1:Introduction

Relative movement between point substances, particles of a solid body under the
effect of external forces, temps is erature or some other cause leading to a change
in its shape and size is called strain

All pressure machining methods (GCAL) are based on a common premise of

performing a plastic deformation process. Materials under the action of external force
will change shape and size without losing its strong bond.To clarify the deformation
process of the metal, let's follow the simple tensile test in figure 1 with

Tensile strain is the measure of the deformation of an object under tensile stress and is
defined as the fractional change of the object's length when the object experiences
tensile stress
l l1  l0
 
l0 l0

stress is the physical quantity representing the compressive or tensile effect of the
force F exerted along the axis of a cylindrical homogeneous host with cross-section
area A
F

A

The compressive stress and strain are determined by the same formula, (Figure a) and
(Figure b), respectively. The only difference from the tensile situation is that for
compressive stress and strain we take the absolute values of the inner right edges (Fig
a .) And (Fig b).

the stress measured to determine the degree of pressure on the material -

experimental pressure analysis. The absolute value and direction of mechanical
pressure is determined from the measured deformation and known material
characteristics (elastic module and Poisson ratio). These calculations are based on
Hooke's Law. In its simplest form, Hooke's Law defines the ε[m/m] rate deformation
and σ [N/mm2] of a certain material using its elasticity or its E[N/mm2] module.
 F A F  l0
  
 l1  l0 l0 A(l1  l0 )

2:Strain measurement
The impact of the force causes strain in the candidates' structures. Between stress and
candidates are closely related to each other, by measuring strain we can calculate the
pressure impact on the structure. To measure stress people use deformation sensors,
also known as strain gauges.
There are several different types of gauges and sensors that can be used to measure
strain. Strain gauges are the most common devices used. HBM offers both electrical
strain gauges and optical strain sensors, among other products for strain
measurements.
Electrical strain gauge is one that uses simple resistors, inductive capacitance or
photoelectric principle. The types of resistors are the most common and are discussed
in detail in the following sections. They have advantages.mainly in size and weight,
compared to other types of electric gauges.
3:The electrical resistance strain gage

Lord Kelvinâs discovery was not put to any practical use through to the 1930âs.
Carlson is credited with among the first recorded cases of a wire resistance strain
gauge being applied to measure stress in 1931. Making use of a bonded wire gauge to
measure strain was conceived at a comparable time by Simmons and Ruge in 1938. A
wire gauge was mounted and bonded between two thin pieces of paper. The overall
construction of a bonded wire type strain gauge is shown in Figure 1

Figure 1 General arrangement of a bonded-wire type strain gauge

The bonded wire gauge has largely been replaced by the foil gauge that has been in
production since the 1950âs. This particular gauge is made from a metal foil grid that
is bonded onto an epoxy support. Printed circuit techniques are employed into the
manufacture of bonded foil strain gauges. Foil configurations could be varied and
complicated. (Figure 2)

Figure 2 Different Foil Gauge Configurations

4:THE METALLIC RESISTANCE STRAIN GAGE

Lord Kelvin presented to the Royal Philosophical Society the results of an experiment
involving the resistance that is electrical of and iron wire when subjected to strain in
1856. Kelvinâs observations are consistent with the relationship of electrical
resistance to some of the physical properties of a conductor:
L
R
A

where R could be the electrical resistance, R is the conductivity constant, L could be

the duration of the conductor and a may be the cross sectional area. Resistance is
directly proportional to your length and inversely proportional into the cross sectional
area. The electrical resistance of a metal wire increases as it is stretched because of
the decreased cross sectional area and an increase in the size of the wire. Conversely,
once the wire is compressed as well as the length decreases, with a corresponding rise
in cross sectional area, the electrical resistance of the material decreases.

