SB GridGenC en Generator Concepts For Renewables

Online course
Generator concepts for renewables
© Renewables Academy (RENAC) AG

This copyrighted course is part of the series of online study programs offered by the Renewables
Academy AG. The course materials are provided exclusively for personal or curriculum and course-
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Berlin, 2017-04-04
Table of content
1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 5
1.1 Overview of content ................................................................................................................ 5
1.2 Classification of generators ..................................................................................................... 6
1.3 Introduction and classification of wind turbine generators.................................................... 7
2 AC generators ...................................................................................................................... 9
2.1 Introduction to AC generators ................................................................................................ 9
2.2 Directly grid connected synchronous generator (E).............................................................. 10
2.2.1 Utilization for renewable generation............................................................................. 11
2.2.2 Operating Principle ........................................................................................................ 12
2.2.3 Rotor construction ......................................................................................................... 14
2.2.4 Excitation systems ......................................................................................................... 15
2.2.5 Equivalent circuit and power calculation ...................................................................... 17
2.2.6 Example active and reactive power calculation ............................................................ 18
2.3 Induction generator (fixed speed) (E) ................................................................................... 19
2.3.1 Basic construction and magnetization .......................................................................... 20
2.3.2 Equivalent circuit ........................................................................................................... 21
2.3.3 Torque speed curve ....................................................................................................... 22
2.4 Induction generator with variable rotor resistance (variable speed) (E) .............................. 23
2.4.1 Limited variable speed induction generator ................................................................. 24
2.4.2 Torque speed curve ....................................................................................................... 25
2.5 Doubly Fed Induction Generator (variable speed) (E)........................................................... 26
2.5.1 General concept ............................................................................................................ 27
2.5.2 Different operating modes ............................................................................................ 28
2.5.3 Measurement and control ............................................................................................. 30
2.5.4 Equivalent circuit and magnetization ............................................................................ 31
2.5.5 Rotor frequency ............................................................................................................. 32
2.5.6 Active power flow .......................................................................................................... 34
2.5.7 Reactive power capability.............................................................................................. 35
2.5.8 Characteristic parameters ............................................................................................. 36
2.5.9 Power tracking curve ..................................................................................................... 37
2.6 Generator with Fully Rated Converter (variable speed) (E) .................................................. 38
2.6.1 Application to wind turbines ......................................................................................... 38
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2.6.2 Detailed concepts .......................................................................................................... 40
2.6.3 Control overview ........................................................................................................... 41
2.7 Wind turbine protection systems (E) .................................................................................... 43
2.8 Summary of wind turbine attributes ..................................................................................... 45
2.9 Market share of wind turbine technologies .......................................................................... 46
2.10 Summary AC generators........................................................................................................ 47
2.11 Endnotes to the chapter........................................................................................................ 47
3 DC generators .................................................................................................................... 48
3.1 Introduction to DC generators .............................................................................................. 48
3.2 Photovoltaics ......................................................................................................................... 48
3.2.1 Components of a PV System .......................................................................................... 49
3.2.2 Stand-alone and grid-connected photovoltaic systems ................................................ 50
3.2.3 Photovoltaic cells and arrays ......................................................................................... 51
3.2.4 Photovoltaic I(V) and P(V) Curves.................................................................................. 52
3.2.5 Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) of photovoltaics ............................................ 54
3.3 Inverter topology (E) ............................................................................................................. 56
3.3.1 Single/three-phase inverter topology ........................................................................... 56
3.3.2 Photovoltaic inverter control ......................................................................................... 57
3.3.3 Control overview of the three-phase PV inverter ......................................................... 59
3.3.4 Large-scale photovoltaic plants ..................................................................................... 60
3.4 Effects of photovoltaic power generation on the grid (E) ..................................................... 61
3.4.1 Grid integration ............................................................................................................. 61
3.4.2 Inverter sizing ................................................................................................................ 62
3.5 Summary DC generators ....................................................................................................... 64
4 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 65
4.1 Summary ............................................................................................................................... 65

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In this course, the reader will find a categorisation of the main generator types currently used for
energy generation, including those for renewable sources. Important features of these generators are
described. In particular, the course focuses on alternating current (AC) generators used as wind power
generators (International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) types 1 to 4), extensively discussing the
main differences between fixed and variable speed generators and presenting the specific constructive
and operating principles of each technology. Furthermore, a general description of direct current /
alternating current (DC/AC) inverters, operating as a voltage source converter for photovoltaic
applications is presented, along with an explanation of the main control algorithms and topological
configurations applied in current photovoltaic (PV) farms. Finally, the concepts outlined in the course
are explained further in the video presentations by demonstrating practical situations, which will
enhance the reader’s appreciation.
Learning objectives of the course:
Upon completion of this course, you will be able to
• explain AC power generation concepts for grid connected fixed and variable speed generators,
• describe wind turbine concepts, market shares, advantages and disadvantages and
• present PV systems (DC generators, main components, single phase and three phase
inverters).

