UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO

Bansalan College

BS Criminology Program

Physically Distanced but

Academically Engaged

Self-Instructional Manual (SIM)

for Self-Directed Learning (SDL)

Course/Subject: CRI 414/L – FORENSIC BALLISTICS

Name of Course Coordinator: ROBBIE JEAN S. DUMAGSA, RCRIM

THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY; NOT FOR

REPRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE OF ITS INTENDED USE. THIS
IS INTENDED ONLY FOR
THE USE OF THE STUDENTS WHO ARE OFFICIALLY ENROLLED IN THE
COURSE/SUBJECT. EXPECT REVISIONS OF THE MANUAL.

AUGUST 2021
 UNIT 4

Week 8-9: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are expected to:

a. Ascertain the characteristics of firearms;

b. Distinguish the principles of firearms identification, the markings of
evidence and preserving the evidentiary chain on firearms cases, and
to classify the ballistics laboratory equipment

Big Picture A

Big Picture in Focus: ULOa. Ascertain the characteristics of Firearms

Metalanguage
In this section, the most essential terms in relation to the firearms
characteristics will be defined:

• Gun Barrel – Is a tube, usually metal, which controlled the explosion or rapid
expansion of gases are released in order to propel a projectile out of the end
at a high velocity. All barrel irrespective of the type of the weapons for which
they are made are manufactured from a solid piece of metal. The metal from
which the barrel is made is carefully selected for its chemical and
metallurgical properties, thus assures a high-quality product after the various
machine operations and heat treatment are completed.

Essential Knowledge
To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcome) for the two
(2) weeks of the course, you need to fully understand the following essential
knowledge that will be laid down in the succeeding pages of discussion.

HOW IS BARREL MADE?

It is very important that a Ballistics Expert or Firearms Examiner be
sufficiently familiar with the various steps in the manufacture of a firearm in
order that he will be able to explain the source or cause of the different
markings which may be found on a firearm evidence which would be a basis
for his identification.

STAGES IN THE MANUFACTURE OF THE BARREL

A. Drilling - This operation results in a longitudinally rough hole of uniform

diameter from one end of the barrel to the other. This is also the stage
where the bore diameter (caliber) of the firearm is determined.

B. Reaming - This removes some of the scars and scratches left by the
drilling operation.
 C. RIFLING – The barrel is rifled. This process is necessary for the making
of the helical groves inside the barrel and such can be performed in any
of the following methods:
• Hook – cutter system (cutter)
- HOOK- a cutting tool which has a hook shape and only cuts
one groove at a time.
• Scrape – cuter system (scraper)
- SCRAPE- a cutting tool which cuts two opposing grooves at a
time.

• Broaching system – (broach)

- BROACH, GANG- a tool having a series of cutting edges of
slightly increasing height used to cut the spiral grooves in a
barrel. All grooves are cut with a single pass of the broach.
- BROACH SINGLE- a non-adjustable rifling cutter which cuts all
the grooves simultaneously and is in a series of increasing
dimensions until the desired groove depth is achieved.

• Button system –(button)

- BUTTON- a hardened metal plug called button, with a rifled
cross section configuration. It is pushed or pulled through a
drilled and reamed barrel so as to cold form the spiral grooves
to the desired depth and twist. Also called the Swaging Process
or Swaged Rifling.

D. Lapped - the polishing operation wherein lead plug is used in removing

many of the larger imperfections. This is the basis for which firearms
are identified.

The Breech Face

Just like any barrel of every firearm, the breech
face also bears with it the same importance. It is that
portion of the firearms against which the shell or the
cartridge case and the primer is pressed backward every
time that a cartridge will be marked by the breech face of
the gun.

Forensic Firearms Identification therefore is based on the following basic

principles:
1. Firearms identification is actually refined tool marks identification.
2. The natural wear and tear of tools involved produces individuality in a
firearm
3. When a softer comes in contact with a hard surface, it is the softer
surface that acquires impressions or engraving from the irregularities
present on the harder surface.
4. The fact that no two things are absolutely identical or alike.

