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FORGING TECHNOLOGY
Objectives:
By the end of the topic learners should be able to;
 Observe health and safety rules when forging
 perform first aid procedures in case of an accident
 demonstrate the correct use of tools and equipment
 justify the role of health and safety when using forge tools and
equipment
 identify different tools used in forge technology
 illustrate the uses of the given tools
 describe different processes of forging
 produce items that involve the use of forge technology processes
Forging is an oldest shaping process used for producing small articles
for which accuracy in size is not so important. The parts are shaped
by heating them in an open fire or hearth by the blacksmith and
shaping them through applying compressive forces using hammers.
Thus, forging is defined as the plastic deformation of metals at
elevated temperatures into a predetermined size or shape using
compressive forces exerted through some means of hand hammers,
small power hammers, die, press or upsetting machine. It consists
essentially of changing or altering the shape and section of metal by
hammering at a temperature of about 980°C, at which the metal is
entirely plastic and can be easily deformed or shaped under pressure.
The shop in which the various forging operations are carried out is
known as the smithy or smith’s shop. A metal such as steel can be
shaped in a cold state but the application of heat lowers the yield point
and makes permanent deformation easier. Forging operation can be
accomplished by hand or by a machine hammer. Forging processes
may be classified into hot forging and cold forgings and each of them
possesses their specific characteristics, merits, demerits and
applications.

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Hand forging process is also known as black-smithy work which is
commonly employed for production of small articles using hammers
on heated jobs. It is a manual controlled process even though some
machinery such as power hammers can also be sometimes used.
Black-smithy is, therefore, a process by which metal may be heated
and shaped to its requirements by the use of blacksmith tools either by
hand or power hammer. In smithy small parts are shaped by heating
them in an open fire or hearth. Shaping is done under hand control
using hand tools. This work is done in a smithy shop. In smith forging
or hand forging open face dies are used and the hammering on the
heated metal is done by hand to get the desired shape by judgment.
Forging by machine involves the use of forging dies and is generally
employed for mass production of accurate articles. In drop forging,
closed impression dies are used and there is drastic flow of metal in
the dies due to repeated blow or impact which compels the plastic
metal to conform to the shape of the dies. The final shape of the
product from raw material is achieved in a number of steps. There are
some advantages, disadvantages and applications of forging
operations which are given as under.

SAFETY
There are risks with any hobby, sport or work environment; forgework or
blacksmithing is no exception. If you don’t work safely, you can be exposed to
the risk of serious and life-threatening injury.
In forgework or blacksmithing one is exposed to:
1. Fire in a forge that could reach 1,510 degrees Celsius.
2. Metal that could reach 1,370 degrees Celsius.
Unsafe practices will expose you to the risk of burns from metal, flames, sparks
and spatter, as well as exposure to fumes and gases. You may need to chip or
grind metal, which can produce sparks, flying metal, sharp edges and metal
shards.
You may experience minor burns and cuts and even a few blisters in forge work
or blacksmithing. All of these risks can be greatly reduced or eliminated by

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following proper safety procedures. There should be no reason why you can’t
work safely, free from the dangers associated with the forgework or blacksmith
trade. To stay safe, you must learn about and practice all safety procedures.
You are responsible for your safety as well as the safety of those around you, so
you must follow the instructions provided to you. If you follow the safety
procedures outlined, you will avoid injuries.
Safety tips
Be Alert:
 Work only when you are well rested;
 Do not work with tools, equipment or chemicals if you have been
drinking alcohol or using drugs;
 Focus on the job at hand;
 Inspect each tool before you begin;
 Be aware of the movement of others;
 Know where the fire extinguisher and First Aid Kit are located;
 Never smoke or allow anyone else to smoke near your work area.
Stay Hydrated
During forging processes, the blacksmith is exposed to high temperatures which
cause loss of body water or dehydration through sweating, therefore he/she
should:
• Keep a water bottle handy to avoid dehydration
o Dehydration occurs when the amount of water leaving the body is
greater than the amount being taken in;
o If you are working beside a fire in an enclosed area, during the
summer, it will get hot!
o Up to 78% of the body's weight is water.
Organize Your Work Area:
 Have a place for your tools;
 Return everything to its proper place;
 Remove any hazards from your work area
o Anything flammable, volatile or explosive
 Store gas cylinders in a separate, protected area;
 Clean your work area and pick up anything on the floor;
 Design your work area to be safe and efficient;

