. We use them to share facts and

statements, in other words, to declare things.
An interrogative sentence is a question. It is easy to recognize because it

always ends in a question mark (?)
An imperative is a word expressing a command, thus, an imperative sentence
gives instructions, requests, or demands, or shares a wish or invitation.
Exclamatory sentences share strong feelings or excitement. The words are

said with more emotion. They are powerful sentences, so they always end
with an exclamation mark.
‫الرجال شجعان‬
Men are brave. (Declarative)
‫ما هو كتابك المفضل؟‬

What’s your favorite book? (Interrogative)
‫افتح الباب‬
Open the door. (Imperative)
!‫ما اجمل هذه الحديقة‬

What a beautiful garden this is! (Exclamatory)
Informative texts basically aim at conveying information for these texts,

content is all important, whereas the style of expressing the content (form) is
secondary. To this class of texts belongs scientific, commercial and legal
writings.
In creative texts, content is not so important as the way which the writer uses
to convey the content. These texts do not depend so much on the information
which they convey to the reader or hearer as on their aesthetic effect. Literary
essays, novels, plays, and above all poetry belongs to the creative class of
texts.

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1.3 .

The Basis of Translation

1.4 .Meaning and Translation

The Role of Reference in Translation

The participle ‫ منتظر‬describes someone who is waiting, but the English

5.2. Using "May" and "May not"

.‫يجوز لالمم المتحدة ان تحتفظ بأموال أو ذهب او عملة من اي نوع‬

Plebiscite (n.) (Politics) = referendum

Audit (n.) to carry out an audit.

Principles of Translation into English / First-year / Morning and Evening

Exhort (v.) (formal) = urge

Muster (v.) = gather

A temporary stopping of an activity, especially by official agreement

Divulge (v.) (formal) = reveal

Reconnaissance (n.) [C, U]

Principles of Translation into English / First-year / Morning and Evening

Demote (v.) X promote (v.)

Sanction (n.) [C, usually pl.]

Principles of Translation into English / First-year / Morning and Evening

Austerity (n.) [U]

Loan (n.) [C]

Declarative sentences give information. We use them to share facts and

An interrogative sentence is a question. It is easy to recognize because it

Exclamatory sentences share strong feelings or excitement. The words are

‫ما هو كتابك المفضل؟‬

!‫ما اجمل هذه الحديقة‬

Informative texts basically aim at conveying information for these texts,

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