Microscopic scratches or striations transferred on the discharged bullet

and cartridge case will provide telltale signs suggesting what firearm was used
in firing. These scratches or striations vary from gun to gun therefore it is
impossible that two guns will leave the same characteristics patterns on
bullets and cartridge case fired through them. The pattern of marking
produced by every gun will therefore be unique because we believe that no
man can mold a piece of work exactly alike twice.

Successful identification of firearms from discharged bullets and spent

shells depend upon the basic principle the “there is no duplication in nature”,
exemption to this rule are never manifested result of man’s ingenuity.

Types of Characteristics of Firearms

A. Class Characteristics – Are those properties of firearms which

determined even before the manufacture of the gun. This considered a
manufacturer’s designs or specifications and security.
B. Individual Characteristics – Are meant for those characteristics which
are being determined only after the firearm has already been
manufactured. They are the product of machine imperfections while
others are subsequently produced after the firearms have been used.

Class Characteristics of Firearms

1. Bore Diameter (caliber or gauge) – It is the diameter to which the

bore was reamed; and it is the distance measured between two
opposite lands inside the bore in a hundredths or thousandths of an
inch.

GAUGE BORE DIAMETER

4 .935

8 .835

10 .775

12 .729

16 .662

20 .615

28 .550

410 .410

2. Number of Land and Grooves – The number of land and grooves inside
the barrel of a given firearm are always the same or equal. It may run
from 3 to 8, but the most in the modern firearm are five and six.

• Lands – are elevated portion of the bore of the firearm.

• Grooves – are the depressed portion of the bore between the lands.
3. Width of the Lands – It is dependent upon the bore diameter of the gun,
grooves, width and number. The lands are the remainders of the
circumference after subtracting all the grooves width.
4. Width of the Grooves – It is measured as the shortest distance between
the two dies or edge of a groove.
5. Direction of the Twist – Rifling inside the barrel of the gun is either
twisted to the left or to the right which causes the bullet to rotate as it
 passes through the bore, in order to ensure gyroscopic stability in its
flight.
6. Pitch of Rifling – Is the measure of the twisting of the lands and grooves.
It refers to the measure of the distance advance by the rifling in order to
make a complete turn inside the barrel.
7. Depth of the Groove – The groove’s depth is measured on a radius of
the bore. Grooves are usually few thousandths of an inch deep, which is
equal to the height of the lands.
Types of Rifling
1. Steyer Type – Is the type of rifling having four (4) lands and grooves,
right twist and the width of the lands grooves. (4RG=L).
2. Carbine Type – Rifling having (4) lands and grooves, right twist, the width
of the grooves is two (2) times the width of the lands (4RG2X)
3. Smith and Wesson Type – Rifling having (5) lands and grooves, right
hand twist, the width of the lands grooves are equal (5RG=L)
4. Colt – Type of rifling having six (6) lands and grooves, left twist, the width
of the grooves is twice (2) the width of the lands (6LG2X)
5. Browning – Type of rifling having (6) lands and grooves, right hand twist,
the width of the grooves is twice the width of the lands. (6RG2X)
6. Webley – Rifling having seven (7) lands and grooves, right hand twist,
the width of the groove is three times larger than the broader of the lands
(7RG3X)
7. Winchester – Rifling having six (6) lands and grooves right hand twist,
the width of the grooves is three times larger than the width of the lands.
Marks Found on Fired Bullets
A. Land Marks – Marks left on a fired bullet caused by its contact to the
elevated portion (lands) of the bore of the firearm. It appears as slight
depressions or scratches the cylindrical
surface of the bullet. Land Mark

B. Groove Marks – Marks found on a fired bullet caused by the grooves of

the barrel which is the same number as that of the landmarks.
 Groove Mark

C. Skid Marks - When the bullets enters the rifled bore from stationary
position and is forced abruptly into the rifling, its natural tendency is to
go straight toward before encountering the regular rifling twist.

D. Stripping Marks - Due to bullet jumping on the rifling

Stripping Marks
 E. Rifling Marks - the collective term for land marks and groove mark.