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  Ensure you set up your work area where there is good ventilation
o Work outdoors whenever possible;
o Keep a window open;
o Use a portable fan to keep the air moving.
Plan Ahead:
 Think through all of your steps before you begin;
 Have a plan for your finished work
o E.g., know where you will set hot metal to cool
 Never walk around with hot metal;
Safety Gear for the Blacksmith
Clothing:
 Select heat and fire-resistant clothing that will protect you from high
temperatures, sparks and flames
o Choose heavy clothing made of tightly woven natural fibres
o Leather, cotton or wool are good choices because natural fibres are
flame resistant - synthetic fabric such as nylon can melt to your
skin
 Wear long-sleeved, non-flammable jackets/shop coats/coveralls
 Wear long pants that cover the tops of your shoes or boots
o This prevents coals or hot metal from falling inside your shoes
 Wear long-sleeved shirts and tuck your shirt into your pants
 Wear lightweight, high top, leather, steel-toed shoes or boots with rubber
soles
o Avoid synthetic shoes because they can melt
 Wear a cap and make sure your hair is tied back; you can also wear a
bandana
 Remove anything flammable from your clothing
o Check your pockets
o Remove things such as lighters and matches
o Check that your clothes are oil-free
 Avoid wearing anything that could trap hot metal or sparks
o For example, avoid cuffs, open-neck shirts and baggy pockets
 Wear old clothes in case your clothes are damaged
o However, don’t wear anything baggy or frayed
o Save money by shopping at second-hand stores
 Remove rings or jewellery before you begin
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Protecting others
When you are working near other people, let them know when you are about to
start working.
Things to Consider:
 Sparks and molten metal can travel up to 10.7 metres
 Grinders and other tools will produce sparks
 Keep things off the floor, including cords, so others don’t trip
 Let people know when metal and tools are hot
 Never walk away leaving hot metal unattended
o Someone may not realize a piece of metal is hot and try to pick it
up
 Clean up whenever you have finished working
The forge is the equipment used to provide heat for the metals to be hot forged.
It can be fuelled by gas or coal. Safety precautions should also be observed
when using either gas or coal.
Safe Use of a Gas or Propane Forge:
 Lift the side port (door) of the forge, using caution.
o Never slam it or let it swing freely.
 Never place anything in the forge other than mild steel or approved fire
brick.
 Do not poke, chip or remove interior insulation.
 Use tongs to place metal in the side port of the forge.
 Balance your piece in the door ports to avoid damaging the interior
insulation.
 Shut off the gas tank valve if you hear hissing.
Safe Use of a Coal Forge:
 Ensure you have good ventilation and draft.
o A chimney draft, also spelled draught, is created when the hot
gasses released from the fire move up the chimney (hot air rises)
and as the hot air moves up the chimney, it creates space for cooler
air to be drawn into the fire.
Avoiding fumes
Precautions:
 Don’t breathe the fumes
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 o Keep your face out of the “blacksmith zone”
o Wear a respirator if necessary
o Work in a well-ventilated area
 Remove any chemicals from your work area
 Remove any dirt, coatings, paints or oils from the metal
 Know the metal you are heating; some produce poisonous fumes.
 Avoid heating any metal that has a shiny finish e.g., chrome plating
 Never heat coated metals such as galvanized, lead, or cadmium plated
steel
 If you must work alone, let someone know you are working
Burn summary chart
You will be working with a hot forge. You will also be working with metal that
could reach temperatures of between 1,000° and 1,260° Celsius. To put that into
perspective, water boils at about 100° Celsius.
Avoid Burns:
 Assume any tool or piece of metal is hot;
o Beginners are often burned by touching black hot metal.
 Metal conducts heat, so only pick up tools by the handles and assume the
handles are hot;
 Work safely around the forge;
 Wear protective clothing.
Degree Identification Healing Treatment
First Red and painful Healed in 3-6 Soak area in cool water, apply
degree days antibiotic ointment and cover
with
gauze
Second Red or splotchy, Healed in 2 to Soak in cool water,
degree painful, 3 see your doctor, apply an
swollen with weeks antibiotic
blisters cream, leave blisters, cover
with
new dressing daily, check your
tetanus record, watch for
infection, protect it from
sunlight
and do not scratch
Third- White and Long healing Seek Immediate Emergency
degree charred, may process Medical Attention
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 not be painful
because of
nerve damage

 Never put anything oily on a burn, it will make it worse.

 Seek medical attention if you are in doubt.

The anvil
Anvil is often considered as a mother of all forging tools for a perfect reason.
Every working project requires anvils use, so we can also say that it is an
inevitable forging tool. Besides the hammer, the anvil is the most recognized
tool in blacksmithing. Anvil is a massive piece of metal that serves as a work
table for blacksmiths. The function of the anvil is to provide a tough working
surface against which metal is later forged. Its weight can vary from 20 to 500
pounds, depending on the type of work being done.
When you are just getting started, it is essential to know the purpose and
primary uses of the anvil. Techniques like drawing, upsetting, punching, cutting
are all done on the anvil. Keep in mind that anvil has a lot of parts where each
has its purpose. For example, the drawing technique is mostly done on the face
of the anvil, whereas bending is mostly done on the anvil’s horn.
Anvil is the centre of all action in the workshop, so good knowledge about this
tool is critical. Understanding all anvils concept will make your work safer,
more comfortable, and of better quality. Remember, poor knowledge is one of
the biggest dangers in blacksmithing.

THE ANVIL STAND

An anvil should be set at a comfortable height for the user. One that is set
directly on the floor, is difficult to use, tiring for the Blacksmith and putting

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strain on the back. An anvil should be set on a cast steel anvil stand, or
preferably a trunk of elm. The elm absorbs the force of each hammer blow,
transmitted through the anvil to the stand. A cast steel stand does not absorb
hammer blows and tends to react/bounce.