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1 Introduction
1.1 Overview of content
In the last years, there has been a worldwide trend towards introducing renewable energy into
electrical power systems. As such, wind and solar power seem to offer promising solutions, as indicated
by yearly increasing numbers of wind and solar installations. Depending on the availability of the
primary energy source, generation units based on wind and/or solar power can be a relevant part of
power systems all over the world. Therefore, it is essential to study how different generation concepts
convert wind, solar, and other renewable energy resources into electricity.
The e-learning Course “Generator concepts for renewable generation” introduces different generator
concepts for renewable power generation with a focus on wind and solar. The course starts with an
introductory chapter giving a systematic overview of different generator concepts. The second chapter
contains detailed explanations of power generation by AC generators. This part is divided into two
sections. The first section gives an overview of fixed speed AC generators while the second section
explains variable speed AC generators. The third chapter includes a detailed description of power
generation by DC generators. Here the focus is on photovoltaic power generation and the
corresponding inverter technology. The course ends with a summary.
Wind Farm in Germany (Source: RENAC)

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1.2 Classification of generators
Learning objectives: After this page, you should be able to
• categorize the different types of generators for renewable and conventional power plants and
• name the main characteristics after which generator types are clustered.
Generators for renewable generation are classified here (see figure) as either AC or DC generator
systems. They are sub-classified as follows:
AC generators
• Fixed speed
o directly grid connected synchronous generator
o induction generator
• Variable speed
o induction generator with variable rotor resistance
o Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG)
o generator with Fully Rated Converter (FRC)
DC generators
• photovoltaic systems
The directly grid connected synchronous generator is typically used in conventional large-scale power
plants. It is an AC fixed speed generator system because it is directly coupled to the grid and thus its
speed is a function of the grid frequency. The synchronous generator is used with renewable energy
technologies such as Concentrated Solar Power (CSP), biomass/biogas and hydro power.
Biomass/biogas systems are usually used with Combined Heat and Power (CHP) units to generate
electrical power as well as thermal power.
The induction generator is used for power generation from wind and belongs to the fixed speed AC
generators. Its speed can change slightly due to the natural difference between rotor and stator
frequency (so called slip) at certain operating points but, compared to the speed range of the variable
speed AC generators, this is negligible.
In the variable speed generator systems, the wound-rotor induction generator with variable rotor
resistance is an extension of the previously mentioned fixed speed induction generator. In this concept,
additional resistors are connected to the rotor in order to enhance the speed variability within a limited
range. The two other variable speed concepts (the Doubly Fed Induction Generator and the generator
with Fully Rated Converter) are more efficient with respect to speed variability. These are the most
commonly used generator concepts for power generation from wind. These systems employ power
electronics and corresponding control capabilities; hence their speed can be controlled to extract the
maximum available power from the wind.
Photovoltaics come under the category of power generation from DC generators. The DC power from
the solar array is converted into AC active power through the use of inverters which can be controlled
to supply desired levels of active and reactive power. Fuel cells also fall under the category of DC
generator systems. The method of DC power generation from photovoltaics and fuel cells is different
but the control to convert DC to AC is almost the same. Fuel cells are not covered in this course.

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Classification of generators for renewable generation (Source: RENAC)
1.3 Introduction and classification of wind turbine generators

• explain the differences between fixed, limited variable speed and variable speed wind turbines
• describe the main characteristics and functionality of the four wind turbine type generators.
Generally, wind turbine generators can be categorized in four main types, another classification
distinguishes fixed speed, limited variable speed and variable speed wind turbines.
Fixed speed wind turbines
Fixed speed wind turbines are electrically simple devices consisting of an aerodynamic stall controlled
turbine driving a squirrel-cage induction generator. Turbine and generator are connected via a gearbox
and a shaft. Fixed speed wind turbines do not employ power electronic devices and are typically small-
to medium-sized. Fixed speed wind turbines are no longer used in new systems because variable speed
wind turbines offer higher energy efficiency, better controllability, can fulfill flexible operating modes
and provide extra services to the power system. The fixed speed wind turbine has a type 1 generator.
Speed may vary by 2-4% from no load to full load; capacitors are needed to provide the magnetizing
current for the production of the magnetic flux of the generator.
Limited variable speed wind turbines
Limited variable speed wind turbines with variable rotor resistance are referred to as type 2 generators.
They are like fixed speed wind turbines but with a wound rotor induction generator and adjustable

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external rotor resistances (instead of the squirrel cage). Speed may vary by 2-10% from no load to full
load, at the expense of increased losses.
Variable speed wind turbines
Variable speed wind turbines utilize power electronics to provide high controllability and efficiency.
They are typically equipped with Voltage Source Converters (VSCs). These operate as inverters and
rectifiers to provide a fixed voltage and fixed frequency at the point of connection with the power
system and to apply pitch control of the turbine blades.
Depending on the connection of their power electronic converters, the variable speed wind turbines
can be categorized as singly-fed or doubly-fed wind turbines.
Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) wind turbine (type 3 generator): one way to decrease the cost
of the Fully Rated Converter (see Type 4 below) is to use a partially rated converter. The converted
electrical power is transmitted to the grid by both the stator (directly) and the rotor windings
(indirectly) via power electronic converters. This feature of double-sided power transfer to the grid is
referred to as Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) based Wind Turbine (WT).
Singly fed variable speed wind turbine (Fully Rated Converter wind turbine, type 4 generator): the singly
fed variable speed approach consists of a converter connected in series between the generator and the
grid that allows a unidirectional power flow (when a simple bridge rectifier is employed in the rotor-
side converter). The converter must withstand the full power rating of the generator and thus is called
a Fully Rated Converter based Wind Turbine (WT).
Wind turbine classification (Source: Department of Electrical Power Systems, University Duisburg-
Essen)

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2 AC generators
2.1 Introduction to AC generators
The second chapter focuses on AC generators for renewable generation. They are classified into fixed
and variable speed applications.
Fixed speed:
• directly grid connected synchronous generator
• induction generator
Variable speed:
• induction generator with variable rotor resistance
• Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG)
• generator with Fully Rated Converter (FRC)
In the following pages, each AC generator will be explained in detail with respect to its electrical
properties and behavior as well as its application in power systems. The systematic approach of
classifying wind turbine generators from type 1 to type 4 is widely used. One distinction of those types
is, for example, the ability to provide reactive power control.
The two older types of wind turbine generators provide no reactive power control (no Q-control):
• Induction generators (wind power, type 1)
• Induction generators with variable rotor resistance (wind power, type 2)
All other types are equipped with reactive power control (Q-control):
• Synchronous generator
• Doubly fed induction generator (wind power, type 3)
• Generator with fully rated converter (wind power, type 4)
• PV-modules with fully rated converter
Reactive power control means that a generator can deliver inductive reactive power, which equals the
consumption of capacitive reactive power. Similarly, it can consume inductive reactive power, which
equals the delivery of capacitive reactive power. Reactive power is needed to control the voltage in the
grid.