Rifling Marks

F. Shaving Marks - Most commonly these marks are found on bullets fired
from a revolver due to a poor alignment of the cylinder with a bore

G. Slippage Marks – Marks found on fired bullets passing through either an

oily or oversized barrel.

Marks Found on Fired Cartridge Case

1. Firing Pin Impression - generally found on the primer cup (centerfire) or on the
cavity of the rim (rimfire) produced by the blow coming from the firing pin when
knocked by the hammer of the gun.
 These are indentations created
when the firing pin of a firearm strikes the
primer of center fire cartridge case or the
rim of a rim fire cartridge case. If the nose
of the firing pin has manufacturing
imperfections or damage, these potentially
unique characteristics can be impressed
into the metal of the primer or rim of the
cartridge case.

2. Breech Face Markings - Generally found randomly distributed on the

surface of the base produced by the breechblock.

Breech Marks

- Most fired cartridge cases are identified as having been fired by a

specific firearm through the identification of breech marks.

- The breech face rests against the head of the cartridge case and
holds the cartridge case in the chamber of the firearm.

3. Extractor Marks - Tool marks produced upon a cartridge or cartridge case from
contact with the extractor. These are usually found on or just ahead of the rim.

Extractor Marks
Extractor Marks

- The extractor is a small part sometimes resembling a hook that is

used to remove a cartridge or cartridge case from the chamber of a
firearm.
 - As the slide of the pistol moves to the rear, the extractor pulls the
cartridge case along with it until it is ejected from the pistol.

4. Ejector Marks - marks produced from automatic and semi-automatic firearms

generally
found
near the
rim.

Ejector Marks

- The ejector is designed to expel the cartridge case from the action of the
firearm.

- The resulting impact of the cartridge case with the ejector will cause
another action mark that can be used as a means of identification.

5. Shearing Marks - sometimes called the secondary

firing pin impression.

Shear Marks

- When a cartridge case is forced backwards

from recoil the primer imbeds itself in the
firing pin hole. As the slide of the pistol starts
to recoil, the barrel will drop slightly as the
action opens.

6. Magazine Lips Markings - found on the body of the shell produced during loading of the
cartridge in the
magazine.

7. Chamber Marks - found on the periphery of the body of the shell marked by the
irregularities found on the surface of the
chamber.

Chamber Marks

- Roughness in the chamber of a

firearm can scratch the outer walls
of a cartridge case when loaded
and removed from the chamber.
Most chamber marks occur after the
cartridge is fired.

8. Pivotal Marks - also found on the body of the shell produced when the slide acted on
the body of the shell during ejection.

Principles involved in Bullet Identification:

1. No two barrels are microscopically alike or identical as to the internal bore

construction, all barrels possesses individuality or characteristics marks of
their own.

2. When a bullet is fired from a rifled gun barrel, it becomes engraved by the
rifling characteristics of the barrel with varying minute details. It means that
a bullet fired from one barrel will have an engraving different from that of
another bullet fired from another firearm and conversely, bullet fired from the
same firearm will bare same engraving as those that can be found on the
barrel.

3. Every barrel leaves its “thumbprint” or “fingerprint” on every bullet fired on it.

Principles of Shell Identification:

1. The breech face and the striker (or firing pin) of every firearm have
microscopic individualities of their own.

2. Every firearm leaves its “fingerprint” or “thumbprint” on every cartridge it

fires.

3. The whole principle of identification of shells is based upon the fact that since
the breech face of every weapon must be individually distinct, the cartridge
cases that it fired are imprinted with this individuality. The imprints of all
cartridge cases fired from the same weapon are the same, and those on
cartridge cases fired from different weapon are different.
 Please note that you are not limited to exclusively refer to this module.
Thus, you are expected to utilize other books, research articles and other
resources that are available in the university’s library e.g. ebrary,
search.proquest.com etc. and other credible internet sources.
Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further understand
the lesson:
• De Guzman, R.(2014) Fundamentals of forensic firearms identification. Page 91-95, 111-
127
• Manuel, G. & Ibutnande, D. (2016). Forensic ballistics. Page57-79, 87-85