Parts of an Anvil
Each part of the anvil has an essential purpose in blacksmithing work. The main
components of the anvil are:

 The Face
 Table
 The Horn
 The Pritchel Hole
 The Hardy Hole
The Face
Anvil’s face is the most crucial part of the anvil. It is located on top where most
of the hammering takes place. Depending on personal needs, edges can be either
rounded or sharp. In most cases, rounded corners are recommended primarily
because they cant easily cut into the metal. The face of the anvil is usually the
toughest and also the toughest part of the anvil.
This is because mainly, it is made of hardened steel. The face should be as flat
as possible. If it is not, any mark on the surface can easily cause damage to the
working metal. The harder the face is, the more efficient hammering is. Hard
face reduces the amount of force lost in each strike. Note that you should never
directly strike the face with tools made of hardened steel as that can damage it.
Table
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The Table or Step is located between the anvil face and the horn. Its principal
function is to cut metal. The table is usually softer than the face, which allows
resurfacing or dressing in case the chisel damage it. Keep in mind that frequent
use can damage the table.
The Horn
The primary purpose of the horn is to bend the metal. It is a cone-shaped
extension of an anvil. The horn allows the blacksmith to make precise curves
into the working piece.
To shape metal on the horn, pick the section that seems to have the right radius,
and hammer it around. Keep in mind that it is easier to work with the round bar
than the flat bar due to less risk of distortion.
The Punch Hole
The Punch hole is one of the simplest parts of the anvil. It is primarily used for
making a hole in metal. Except for punching, it can also serve to hold the tools
that make your work much more manageable. Some people mix the punch hole
with the hardy hole. The only difference between the two is the shape of the
hole. The hardy hole is square, whereas the punch hole is round.
The Hardy Hole
The Hardy hole is a square hole, usually located near the Punch hole or
sometimes on the opposite side of the face, depending on the style of the anvil.
The primary purpose of the Hardy hole is to hold and secure various tools like
chisels, swages, bickerns, etc. The tools placed in the hardy hole are called
Hardy tools which can be used for various blacksmithing techniques like
bending, cutting, punching, etc.
BLACKSMITH'S HEARTH
The Blacksmith’s Hearth is essential for any forge work to take place. The
hearths, such as the one below, are manufactured from either mild steel or cast
steel. Mild steel hearths require a fire brick lining. Both types of hearth need a
‘bed’, built up from builders sand. The fuel is placed on top of the sand
(Blacksmith’s Breeze, sometimes referred to as ‘Coke Beans’ or Smithy Coal).
This type of fuel, ensures optimal performance of the hearth, allowing high
temperatures to be reached and controlled. Spare fuel is stored in the ‘fuel box’,
at the front of the hearth, where it can dry and warm before it is used. Never use
damp fuel in the hearth, as it has the potential to ‘spit’ wildly, which is
dangerous. Inevitably, the fuel will be used up, through the healing process and

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it generally forms a ‘clinker’ (waste) near ‘tuyere’, which can be removed in
one piece.
The hood of the hearth directs the fumes towards the flue, where an extractor
fan takes over.
A Blacksmith’s water tank is placed close to the hearth, often in front of it.
This allows metals to be quenched quickly, and also Blacksmith’s tools. An
electric blower provides the ‘blast’ through the tuyere and is used to control the
burning fuel and the temperatures required for the blacksmith’s various
processes.
A blast of air goes through the tuyere, feeding the fire with the oxygen it needs
for high temperatures. The amount of air passing through the tuyere, can be
controlled and completely stopped if necessary. Most tuyeres are protected by a
jacket of water, stored in the BOSH. The water protects the tuyere from
damaged caused by being exposed to very high temperatures, during prolonged
periods of forging.

BLACKSMITH’S FIRE TOOLS

The Blacksmith needs three important tools when controlling the hearth and the
burning coke. They allow him/her to add more coke, position it accurately and
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rake away debris, allowing air to flow through the coke, enhancing the fire.
Without these tools, the fire in the forge would eventually die or produce
insufficient temperatures.

USE OF THE SLICE

The slice is used to add coke to the ‘heart’ of the fire in the hearth. The coke is
taken from the fuel box, where it has been preheated and dried before adding to
the hearth.
USE OF THE RAKE

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The rake is used by the Blacksmith to reposition the coke and to remove any
‘spent fuel and clinker. This helps to keep the fire in a healthy state, building up
heat/temperature.
USE OF THE POKE

The Blacksmith uses the poke to move coke pieces out of the way, allowing air
to penetrate and feed the heart of the fire. Usually, the poke is used along with
the rake.
LIGHTING THE FORGE
Lighting the forge is relatively straightforward. A small hollow/depression is
formed in the coke, in front of the tuyere. ‘Rolled up’ newspaper, with a few
pieces of kindling (wood), are placed in the hollow and the paper set alight. As
the fire takes hold and begins to ‘grow’ in intensity, a small amount of coke is
added to the ‘fire’ and a gentle blast of air delivered through the tuyere.