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Classification of AC generators (Source: RENAC)
2.2 Directly grid connected synchronous generator (E)

Learning objectives: After the following pages, you should be able to
• describe the principle function of a directly grid connected synchronous generator,
• explain for which renewable energy technologies this generator type is suitable,
• define the function of an excitation system,
• interpret a simplified equivalent circuit diagram along with the corresponding phasor diagram
and
• calculate active and reactive power output using certain formulas.
The structure of the section is as follows:

• Utilization for renewable generation
• Operating Principle
• Rotor construction
• Excitation systems
• Equivalent circuit and power calculation
• Example active and reactive power calculation

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2.2.1 Utilization for renewable generation
Directly grid connected synchronous generators are mainly used for the following fixed speed
renewable generation systems:
Concentrated Solar Power (CSP)
Concentrated Solar Power plants produce electrical power by converting the sun's energy into high-
temperature thermal power using various mirror configurations. The thermal power is then channeled
through a conventional generator via a turbine. The plants consist on the one hand of the solar field
that collects solar energy via various mirror configurations and converts it to thermal energy, and on
the other hand of a water-steam cycle that converts this thermal energy to electricity (steam turbine
and synchronous generator).
Biomass / Biogas
Biogas typically refers to a gas produced by the breakdown of organic matter in the absence of oxygen.
The principle of gas generation is simple: organic waste is allowed to decompose in the absence of
oxygen. Bacteria grow on the organic waste, digest it, and produce carbon dioxide and methane gas as
waste products. Methane is the main component of natural gas. It burns relatively cleanly and is
colorless and odorless. It is captured and used in power generation. Solid biomass such as wood pellets
can also be utilized for power generation. In both cases, synchronous generators directly connected to
the grid are typically used. For solid biomass generation, the synchronous generator is coupled to a
steam turbine while for biogas the generator operates in combination with a gas engine, also used in
Combined Heat and Power (CHP) units.
Hydro generation
The power generated from falling water is called hydro power generation. It is the most widely used
form of renewable energy in the world. The power generation from hydro is flexible in the sense that
the power output can be ramped up or down quickly to match fluctuating demand. Moreover, the
electricity produced can be very low cost compared to the other renewable energy technologies.
Synchronous generators directly connected to the grid are also widely used in hydro power generation.
Hydro generation can be classified depending on how, and if, the water is stored:
• Dams: the conventional method to generate power from the water, this type of arrangement
requires the construction of a dam, and impoundment of a large volume of water (usually with
significant environmental and social consequences). It provides base load power generation.
• Pumped storage: this method requires an upper and a lower reservoir. During periods of high
electricity demand, electricity is generated when water flows from the upper reservoir,
through the turbine, to the lower reservoir. During periods of low electricity demand (e.g.
during the night) water is pumped from the lower reservoir back up to the upper reservoir.
Pumped storage can be used to meet peak power demands and can provide load balancing.
• Run-of-river: these are hydro power systems with little or no reservoir capacity. A proportion
of the water from a river or stream is diverted through a turbine to generate electricity. The
water is then returned to the river further downstream. The negative impact of a well-
implemented run-of-river hydro scheme is very low. In a run-of-river scheme there is no

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possibility to store water, therefore electricity cannot be generated on demand but rather only
when river flow is available.
With all three technologies, the generator is converting the mechanical power provided by the steam
or hydro turbine, or the gas engine into electrical power which is fed into the electrical power system.
The turbine and generator are coupled via a shaft and the generator is directly grid connected.
Principle arrangement of turbine, generator and power system (Source: Department of Electrical
Power Systems, University Duisburg-Essen)
2.2.2 Operating Principle

The figure shows a schematic of the cross section of a three-phase synchronous machine. In this case
the rotor has one pair of field poles. The machine consists basically of two essential elements, the rotor
and the stator. There is a field winding in the rotor which carries a direct current (DC) and produces a
magnetic field. When the rotor rotates, an alternating three-phase voltage is induced in the three stator
windings. This three-phase voltage causes current to flow from the stator to the power system.
The three-phase windings in the stator are distributed 120° apart in space, so with the rotor causing
rotation of the magnetic field, voltages displaced by 120° in time phase will be produced in the
windings. When carrying balanced three-phase currents, the stator will produce a magnetic field in the
air-gap which rotates at synchronous speed. The magnetic field produced by the direct current in the
rotor winding, on the other hand, follows the speed of the rotor which is driven by the coupled turbine
or motor. For the production of a steady state torque, the stator and rotor fields must rotate with the
same speed; therefore, the rotor must run at precisely the synchronous speed.
The number of field poles is chosen depending on the mechanical speed of the rotor and the electrical
frequency of the stator currents and thus the grid frequency. The synchronous speed is given by
where n is the speed in rev/min, f is the frequency in Hertz and p is the number of field pole pairs.