The relationship between length and cross sectional dimension can be expressed by
Poisson ratio:

dD / D  L
v 
dL / L  A

where n is Poisson ratio, D is the cross sectional dimension and L is the length,  L is
the lateral strain and  A is the axial strain. It basically states that as the length
decreases (compression) for a material, the cross sectional dimension increases and
vice versa for an increase (tension) in length for a material.
The choice of a strain gauge for a specific application is afflicted with the next gauge
characteristics: grid material and construction, backing material, bonding material,
gauge protection and gauge configuration. Gauge design incorporates as numerous of
this following features as you can: high gage factor, high resistivity, temperature
insensitivity, high electrical stability, high yield point, high endurance limit, ease of
working, low hysteresis, low thermal emf along with other materials and durability. A
number of strain gauges are available from commercial sources. Temperature
sensitivity is a major concern when you look at the usage of strain gauges, and
temperature compensation is usually incorporated within the circuit.

Strain gauges are usually attached to the member whose strain has been measured
through a cement or adhesive. Adhesives and the gauge backing material transmit the
force into the grid. Good adhesives possess the next properties: high mechanical
strength, high creep resistance, high dielectric strength, good bonding strength, a
minimum of temperature restrictions and ease of application. Different sorts of
cements and adhesives can be obtained from the manufacturer with varying life cycles
and ease of use.

Most gauge installations require defense against the ambient conditions, that may
include mechanical abuse, moisture, oil, dust, etc.. A variety of different coatings and
methods can be found from the manufacturers of strain gauges to safeguard any risk
of strain gauge assembly.

The essential relationship between strain additionally the improvement in gauge

resistance may be expressed by:

1  R
  
F R
where  is the strain, F is the gauge factor and R may be the gauge resistance. For a
normal gauge F is 2.0 and R is 120 ohm. Strains within the range of 1 microstrain are
measurable using commercial systems
5:. Circuitry for metallic strain gauge

The strain that is metallic consist of a really fine wire or, more commonly, metallic
foil arranged in a grid pattern. The grid pattern maximizes the total amount of metallic
wire or foil susceptible to strain within the direction that is parallel Figure 2). The
cross area that is sectional of grid is minimized to reduce the result of shear strain and
Poisson Strain. The grid is bonded to a thin backing, called the carrier, which will be
attached directly to the test specimen. Therefore, the strain experienced because of the
test specimen is transferred straight to the stress gauge, which responds with a linear
change in electrical resistance. Strain gauges can be found commercially with nominal
resistance values from 30 to 3000  , with 120, 350, and 1000  being the essential
common values.
 Bonded Metallic strain gauge

It is crucial that any risk of strain gauge be properly mounted onto the test specimen
so the strain is accurately transferred through the test specimen, though the adhesive
and strain gauge backing, towards the foil itself. Manufacturers of strain gauges are
the best source of information on proper mounting of strain gauges.

A fundamental parameter regarding the strain gauge is its sensitivity to strain,

expressed quantitatively while the gauge factor (GF). Gauge factor is described as the
ratio of fractional change in electrical resistance to the change that is fractional length
(strain):

△ R/R △ R/R
磠௲ ௲
△ L/L

The Gauge Factor for metallic strain gauges is typically around 2.

6:The Strain-gage Ballast circuit

?The ballast circuit is probably a voltage divider with one of several resistors
representing the resistive sensing element. The voltage across that resistor changes as
its resistance varies with the input to be measured. A voltage device that is sensitive
placed across that resistance and that can be calibrated to indicated the input of great
interest.

Rt V Rb
s

Voltage
Indicator Vo
Assuming a high-impedance meter, the connection between your output ratio (Vo/Vs)
to your input ratio (R/Rt) can be found from Ohm’s law

The relationship amongst the output ratio (Vo/Vs) and also the input ratio (R/Rt) is
nonlinear and a percentage variation within the supply voltage leads to a larger
variation in the output than does a percentage that is similar in k. Voltage regulation
needs to be strictly controlled for successful operaion.

7:.The Strain-gage bridge circuit

A Wheatstone bridge is a divided bridge circuit employed for the measurement of

static or dynamic electrical resistance. The output voltage of this Wheatstone bridge
circuit is expressed in millivolts output per volt input. The Wheatstone circuit is also
well suited for temperature compensation.

The equation associated with Wheatstone bridge, then the output between points B
and D will show no potential difference if R1, R2, R3, and R4 are equal, and a voltage,
VIN, is applied between points A and C. However, if R4 is changed to some value
which does not R1 that is equal, and R3, the bridge will become unbalanced and a
voltage will exist in the output terminals. In a so-called G-bridge configuration, the
variable strain sensor has resistance Rg, even though the other arms are fixed value
resistors.