During the forging process, more fuel is added and it is raked/poked into
position, around the heart of the fire. If this is not done regularly, a hollow fire
will develop, as the fuel at the heart burns away. This lowers temperatures and

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makes maintaining a working fire impossible. It is good practice to turn off the
blast of air and to remove the debris, called clinker, using a rake, followed by
carefully adding more coke and turning on a gentle blast of air.
MAINTAINING THE FIRE
Coke is added as the fire grows in intensity and the air blast is controlled to
ensure just enough air is ‘blown’, to encourage the fire. Too much power in the
blast, could at this early stage, blow out the fire.
The coke is eventually heaped carefully above the heart of the fire. Usually,
only a small proportion of the hearth is required for forging and it is located just
in front of the tuyere.

THE MODERN CERAMIC CHIP FORGE

A modern, ceramic chip forge, is a good option for schools and colleges.
Ceramic chips take the place of ‘coke’, but they should not be regarded as fuel.
The fuel is natural gas, which when ignited, burns at a high temperature, heating
the ceramic chips, which stores the heat. The heating of the metal to be forged
takes place in the same way as with a traditional forge. It is placed in the heart
of the fire, just below the surface of the heated ceramic chips. The ‘blast’ is
normally a mixture of gas and air, applied through holes in the hearth. The blast
can be adjusted in intensity.

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ADVANTAGES / DISADVANTAGES OF CHIP AND COKE FORGES

Ceramic chip forges have the advantage of being connected to a gas supply,
which provides much of the heat. This means that the forge can be ready for
work, in less than fifteen minutes. They do not need a continuous supply of
coke and require very little cleaning and preparation, compared to traditional
‘coke’ based forges. However, they tend to have a limited working area. The
ceramic chips need replacing occasionally. THESE FORGES NEED A
CONTINUOUS GAS SUPPLY (either piped or bottled (butane or propane)).
They take little training to light and operate.
Coke based forges reach higher working temperatures, an advantage to a
professional blacksmith. They do not need a supply of gas or even electricity.
Manual bellows can be used to provide the ‘blast’ of air. A coke based forged
can be located in places without gas or even electricity supply. This type of
forge takes longer to light and requires a level of skill and practice to keep at a
working temperature.
Open fire and stock fire
The fire itself plays an important part on the efficient heating of stock and it
must be kept clean, free from excess dust or clinkers. Work which is laid on top
of the fire will get hot underneath and remain colder on the top use it is exposed

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to the atmosphere, and uneven heating will result. In the same way, work which
is red low in the fire but at the same time against the tuyere will become hot on
one side, but will have a blast of clod air blowing against it, from the tuyere on
the other side. The correct position for heating the job is in the hearth of the fire.
The most common methods of firing in forging are namely open fire and stock
fire.
Open fire

Open fire is shown above. This type of fire is highly convenient for general
heating work and is made up in the hollow space in front of tuyere nozzle with
coke left from the last fire, covered with green petroleum. As the fire burns
away, coke from the top and sides is drawn into the centre, and its place is taken
by more green coal taken from the supply maintained on the front place of the
forge or taken from the outside. The jobs or work-pieces must be covered with a
layer of coal, and to obtain a flame at single spot, the coal should be slightly
damped with water and pressed down with a flat shovel. In the spot where the
flame is desired, the coal should be loosened with a poker. To ensure uniform
heating of work on all sides, it must be turned round from time to time.
Stock fire

A stock fire is depicted above which is intended to last for several hours. This
type of fire is commonly useful in dealing with large pieces, when a heat may
have to be kept for some time. The job or work has to be turned in all directions
to ensure uniform heating of the job. Such fire is made up around a block of the
desired size which is placed near the tuyere nozzle and upon which coal damped
with water that is closely built into the form of a mound or “stock”. Fine coal

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or pulverized coal is suitable for use in stock fire. The block is then withdrawn
from the bed of the hearth with a turning force to prevent the stock from being
broken and a tunnel is thus formed with an opening at the top. The fire is then
lighted in the hollow space. From the bottom of the tunnel a small amount of
coal is removed and a cavity is formed in the place in to which clinker may fall.
Here the work is heated, being carefully covered with freshly coke fuel from
time to time as the fire burns away.
Fuels used in forging
The fuels used in forging shop are classified as solid, liquid and
gaseous fuels which are;
Solid fuels
Wood, coal, anthracite, peat, charcoal, coke, pulverized fuel etc.
Liquid fuels
Crude oil, petroleum, kerosene, tar oil etc.
Gaseous fuels
Natural gas and some artificially produced gases are used generate
heat.
A good fuel should always possess the following essential
characteristic which are given as under.
1. The fuel should be able to generate the required heat.
2. It should have complete combustion.
3. It should be highly efficient.
4. It should not produce excess smoke and flying ash.
5. It should be easy to fire, cheap and easily available.