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In the figure the rotor is equipped with one pole pair consisting of one north pole and one south pole.
This is the smallest possible number of pole pairs. The number of poles can be calculated by multiplying
the pole pair number by two (2*p). In the figure the number of field poles is two and consequently the
number of pole pairs one. Assuming that the frequency f is 50 Hz (the common frequency in the
interconnected European power system) we get the following results:
If the number of pole pairs increases, the speed of the generator and thus the connected turbine or
motor decreases. For instance, assuming a generator has six pole pairs (and thus 12 poles) we get the
following results:
Assuming a different grid frequency of 60 Hz, such as in North America, the generator speed will be
higher for a given number of pole pairs than in Europe, e.g. if p = 1,
Rotor and stator of the synchronous generator (Source: Department of Electrical Power Systems,
University Duisburg-Essen)

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2.2.3 Rotor construction
There are two basic rotor constructions for directly connected synchronous generators (see figure).
Hydro turbines operate at low speeds and hence a relatively large number of pole pairs are required to
produce the rated grid frequency. A rotor with salient poles (poles which protrude out from the rotor)
and concentrated windings is better suited mechanically to these conditions. In the figure a rotor with
four salient poles, so two pole pairs, is shown.
Steam or gas turbines operate at high speeds. Their generators have round (or cylindrical) rotors made
up of solid steel forgings. They have two or four field poles and thus one or two pole pairs, formed by
distributed windings placed in slots milled in the solid rotor and held in place by steel wedges.
In both salient and round rotors, the magnetic field is produced by a direct current. The basic stator
construction is the same for both rotor types.
With the following example the consequences of low speed and high speed turbines can be
investigated. The mathematical relationship between the mechanical power Pmech and the torque M
in Nm with respect to the speed n in rev/s is given by the following equation
Assuming the electrical output of the generator is 1 MW and the generator is perfectly efficient, then
the mechanical power input to the generator is also 1 MW. Considering now a low speed turbine with
5 pole pairs (meaning it rotates at 600 rev/min) and a constant mechanical power, the previous
equation can be used to calculate the necessary torque
With the same constraints, a high-speed turbine with one pole pair will require the following torque
From this example, it becomes clear that the lower the turbine speed, the higher the torque, and vice
versa. In the first approximation, the relationship between torque and speed is linear and has
consequences for the construction. Higher speed, and thus lower torque, leads to lower weight and
smaller generator size. Conversely, lower speed, and thus higher torque, leads to greater weight (more
pole pairs) and larger generator size (larger rotor and stator diameter).

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Different rotor constructions of the synchronous generator (Source: Department of Electrical Power
Systems, University Duisburg-Essen)
2.2.4 Excitation systems

The basic function of an electrical excitation system is to provide a direct current to the synchronous
machine field winding. In addition, the excitation system controls the field voltage, and thus the field
current, and thereby performs control and protection functions essential to satisfactory performance
of the power system.
The control functions include the control of voltage and reactive power, and thus the enhancement of
system stability. The main requirement is that the excitation system supplies and automatically adjusts
the field current of the synchronous machine to maintain the terminal voltage. The protection
functions ensure that the capability limits of the synchronous machine, excitation system and other
equipment are not exceeded.

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The figure shows the functional block diagram of a typical control system of a large synchronous
generator. The following is a brief description of the various subsystems identified in the figure.
• Exciter: provides the DC power to the synchronous machine field winding.
• Regulator: processes and amplifies input control signals to a level appropriate for the control
of the exciter. The regulator performs both regulating and excitation system stabilizing
functions.
• Terminal Voltage Measurement: by using voltage transducers the terminal voltage is
measured, filtered and converted.
• Power System Stabilizer: provides an additional input to the regulator to dampen power
system oscillations.
• Protection Functions: these include a wide range of control and protective functions which
ensure that the capability limits of the exciter and the synchronous generator are not
exceeded. Some of the commonly used functions are field current limiter, maximum excitation
limiter, terminal voltage limiter, etc.
• Synchronous Generator: converts the mechanical power provided by the turbine or motor into
electrical power.
In the near future, there will be a trend towards synchronous generators with magnetization provided
by permanent magnets for small-scale applications.
In this case an electrical excitation system is unnecessary. Since the generator is permanently
magnetized, there is no access to the excitation system and therefore no capability to control the
terminal voltage or to dampen the power system oscillations. As a consequence, the permanent
magnet generator is widely used for small-scale applications (e.g. small wind turbines or small hydro
turbines) in combination with converters equipped with power electronics. These converters are
connected between generator and power system and can control the electrical output properties in
order to achieve flexible grid integration.
Block diagram excitation system (Data source: Department of Electrical Power Systems, University
Duisburg-Essen)

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2.2.5 Equivalent circuit and power calculation
In order to understand the steady-state behavior of a directly grid coupled synchronous generator, the
figure introduces a simplified equivalent circuit along with the corresponding phasor diagram. The
complex voltage Up represents the effective internal voltage provided by the excitation system due to
the DC field current. The index p refers to the rotor field voltage. The complex voltage U represents the
terminal voltage (phase-to-earth) while δ is the load angle between internal and terminal voltages. The
synchronous reactance Xd accounts for both the armature reaction (flux produced by the stator
currents) and the winding leakage (strongly dependent on the magnetic design of the generator) The
equivalent circuit describes the relationship between excitation, internal voltage, terminal voltage,
stator currents and thus power over the normal, steady-state operation range.
From the equivalent circuit, and using Kirchhoff’s voltage law, the following equation can be derived
This equation can be rearranged to give the stator current.
After some mathematical transformation, the active power of the synchronous generator can be
expressed by the following equation
while the reactive power of the synchronous generator can be written as
From the last two equations, it becomes clear that the steady-state active and reactive power of the
synchronous generator depend on the internal voltage Up and the load angle δ. The synchronous
reactance Xd is constant under steady-state conditions. Its value will be given by the manufacturer. The
terminal or grid voltage U is usually provided by the power system and can only be changed slightly
within its limits by the reactive power capability of the synchronous generator. If the mechanical power
input increases, i.e. the load angle (the phase shift between Up and U) increases, the electrical power
output also increases, reaching a maximum at δ = 90°.