The sensor, however, can occupy one, two, or four arms for the Wheatstone bridge,
depending on the application. The strain that is total or output voltage associated with
circuit (VOUT) is equivalent into the difference between the voltage drop across R1
and R4, or Rg. This could additionally be written as:

Vout= VCD – VCB

The bridge is considered balanced when R1/R2 = Rg/R3 and, therefore, VOUT equals
zero.
Any small improvement in the resistance for the sensing strain gauge will throw the
bridge out of balance, rendering it suited to the detection of strain. As soon as the
bridge is established so that Rg is truly the only active strain gauge, a little
improvement in Rg will result in an output voltage through the bridge. The strain
measurement is related to the change in Rg as follows if the gauge factor is GF

Strain = (△Rg/Rg)/GF

8:. The simple constant-current strain

Resistance could be measured by exciting the bridge with either a continuing voltage
or a constant current source. Because R = V/I, if either V or I is held constant, the
other will change with all the resistance. Both methods can be used.

The bridge output will be more linear in a constant current system while there is no
theoretical advantage to using a constant current source as compared to a constant
voltage, in some cases. Also, if a continuing source that is current used, it eliminates
the necessity to sense the voltage during the bridge; therefore, only two wires need to
be connected to the strain gauge element.

The constant current circuit is most effective when dynamic strain has been measured.
Simply because, if a dynamic force is causing a change in the resistance associated
with the strain gauge (Rg), one could quantify the time varying part of the output
(VOUT), whereas slowly changing effects such as for example alterations in lead
resistance due to temperature variations would be rejected. Using this configuration,
temperature drifts become nearly negligible.

9:. TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION

9.1. The Adjacent-Arm Compensating Gage

If the gages in arms I and 2 are alike and mounted on similar materials and if both
gages go through the same resistance shift, due to temperature change with all the
1     T 
conditions as   we get the formula from section 16
 2   T 
deo F F
  1   2   
ei 4 4

9.2. Self-Temperature Compensation

The 2 general forms of self-compensated gages available would be the selected-melt

gage plus the dual-element gage

9.2.1. Selected-melt gage

Figure 1: Approximate range of apparent strain versus temperature for a typical

selected-melt gage mounled regarding the appropriate material (e.g., steel at about 11
ppm/oC).

In this case, practical compensation is accomplished over a temperature selection of

approximately 50"F-250°F. Other gages may be compensated for different thermal
expansions and temperature ranges

9.2.2. Dual-element gage

The 2 elements have different temperature characteristics as they are selected so that
the net temperature-induced strain is minimized once the gage is installed on the
specified test material. the performance of the type of gage is comparable to compared
to the selected-melt gage shown in Figure 1

10. CALIBRATION

The gage factor and gage resistance makes possibles an easy means for calibrating
any resistance strain-gage systems.

The resistance change introduced by shunting a somewhat high-value precision

resistance over the gage as Figure 2. When switch S is closed, the resistance of bridge
arm I is changed by a small amount. Let, : Rg the gage resistance and :

Rs the shunt resistance.

 Rg Rs R 2g
R   Rg  
( Rg  Rs ) 2 Rg  Rs

Now to look for the equivalent strain

1 Rg
 
F Rg

By substitutingfor ,the equivalent strain is available to be

1  Rg 
e    
F  Rg  Rs 

Figure 2: Bridge employing a shunt resistance for calibration.

11. COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE STRAIN-MEASURING SYSTEMS

Commercially available systems designed for use with metallic-type gages fall within
three general categories:

1. The fundamental strain indicator, useful for static, single-channel readings

2. The single-channel system either external to or an integral part of a oscilloscope or

a pc data acquisition system.

3. Data acquisition systems whereby the strain data might be

(a) displayed (digitally and/or by a video terminal)

(b) recorded (on hard disk or hard-copy printout)

(c) fed back into the machine for control purposes

12. STRAIN-GAGE SWITCHING

Mechanical development problems often require the application of multiple

measuring devices mounted on the test object and simultaneous or nearly
simultaneous readings are often necessary.