TONGS FOR FORGING

A range of tongs is available for forge work. They are used, when it is not
practical or safe to hold the metal in the hand. Selecting the tongs to be used,
depends on the nature of the work being carried out. They should hold the work
comfortably and firmly. Tongs range in weight. For instance, lightweight tongs
start at 900g and are ideal for school work and lighter forge work. Standard

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tongs range between 1300g to 1800g. Heavier tongs for substantial forge work,
begin at 2kg.
The Blacksmith selects the tongs required for a workpiece, through experience.
He/she knows which tongs fit the variety of shapes and forms being forged. A
skilled Blacksmith will select the tongs to be used and then heat the jaws and
hammering them carefully until they fit the section of metal being held.
During forging, the tongs will become hot to hold, even with leather gloves
being worn. It is necessary to quench tongs occasionally, to cool them down.
The metal being forged is held by a gloved hand. This is safe because the glove
protects the Blacksmith’s hand. When the heat conducts down the metal to the
hand, the Blacksmith will use tongs.
The short length of the metal being forged means that it cannot be held directly
in the hand. The Blacksmith selects the tongs, according to the
section/shape/form of the metal being held. Occasionally, the tongs will need
cooling, to ensure that they do not heat up, making it uncomfortable to hold, or
even impossible to hold.

Using tongs for a long time can be difficult. Hands and fingers are put under
strain and put the tongs down to rest, which interrupts the forging process.
A ring can be slipped on the handles of the tongs, which maintains the pressure
needed to ‘clamp’ the metal being forged, between the jaws. This reduces strain
on the hand.

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A RANGE OF BLACKSMITH'S TONGS

a) Straight-lip fluted tongs are commonly used for holding square, circular
and hexagonal bar stock.
b) Rivet or ring tongs are widely used for holding bolts, rivets and other
work of the circular section.
c) Flat tongs are used mainly for holding work of the rectangular section.
d) Gad tongs are used for holding general pick-up work, either straight or
tapered.
e) Flat tongs are used for gripping thin section and small flat pieces.
f) Round hollow tongs, with curved surface inside, are used for holding
round work.
g) Hollow tongs with square jaws are used to hold square or hexagonal
work. Pick up tongs have their jaws so shaped that even small sections
can be easily picked up. They are not used for holding the work.

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HAMMERS FOR FORGEWORK
The Smith’s hammer is often used when forging when there is no need for an
assistant. These are heavy compared to hammers but ideal when forging metal.
Two Smith’s hammers are shown below. One has a hickory (natural wood)
handle, which absorbs the ‘shock’ of each strike with the hammer. Modern
Smith’s hammers tend to have a glass fibre handle, which also flexes on each
strike. The hammerhead is cast steel, which has been hardened and tempered at
each end. The eye, into which the handle fits is left ‘soft’. These hammers are
typically 900g to 140g in weight.
The third hammer shown below, is a Double-Faced Smith’s hammer, a
favourite of Blacksmiths.

The large ball pein smith’s hammer is also a favourite of blacksmiths. This is a
larger and heavier version of the usual ball pein hammer found in engineers
toolboxes and school workshops.

The two ‘sledge’ Smith’s hammers shown below, are typical of those used
when forging, when the Blacksmith needs the help of another person, called a
‘Striker’.

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The Blacksmith positions his/her hammer and the Striker ‘strikes’ with a sledge.

The straight and cross pein hammers have a flat striking surface, with the pein
being either in line with the handle or at 90 degrees to the handle. The handles
are usually either hickory, ash or fibreglass.

The diagram below shows the Blacksmith positioning the ‘Smith’s hammer and
the Striker (the Smith’s Assistant) striking the hammer with a sledge. Two
people are required when heavy forging is taking place, beyond the capability of
a single Blacksmith.

A Smith’s hammer is used during the forging of metal. It is a general

blacksmithing hammer because it is heavy and well balanced. In trained hands,

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it is ideal for forming red/yellow hot steel and wrought iron, into numerous
shapes and forms. It is often used in conjunction with an anvil.

BLACKSMITH'S SETTS
A sett is a ‘chisel’ used by Blacksmiths. A sett will have either a wooden or
wire handle, formed from steel. They are normally used in conjunction with a
‘hardie’, which sits in the Hardie hole of the anvil.
Setts are in two forms, cold setts for cutting metal when it is cold and hot setts
for use when cutting hot metal.
The angle ground at the ‘cutting edge of a cold set is 60 degrees, whereas the
hot set has an angle of 30 degrees.

When using the setts, the Hardie sits in the Hardie hole of the anvil. The metal
should be heated to a ‘yellow colour’ and placed between the Hardie and the
set. The Blacksmith’s Assistant uses a sledge to strike the set, creating a ‘nick’
in the top and bottom surfaces of the metal. The metal is then turned around so
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that a ‘nick’ can be produced on the other two surfaces. This procedure
continues until the steel can be broken apart. The metal should not be ‘cut’ all
the way through, it should be rotated, as described above.