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Equivalent circuit and phasor diagram of the synchronous generator (Source: Department of Electrical
Please note: in this course, the German standard symbol for voltage U is used instead of the
internationally common V.
2.2.6 Example active and reactive power calculation

Assume a synchronous generator has a nominal active power of 150 MW. The synchronous reactance
Xd, as provided by the manufacturer of the machine, is 0.927 Ω. The grid connection of this generator,
10.5
and so the terminal phase-to-earth voltage, is kV. The internal voltage Up as well as the load angle
√3
δ are independent variables and can be freely selected within their technical limits. In this example the
10.5
internal voltage Up is selected to be 1.8 times the terminal voltage and thus 𝑈𝑃= 1.8 ∗ = 10.91 kV
√3
and the load angle (the phase shift between Up and U) is chosen to be 45°.
Taking the equation for the reactive power and using again the given parameters the following result
can be calculated
The phasor diagram visualizes the relationship between internal voltage, terminal voltage and the
corresponding stator current. It shows the phase shift of 45° between the terminal voltage and the

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internal voltage. It also becomes clear that the stator current is lagging by 90° behind the complex
voltage difference between terminal and internal voltage ΔU. This is because the current is passing an
inductor or reactance Xd. From the results for active and reactive power, the complex apparent power
can be calculated as
Furthermore, it is possible to calculate the stator current using the current equation
Note: In a consumer oriented reference system the generated active power and the capacitive reactive
power become negative, while the consumed active power and inductive reactive power are positive.
Example phasor diagram of the synchronous generator (Source: Department of Electrical Power
2.3 Induction generator (fixed speed) (E)

• distinguish the induction generator from the synchronous generator,
• describe the magnetization of the rotor of an induction generator,
• explain the meaning of slip or slip speed in connection with induction generators and
• draw and interpret the torque speed curve of an induction generator.

• Basic construction and magnetization
• Equivalent circuit
• Torque speed curve

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2.3.1 Basic construction and magnetization
Unlike the synchronous generator, the induction machine carries alternating current in both the stator
and the rotor windings. In the synchronous generator, the current in the rotor winding is a direct
current. In a three-phase induction machine, the stator windings are connected to a balanced power
supply usually provided by the grid operator. The special feature of the induction machine is that the
rotor currents are induced by electromagnetic induction from the stator. This is the reason for the name
“induction machine”. The stator windings of a three-phase induction machine are similar to those of a
synchronous machine. The rotor is either short-circuited internally or connected via slip rings to an
external circuit.
The internally short-circuited rotor leads to the name squirrel cage induction machine. The rotor of this
machine consists of bars (in the figure: brown circles) made from a conductive material such as copper
or steel which are connected at their ends with conductive rings (in the figure: brown rings). In the
squirrel cage induction machine, there is no external excitation source applied to the rotor windings as
is the case for the synchronous generator. This means that the magnetization of the rotor must be
provided via induction from the stator terminal. The alternating currents induced in the shorted rotor
produce a magnetic field with the same number of poles as that produced by the stator winding.
In the wound rotor induction machine the rotor consists of a three-phase winding carrying the
alternating currents. One end of the windings is shorted (star connection), while the other end is
brought out from the rotor to an external terminal (in the figure: sockets K, L, M) via slip rings. If these
external rotor terminals are connected to external resistors the magnetization of the rotor has to be
provided via induction from the stator similar to the squirrel cage induction machine. In the case that
the external circuit is controlled via a converter system which is grid connected, the machine is the so
called doubly fed induction machine. Hence both stator and rotor are connected to the grid and the
machine is doubly fed. In this case the magnetization of the rotor can be provided by the external
converter system.
Construction of the induction machine (Source: Department of Electrical Power Systems, University
Duisburg-Essen)

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2.3.2 Equivalent circuit
To understand the operation of certain wind generation concepts, it is very important to understand
the operation of the induction machine.
The induction machine is essentially a transformer with a rotating secondary winding. It can be
represented by the equivalent circuit shown in Figure (a).
In this circuit I1 and Ir are the stator and rotor currents respectively, and U is the terminal voltage.
Current I2 is a fictitious current obtained after subtracting the magnetizing current Ih from the stator
current I1. Current I2 flows through the equivalent primary winding of the transformer and is the rotor
current Ir relative to the stator. Current I1 is seen to flow from the terminal voltage U towards the rotor.
Rs and Xs are the resistance and leakage reactance of a stator phase winding while Rr and Lr are the
rotor resistance and leakage inductance per phase. Xh is the magnetizing reactance and it is the current
Ih flowing through this reactance that sets up the rotating magnetic field. The three-phase stator
winding produces a magnetic field that rotates at synchronous speed ωs and if the rotor is rotating at
a speed ωr slightly different to this, an electromotive force (EMF) will be induced in the rotor at a
frequency proportional to the difference between these speeds and inversely proportional to the
number of pole pairs and the slip frequency fslip. The slip speed is defined as the difference between
these two speeds, while the per-unit slip, or slip, is normalized to the synchronous speed, that is
where 𝜔𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 is the angular electrical synchronous frequency.