In the event that data should be recorded at exactly the same instant, it will be
necessary to provide separate channels for every gage involved. The strain gage
swiching can respone all this condition by some special fucstion such as for example:

Automatic set up

Automatic compensation for temperature, creep and vibration

Absolutely water proof with sealed connectors and

Super durable make by stainless steel and aircraft aluminium.

13.USE OF STRAIN GAGES ON ROTATING SHAFTS

A strain gauge converts torque into an electrical signal. The sensor is bonded to a
rotating shaft that deforms when a torque is applied. Generally, four strain gauges are
attached to the rotating shaft in the form of a Wheatstone bridge circuit. They are
placed precisely at 45 degrees with the shaft axis with gauge 1 and 3 being
diametrically opposite, as must gauge 2 and 4. When torque is applied to the shaft, the
shaft gets twisted to the direction of rotation, thereby producing shear strain. This
causes elongation in gauges 1 and 3 and compression in gauges 2 and 4. These
changes in the strain gauges lead to an increase in the circuit resistance due to tensile
strain generated by one pair of gauges and a decrease in the circuit resistance due to
the compression strain generated by the other pair. This results in an unbalanced
bridge, which produces an electrical output corresponding to the applied torque.

In the case of a rotating object, it is challenging to receive the signals from the
attached strain gauges and to continuously power them, as compared to static objects.
Hence, to transmit power or signal between the rotating strain gauge and the
stationary signal receiver, slip rings are used. A slip ring consists of a series of
conductive bands that are positioned around the rotating element of the assembly and
a group of stationary brushes that contact the rings and transmit the sensor’s signals.
This allows for a smooth transfer of electrical power and sensor signal from the strain
gauges mounted on the shaft

However, measuring torque on a rotating shaft using strain gauges is impactful only
when the gauge is operated in a low-to-moderate rotating speed. Higher rotating
speeds will severely degrade their performance. Also, in heavy-duty applications that
deal with dust, dirt, extremes of temperatures, and vibration, the reliability and
accuracy of torque output may get compromised. Excessive vibrations can cause wear
due to the limited lives of brushes and the rings which eventually lead to premature
failure. Similarly, high temperatures can have an impact on the electrical connections
of slip rings and bushes and promote corrosion.
14. Stress and train relationship

The most common way to analyze the relationship between stress and strain for a
particular material is with a stress-strain diagram.

The stress-strain diagram provides valuable information about how much force
a material can withstand before permanent deformation or failure occurs.

Many materials exhibit a proportional relationship between stress and strain up to

certain point, referred to as the proportional limit, shown here as point “A.” This
stress-strain relationship is known as Hooke’s Law, and in this region, the slope of the
stress-strain curve is referred to as the modulus of elasticity (aka Young’s modulus),
denoted E


E


The modulus of elasticity is essentially a measure of stiffness and is one of the factors
used to calculate a material’s deflection under load.

Just beyond the proportional limit is the elastic limit, at which point the material
transitions from elastic behavior, where any deformation due to applied stress is
reversed when the force is removed, to plastic behavior, where deformations caused
by stress remain even after the stress is removed. For many materials, the proportional
limit and the elastic limit are the same or nearly equal. (In the stress-strain curve
shown here, the proportional limit and the elastic limit are assumed to be the same.)
As long as the applied stresses are below the proportional limit, stress-strain
relationships are the same whether the material is under tension or compression

The yield point, shown here as point “C,” is the point where strain increases faster
than stress (referred to as “strain hardening”), and the material experiences some
amount of permanent deformation.

For materials that do not have a well-defined yield point, or whose yield point is
difficult to determine, an offset yield strength — shown here as point “B” — is used.
Offset yield strength is the stress that will cause a specified amount of permanent
strain (typically 0.2 percent). It is found by drawing a line that crosses the X (strain)
axis at 0.002 and runs parallel to the stress-strain line (slope = E). The point where
this line intersects the stress-strain curve is the offset yield point,

Finally, at point “D,” where the curve begins to fall, the material’s ultimate tensile
strength has been reached. This point denotes the maximum stress that can be applied
to a material in tension before failure occurs.