Lighter metals can be cut by a one-person operation. The Blacksmith uses a

Smith’s hammer to strike the metal, which sits on top of the Hardie. The metal
is rotated after each strike, creating ‘nicks’ on all the surfaces. This process is
continued until the unwanted piece breaks off. Never try to cut all the way
through, as this can lead to the Hardie being damaged. The metal can be
reheated between strikes if required.
SWAGES AND SWAGE BLOCKS

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Round sections can be formed through the use of a set of swages. The pair
shown below are capable of ‘rounding’ a section. Hexagonal sections can also
be formed through the use of swages with a hexagonal profile.
The bottom swage fits into the Hardie hole of the anvil and the top swage is
hammered by a sledge.

SWAGE BLOCKS
Cast iron ‘swage blocks’ are found in a Blacksmith’s workshop. The swage
block can be set upright, or it can be laid flat, in a substantial stand. The stand is
designed to accommodate both positions.
The edges of the swage block, have vee and half-round notches and other
profiles, and these are used to shape materials, in much the same way as an

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anvil is used. For example, a top swage could be used in conjunction with a
curve on the edge of the swage block. When laid flat, a bottom fuller could be
held in one of the square holes and a top fuller hammered from above.
The holes are for holding lengths of various sections, whilst bending or
deforming. They are also useful when punching holes.
Swage blocks vary in size and the arrangement of the holes and edge section
shapes.

METALS FOR FORGING AND FORGING TEMPERATURES

Wrought iron is ideal for forgework, although it is very difficult to acquire
nowadays. It has a low carbon content, less than 0.08 percent. It is ideal for
forgework, because it is ductile and malleable, due to its fibrous structure.
However, wrought iron is not produced on a large commercial scale today.
As a replacement, medium carbon steels are used. They contain from 0.3
percent carbon to 0.7 percent. One such steel is called ‘black mild steel’.
High carbon steels are sometimes used in forgework. However, care must be
taken to ensure that these steels are not heated above cherry red heat (see colour
indicator chart), as they will be damaged and their mechanical properties will be
lost.
The Blacksmith uses a variety of sections including round, hexagonal square
and a range of flat strips.

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SIMPLE EXPLANATION OF WORKING HEATS
Being able to read a heat indication chart is not easy, as ‘colour indicators will
appear to be slightly different, according to the light present in the workshop,
such as artificial light or even daylight. The forge should be situated in a
workshop, where the light intensity does not vary.
FAINT RED to CHERRY RED - for general bends applied to mild steel and
forge work on carbon steels.
BRIGHT RED - for punching and cutting metals such as mild steel.
GLOWING RED TO BRIGHT YELLOW - Forging wrought iron and mild
steel including fullering, drawing down, upsetting and heavy punching.
LIGHT LEMON HEAT - Welding mild steel.
WHITE HEAT - Welding wrought iron.

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FORGING OPERATIONS
1 Bending
Basic bending/folding of steel begins with heating the metal to ‘cherry red’. The
metal is placed on the anvil and it is hammered to shape, as seen in the diagram.
A chalk line should be drawn on the metal, before heating, which marks the
point of the bend. The aim should be to limit the hammer strikes, keeping them
to the minimum. This helps to protect the metal, reducing the risk of
deformation.

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USING A LEG VICE TO HELP FORM A BEND
The leg vice is used here, to hold a substantial piece of steel, ready for forming
to a 90-degree angle. The steel has been heated to ‘red heat’, on a brazing hearth
or in a forge, so that it is malleable and can be formed more easily. The long
piece of steel fits between the jaws of the leg vice, without interference from the
bench, giving plenty of room. The heavy blows to the steel, from the ‘large’ ball
pein hammer, will not damage this type of vice, but they could damage an
engineer’s vice.

ACCURATE BENDING OF METAL

For an accurate 90-degree bend, there is a more detailed process. The metal is
‘upset’ in the area of the bend (dia A.). The metal is then placed down on the
anvil face, where the upset area is flattened (dia B.). Eventually, the three sides
of the upset area are fattened, leaving a ‘bulge’ on one side (dia C.) The bend is
then forged slowly, over the edge of the anvil (dia D.) As the bend is formed,
the ‘bulge’ is hammered out and a precise bend is formed.

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2 JUMPING UP / UPSETTING
This process involves ‘thickening’ a section of the metal being forged. The
metal Is heated to ‘yellow heat’ in the area to be thickened. A chalk line can be
drawn on the metal, which marks the limit of the thickening. Chalk will show
up relatively clearly, even after heating the metal. It may be necessary to cool
the rest of the metal.
Pick up tongs are used to hold the metal, which is ‘bounced’ on the anvil. This
should result in the heated area deforming, as seen in the diagram.
Another option is to strike the opposite end of the metal with a Blacksmith’s
hammer, in this case, a Blacksmith’s ball pein hammer is used.

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the heated area deforming, as seen in the diagram.
Another option is to strike the opposite end of the metal with a Blacksmith’s
hammer, in this case, a Blacksmith’s ball pein hammer is used

Jumping/upsetting can be positioned away from the end of the metal. The area
is heated, making it malleable. See the diagram below.

Upsetting / jumping up can be achieved with the aid of a vice and Blacksmith’s
hammer. A substantial engineers/fitters vice is seen below. The metal to be
forged is secured with care, between the serrated jaws. The Blacksmith then
strikes the heated end of the metal, upsetting the area outside the jaws.