In figure (a), the frequency of the currents in the primary winding is the grid frequency f while the
current induced in the rotor is at slip frequency fslip. The rotor current is given by
Where U1 is the voltage at the primary terminal of the fictitious transformer, nT the turn ratio between
the rotor winding and the stator winding, and 𝜔𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 is the slip angular electrical frequency.
After some mathematical transformation, the equivalent of figure (a) is obtained in figure (b) which
describes the circuit of the induction machine with a shorted rotor. In this equivalent circuit the rotor
quantities are referred to the stator side. The slip-dependent resistance is conveniently separated into
a fixed resistance R`r and a variable resistance
which represent the rotor resistance and mechanical power respectively. This shows that the
mechanical power delivered depends upon the slip (rotor resistance).

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Equivalent circuit of the induction machine (Source: Department of Electrical Power Systems,
2.3.3 Torque speed curve

The variation of torque with slip is shown in Figure a for both positive and negative slip. Positive slip is
when the rotor speed is less than synchronous speed and corresponds to motor action.
Here the angular electrical synchronous frequency is equal to 𝜔𝑠 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 50 Hz

with respect to the grid frequency of 50 Hz while 48 Hz in the rotor is an example frequency of an
induction machine with 2 pole pairs and n = 1440 rev/min (calculated using the previously introduced
equation)
The slip becomes negative when the rotor speed is greater than synchronous speed and corresponds
to generator action.
Here the 2-pole pair rotor is rotating with a speed n of 1560 rev/min.

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Similarly, positive torque corresponds to motor action and negative torque to generator action.
To summarize, if the machine is driven at a speed greater than synchronous speed it will naturally
generate electrical power into the grid. If the speed drops below synchronous speed, then the machine
will naturally be a motor and draw electrical power from the grid.
The induction machine torque slip curve determines the steady-state stability of the generator. Figure
b shows what happens if the applied mechanical driving torque increases. Initially the induction
generator is operating at point 1 with a mechanically applied torque (the applied torque and the
electrical torque curves do not intersect and there is no steady-state operating point so the system will
be unstable. The peak of the torque/slip curve determines the pull-out torque and the system steady-
state stability limit.
Torque speed curve of induction machine (Source: Department of Electrical Power Systems, University
Duisburg-Essen)
2.4 Induction generator with variable rotor resistance (variable speed) (E)
• describe the main features of an induction generator with variable rotor resistance,
• name advantages of the induction generator with variable rotor resistance (in comparison to
the simple induction generator) and
• draw and interpret the torque speed curve of an induction generator with variable rotor
resistance.

• Limited variable speed induction generator
• Torque speed curve

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2.4.1 Limited variable speed induction generator
In some instances, it is necessary to increase the speed range over which the induction generator
operates. For example, in the case of a wind turbine, allowing the speed to vary increases the energy
capture. Allowing the speed to vary will also reduce the shock torques on the turbine and gearbox due
to wind turbulence. The previous screen showed that the maximum slip increases as the rotor
resistance increases but the actual pull-out torque is not affected. To achieve this, a wound rotor
induction machine is normally used with the three-phase rotor winding connected to a variable resistor
bank via slip rings.
The main features are:
• slight improvement in speed range by increasing the rotor resistance
• increased losses in the external rotor resistance
• wind fluctuations increase the mechanical stress on the turbine shaft
• in the case of a weak grid, severe voltage fluctuations
• inductive reactive power demand by the generator requires compensation devices
• such arrangements tend to increase the speed range by about 2–10%
• gearbox necessary
Adding external resistance into the rotor circuit has been shown to allow a small increase in the speed
range over which the induction machine can operate but at the cost of reduced efficiency due to the
losses in the external rotor resistance. The beneficial features of an increased operating speed range
can be retained (and expanded) if, rather than dissipating the energy into external resistors, it is fed
back into the power system using a power electronic converter.
Wind turbine with wound rotor induction generator with adjustable external rotor resistance (Source:
Department of Electrical Power Systems, University Duisburg-Essen)

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2.4.2 Torque speed curve
The mathematical relationships for the maximum smax and the pull-out torque Mmax can be derived from
the basic equation of an induction machine and are given by (without derivation)
and
These equations show that the pull-out torque is independent of the rotor resistance R`r. Considering
a weak power system where the grid impedance is higher than in a strong power system, stator
reactance becomes larger because both grid impedance and stator reactance Xs are connected in series
and thus when Xs increases the pull-out torque is reduced. Figure (a) shows the steady state stability
of the generator. This will be most apparent in a weak system where the system reactance is greatest.
Also, the pull-out torque will be reduced if the system voltage U is reduced for any reason, but the slip
at which the pull-out torque occurs is not affected. This effect is visualized in Figure b.
In contrast, the first equation shows that the slip at which the maximum torque occurs is determined
by the rotor resistance R`r; so, increasing the rotor resistance increases the maximum slip. This effect
is shown in Figure c. Not only does increased rotor resistance make the system connection more
compliant but it also increases the speed at which the pull-out torque occurs.

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Torque speed curve of the induction machine with variable parameters (Source: Department of
Electrical Power Systems, University Duisburg-Essen)
2.5 Doubly Fed Induction Generator (variable speed) (E)

• explain the differences of a DFIG compared to a normal induction generator,
• describe the components and the DFIG and their function,
• distinguish three different operating modes,
• interpret the meaning of the different frequencies (rotor, stator, grid),
• determine the active and reactive power flows depending on conditions and
• read and analyze a power tracking curve of a DFIG wind turbine.

• General concept
• Different operating modes
• Measurement and control
• Equivalent circuit and magnetization

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• Rotor frequency
• Active power flow
• Reactive power capability
• Characteristic parameters
• Power tracking curve
2.5.1 General concept

The enhancement of the induction generator with variable external resistor is presented in the figure
where the external rotor resistors are substituted by a grid connected converter system. The name of
this generator concept is Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG). The wind turbine consists of a wound
rotor induction generator, two bi-directional voltage source converters with a back-to-back DC link,
protection circuits, a gearbox and a turbine. The different components are described below:
Wound Rotor Induction Generator (WRIG): a WRIG is a conventional 3-phase wound rotor induction
machine. The stator of the machine is connected directly to the grid at system frequency while the
rotor is fed from a power converter at slip frequency. The voltage at stator and rotor terminals can vary
depending on the size of the turbine and generator.
Voltage Source Converters (VSCs): VSCs consist of two fully controlled Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor
(IGBT) bridge circuits: one, the Machine Side Converter (MSC), is connected to the rotor via slip rings
and the second, the Line Side Converter (LSC), is connected to the grid. The MSC injects voltage into
the slip rings at slip frequency that is controlled in both magnitude and phase and allows both the
torque (active power “P” control) and the power factor of the machine to be controlled (reactive power
“Q" control) over a large speed range (typically +/- 30%) whereas the LSC injects a voltage into the grid
at grid frequency and is typically controlled to maintain a constant DC link voltage. Between grid and
LSC there is an inductance in order to improve the power quality provided from the converter.
DC-link: the DC-link is the connection between the MSC and the LSC carrying a direct current. The
capacitor connected in the DC-link acts as a constant, ripple free DC voltage source. The DC-link
decouples the two unsynchronized AC systems with two frequencies. The first frequency is the grid
frequency at the LSC while the second frequency at the MSC can be adjusted automatically according
to the slip of the machine.
AC Crowbar protection (CR): a rotor crowbar is designed to bypass the machine side converter, i.e. to
short-circuit the rotor, in order to avoid overcurrent on the MSC as well as overvoltage on the DC-link
capacitor. The crowbar can consist of thyristors or IBGTs with an external resistance.
DC Chopper protection (CH): a DC-link braking resistor, which is also known as a DC-link chopper, is
provided in the DC-link bus to dissipate excess energy in the DC-link capacitor during a grid fault. The
chopper consists of an IGBT with an external resistance.
Gearbox: the gearbox gears up the low speed shaft of the wind turbine to the high-speed shaft of the
rotor.
Turbine: the turbine of the wind turbine is commonly equipped with three rotor blades. The angle of
attack of each rotor blade is controlled individually by the pitch control of the wind turbine.

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Wind turbine with DFIG (Source: Department of Electrical Power Systems, University Duisburg-Essen)
2.5.2 Different operating modes

The figure shows the detailed three phase diagram of the DFIG wind turbine. In order to ensure the
desired functionality of the DFIG based wind turbine, a control system is employed to generate the
following commands:
• Pitch angle (β): this control is used by the aerodynamic power control to ensure optimal wind
power extraction by the turbine blades.
• MSC Control: this controls the machine via the MSC to ensure active and reactive power
control of the machine.
• LSC Control: this controls the LSC to maintain a constant voltage on the DC link capacitor and
to employ reactive power control.
There are three different operating modes for the DFIG as follows.
Sub-synchronous speed mode (s > 0 and 𝜔𝑟 < 𝜔𝑠 )
• Typically, this situation takes place during slow wind speeds.
• The rotor power will be supplied by the DC bus capacitor via the MSC which tends to decrease
the DC bus voltage.
• The LSC increases this DC voltage and tends to keep it constant.
• As a result, power is absorbed from the grid via the LSC and is delivered to the rotor via the
MSC.
• Thus, the LSC operates as a rectifier and the MSC operates as an inverter (see the figure for
power direction)
• The power will also be delivered to the grid by the stator Ps

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Super-synchronous speed mode (s < 0 and 𝜔𝑟 > 𝜔𝑠 )
• Typically, this situation takes place during high wind speeds.
• The rotor power will be transmitted to the DC bus capacitor which tends to increase the DC
bus voltage.
• The LSC decreases this DC voltage and tends to keep it constant.
• As a result, power is extracted from the MSC and delivered to the grid via the LSC.
• Thus, the MSC operates as a rectifier and the LSC operates as an inverter (see the figure for
power direction).
• The power will be delivered to the grid by the stator (Ps) and via the LSCs by the rotor (Pr)
Synchronous speed mode (s = 0 and 𝜔𝑟 = 𝜔𝑠 )

• In this case, the generator operates as a synchronous machine. Therefore, the MSC shall
provide DC excitation for the rotor.
• The MSC will not provide any kind of AC active power for the rotor winding. Thus, the rotor
active power is zero (Pr=0).
• The active power will be delivered to the grid by the stator (Ps).
Different operation modes and control of the DFIG (Source: Department of Electrical Power Systems,

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2.5.3 Measurement and control
The figure sketches the overall control system of the speed variable DFIG wind turbine. Different line
styles are used to provide a quick overview of the signals of the overall control system.
Notice that the overall control system requires information on different measured electrical signals:
the active power Pgrid and reactive power Qgrid, the DC bus Voltage Udc, the converter AC current at the
LSC Iac,LSC, the converter AC voltage at the LSC Uac,LSC, the stator current Iac,Stator, the stator voltage
Uac,Stator, the position and the speed of the generator’s rotor θGen , ωGen, and the rotor current Irotor.
The DFIG control level has two reference input signals:
• the converter reference active power Pref; this information is provided by the wind turbine
control level.
• the converter reference reactive power Qref; this reference can be imposed by the grid system
operator. For example, in case of weak grids, the DFIG has the extra task to provide the voltage
support by providing the capacitive reactive power. Pref can also be provided by the grid system
operator in order to reduce the power output in case of over frequency.
The wind turbine control level has a slower dynamic response than the local DFIG control; it controls
the pitch angle of the turbine blades and thus the speed of the generator and reference active power
to the DFIG control level.
As described previously, the DFIG control level is divided into two parts:
• Machine Side Converter Control: this is responsible for the active and reactive power control
of the machine.
• Line Side Converter Control: the main purpose of this is to keep the DC link voltage constant
and to employ the reactive power control.
Two additional control signals are used for the triggering of the protection system of the wind turbine:
• AC Crowbar control
• DC Chopper control