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The example of ‘upsetting’, below shows the leg vice being used to hold metal
being forged. Leg vices are ideal for holding large/substantial sections and for
this reason, it is an essential piece of equipment for a Blacksmith.

3 DRAWING DOWN TO A TAPER

Drawing down to a taper is a basic skill and results in the production of a
thinner section at one end of the steel length.
The techniques start with heating the metal to an orange / yellow colour and
placing it on the anvil face. A small chamfer is produced first, by striking all
four edges of the bar, at the heated end. Two or three strikes to each edge will
begin to produce the chamfer. The metal is rotated to ensure all four edges are
‘hammered’.
The metal will need reheating throughout the process, to maintain orange /
yellow colour. As the chamfer is increased to produce a taper, the angle
between the metal and anvil face is reduced.

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NOTE: It is important to produce a chamfer first, as this prevents ‘piping’,
which makes further forging difficult and can result at the end of the metal
splitting.

4 FLARING
Flaring is a process whereby the end of the metal is drawn out, as shown below.
It is normally applied to flat metal strips and is often the first stage of creating
decorative scrollwork.

5 PUNCHING AND DRIFTING

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‘Punching’ and ‘drifting’ is a common practice in forge work. Punches are
supplied in a range of sections, from round and square to rectangular. Punches
are used first to drive a hole through the metal being forged, followed by a drift,
which smooths and is used to widen the ‘hole’.
This process starts with the metal being heated to yellow heat, in the forge. It is
then placed on the face of the anvil, and a punch is used to drive a hole,
approximately halfway through. The metal is flipped over and the metal is
punched from the opposite side. This means that punching does not go through
to the surface of the anvil, which could damage it. ‘Punching’ must be
completed quickly so that the temperature of the metal is maintained. The punch
will need cooling through quenching, during the process. The side of the metal
in contact with the anvil, will eventually cool below yellow colour, preventing
further punching.

USING A DRIFT
The metal will need reheating, so that drift can be used to widen the hole to the
correct size. The drift will also produce a ‘smooth’ finish.
Please note: ‘drifting’ should be attempted over the punch hole of the anvil, or
using one of the holes through a swage block.
Drifts are tapered. The one seen opposite is being used over the anvil’s punch
hole.

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6 Fullering
Fullering’ is the first stage of drawing down a section of steel. ‘Drawing down’
means, reducing the section size / thinning the section. This is normally a two
people job.
The tools for this process are called ‘fullers’ and they are normally used in
pairs. The bottom fuller fits in the Hardie hole of the anvil and the top fuller
receive strikes from a sledge.
1. The steel to be drawn down is heated to red/yellow colour and the
fullering process begins at the shoulder. The first strike is called
‘knecking in’.

2. Top and bottom fullers used to draw down the steel, producing a series of
‘dips’, as shown below.

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 3. High spots hammered flat with a blacksmith’s hammer.

FLATTING (SETTING DOWN)

7 DRAWING DOWN
Drawing is the process of stretching the stock while reducing its cross-section
locally. Forging the tapered end of a cold chisel is an example of a drawing
operation.
Drawing down can be achieved by one person, using the edge of the anvil (see
diagram A).
The beak of the anvil can also be used (see diagram B).

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In both cases shown here, a Blacksmith’s hammer has been used.

8 TWISTING
Creating a twist in a length of steel is a typical forging process, seen in many
examples of Blacksmith’s work, such as wrought iron gates and railings.
Thin sections can be twisted without the need to heat in a forge. However,
larger sections need heating to red heat / yellow colour and must be a uniform
temperature, along the section to be twisted. The forge is the best way of
ensuring a uniform temperature.
The steel is placed in a vice and a wrench slipped over the top. Homemade
wrenches have a square hole, through which the steel fits. The wrench is then
turned clockwise (or anticlockwise), usually one or two turns.
The steel twist is then allowed to cool, or quenched in water.

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The main problem with the twisting process is that it is difficult to keep the
twist straight. Using a piece of tube / a sleeve (as shown in the diagram below),
helps to ensure the twist is straight/vertical and uniform.
The wrench can be a plain piece of flat steel, with a square hole cut to fit the
section being twisted. The wrench seen below, has knurled handles, making it
easier to grip and turn, in a controlled and unified rotation.

9 WELDING THROUGH FORGING

Welding can be achieved through forging, by heating both pieces to very high
temperatures (white heat indicator colour) and then ‘hammering’ them together.
Mild steel requires a slightly lower temperature, yellow colour approaching
white-hot colour. Getting the temperature right is very important. If the
temperature is even slightly lower than it should be, hammering will not
produce a welded joint. However, if the temperature is too high, the metal will
be damaged through burning.
It is important to use flux on the surfaces to be welded together. The flux
prevents oxidisation from taking place, by providing a protective coating called
‘slag’, with prevents oxygen in the air from reaching the metal’s surface. Borax
is used as a flux for mild steel and sand for wrought iron.
The fire in the Blacksmith’s hearth must be carefully maintained, to achieve the
high temperatures required for welding. Also, the heart of the fire must be free
of ‘clinker’ (the waste produced by heating coke).
The welding process starts at the centre of the joint, with the Blacksmith
working outwards. This displaces any slag/impurities. Working from the outside
of the joint inwards has the potential to lock in any impurities/slag, as
hammering progresses. This could lead to poor and weak welded joint.

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It may appear that the butt weld is the easiest to carry out. However, this is not
the case. Both surfaces must be forced together whilst hammering takes place,
all at the same white heat.
SCARF WELDING

The ‘scarf weld’, is the most popular way of joining two pieces of metal. The
ends to be joined are prepared carefully by ‘upsetting’. They are then heated to
yellow/white heat, sprinkled with flux (borax for mild steel) and placed on the
face of the anvil.
Hammering starts at the centre of the joint, forcing impurities/slag out of the
joint. Once the joint is made, the Blacksmith concentrates on shaping/forming
the joint, so that it is accurate and smooth.

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THE BLACKSMITH’S POWER HAMMER
The Blacksmith’s Power Hammer is extremely useful for repetitive processes
such as drawing down, on larger pieces of work. The pneumatic hammer strikes
the metal repeatedly, with force. The shapes of the top and bottom die and the
skill of the operator in manipulating the metal determine the final shape of the
metal. A range of dies is available, which help when fullering, flatting and
shaping processes.
The advantages of the power hammer are:
Less effort by the Blacksmith is required to form the shape. Using the power
hammer means that there is no need for an assistant. Productivity increases.

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Three Sample Open Dies for A Power Hammer

Typical Blacksmith’s Power Hammer

DROP FORGING - OPEN DIE FORGING

Drop forging is a technique associated with the manufacture of cross-sections,
shapes and forms. It is a similar process, to that of the Power Hammer, but on a
much larger scale. The metal to be forged is heated to 1000 - 1300 degrees
centigrade. The work is shaped between the top ram and die AND the bottom
anvil and die. As the top ram and die ‘press’ the metal against the bottom die,
the operator carefully manipulates the billet, to produce the desired shape.
Larger drop forges, require the metal to be held by special ‘clamps’ / ‘arms’,
which are often controlled via a remote-control unit. Open dies are generally
simpler than ‘closed’ dies. Closed dies, totally ‘enclose’ the billet/metal to be
forged and can be considered a two-piece mould.

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The Drop forging process, allows for the manufacture of durable and strong
components, optimising the structural strength of the metal. Through drop
forging, the granular structure is compressed and aligned with the shape of the
component being formed. Drop forging reduces the possibility of structural
defects.
Other manufacturing technologies including, machining, casting and 3D
printing, cannot match the structural strength of drop forging.

The range of metals suitable for drop forging includes steel, aluminium and
some brasses and bronzes. Our modern aerospace industry, drop forge specialist
metals such as titanium, Inconel, copper and brass alloys and stainless steel.
Open die forging can be on a small or large scale. For example, with small scale
drop forging, the billet can be held by the Blacksmith, with a set of tongs, whilst
forging.
The open die forging shown below is on a large industrial scale. The billet is
being held by a hydraulic arm and jaws, controlled at a safe distance, by a
‘remote’ operator.

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DROP FORGING - CLOSED DIE FORGING
Closed die forging is when a component or part is ‘stamped’, through drop
forging. It differs from open die forging, in that it requires a ‘closed die’, which
is a two-piece mould.
The procedure starts with a metal billet being heated to yellow heat and placed
in the bottom die. The ram of the drop forge then presses the top die directly
over the bottom die, pressurising the billet. The billet takes the shape of the two
dies. A good example of this is the spanner seen below. After stamping, there
may be a need to ‘clean up’ the forged part, such as removing waste metal from
the ‘seam’, where both parts of the mould/die meet, during stamping. All waste
can be recycled at a later date.

Sample ‘Closed Die’ Forged Components

A Typical Industrial Drop Forge

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Classification of Forging Operations
Based on the Temperature of the workpiece:
1. Hot Forging: (most widely used) Forging is carried out at a temperature
above the recrystallization temperature of the metal. most common, due
to the significant deformation and the need to reduce strength and
increase the ductility of work metal to produce complex shapes.
Advantages:
a) High strain rates and hence the easy flow of the metal
b) Recrystallization and recovery are possible
c) Forces required are less
Disadvantages of Hot Working:
a) Lubrication is difficult at high temperatures
b) Oxidation and scaling occur on the work
c) Poor surface finish
d) Dies must withstand high working temperature

2. Cold Forging: Forging is carried out at a temperature below the

recrystallization temperature of the metal.
Advantages:
a) Less friction between die surface and workpiece
b) Lubrication is easy
c) No oxidation or scaling on the work
d) Good surface finish

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e) Increased strength that results from strain hardening and minimal
machining
Disadvantages of Cold Working:
a) Low strain rates, hence less reduction per pass.
b) Recrystallization and recovery do not occur.
c) Hence, annealing is required for further deformation in subsequent
cycles.
d) The forces required are high.

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