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Measurement and control of the DFIG (Source: Department of Electrical Power Systems, University
Duisburg-Essen)
2.5.4 Equivalent circuit and magnetization

The equivalent circuit of the DFIG looks quite similar to the one of the induction generator. Compared
to the equivalent circuit of the induction generator in this figure, both resistances in the rotor circuit
are summarized to R`r/s. To understand how the DFIG can control and supply active and reactive power,
the equivalent circuit must be studied. At the right-hand side of the figure there is the slip dependent
rotor voltage which can be controlled by the machine side converter. This is different to the squirrel
cage induction generator where the rotor was internally shorted. U`r/s represents the rotor voltage
referred to the stator side considering the turn ratio of the machine. R`r/s is the slip depending rotor
resistance and X`r the rotor reactance, both referred to the stator side. Rs is the stator resistance and
Xs the stator reactance. Xh represents the magnetizing reactance of the machine and Us is the stator
voltage.
By controlling the current (active and reactive) in the rotor circuit and taking the magnetization current
into account it is possible to change the currents at the stator terminal (active and reactive current and
thus active and reactive power). Controlling the currents in the rotor circuit is the main task of the
Machine Side Converter.

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In a DFIG the magnetization of the machine can be provided directly by the MSC in the rotor circuit. As
an example, the magnetization of the machine can be calculated as follows. The rated value for the
internal voltage at the main inductance can be assumed to be uh = 1 p.u. and the rated value of the
main reactance is usually in the range of xh =3 p.u, hence the magnetizing current can be calculated as
follows
This means that this magnetization current is part of the rotor circuit and will be provided by the MSC.
Thus, the power factor at the stator terminal is independent of the magnetization of the rotor. (In a
classical induction generator with or without external rotor resistance the magnetization of the rotor
was provided via induction from the stator.) So, power factor correction with an additional
compensation device is not necessary. The power factor at the stator of the DFIG can be varied by
controlling the stator currents by, in turn, controlling the rotor currents.
Equivalent circuit of the DFIG (Source: Department of Electrical Power Systems, University Duisburg-
Essen)
2.5.5 Rotor frequency

In the equivalent circuit of the DFIG, the rotor circuit is electrically coupled with the stator circuit since
the rotor quantities are referred to the stator side using the turn ratio of the generator. Physically both
stator and rotor are not electrically coupled. The rotor rotates with the speed dictated by the wind
turbine and gearbox. The frequency in the stator is fixed by the grid frequency of the connected power
system. In order to achieve the speed variability of modern wind turbines the electrical frequency of
the rotor has to be adjusted with mechanical speed from the rotor. The equation of the correlation
between speed n, frequency f and the number of pole pairs p was previously introduced
Now we adapt this equation to the DFIG concept, where the rotor frequency fRotor can be adjusted
independently by the MSC.
For the sub-synchronous operation mode where the slip is positive (s > 0 and ωr < ωs) the following
equation is valid

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Assuming two pole pairs and a rotor rotational speed of 1200 rev/min, the required rotor frequency is
10 Hz for a 50 Hz stator frequency.
For the super-synchronous operation mode where the slip is negative (s < 0 and ωr < ωs) the following
equation is valid
Assuming again two pole pairs and a rotor rotational speed of 1650 rev/min, the required rotor
frequency is 5 Hz for a 50 Hz stator frequency.
These results show that the electrical frequency in the rotor has to be the slip frequency and has to be
adapted automatically according to the speed of the turbine and thus the wind speed. This task is
performed by the MSC control by using the online rotor speed and rotor position measurement. This
makes the generator speed variable because the mechanical frequency of the rotor is decoupled from
the stator and thus the grid frequency. The magnetic field in the rotor which is inducing a voltage in
the stator is a superposition of the mechanical speed of the shaft and the electrical frequency inside
the three-phase wound rotor winding.
Wind Turbine with DFIG (Source: Department of Electrical Power Systems, University Duisburg-Essen)

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2.5.6 Active power flow
The figure shows the power flow diagram in the DFIG based wind turbine. For the calculation of the
stator and rotor powers, the rotor, stator and converter losses are neglected as they are relatively
negligible.
Pmech: mechanical power delivered to the generator
Ps: power delivered by the stator
Pr: power delivered or taken by the rotor
PLSC: power delivered or taken by the LSC
Ptot: power delivered to the grid.
If the stator losses are neglected, then the air gap power is equal to the stator power as given by the
following equation
Now we can use the already introduced slip equation
Using the last expression in the equation for the rotor power we get
Assuming that the losses in the converter are negligible, the power at the LSC is equal to the rotor
power
Thus, the entire electrical power of the DFIG can be calculated by
From these equations, it can be seen that the active power flow direction in the stator is always from
the generator to the power system. In contrast the active power flow in the rotor circuit is bi-directional
because it is dependent on slip.
In real applications, the rotor resistance and the stator resistance as well as the losses in the two
converters, MSC and LSC, have to be considered and the manufacturers are optimizing the losses of
the different parameters in order to increase the efficiency of the generator converter system.
If the speed range of the DFIG is assumed to be ±30% of the slip around the synchronous speed, the
power that will flow via the rotor through the power converters will also be 30% of the stator power.

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That is why the converter power range is dependent on the maximum slip (speed variation). For the
pre-defined reactive power range, the converters have to be designed to carry this additional reactive
power and have to be oversized so as not to overheat.
Active power flow in the DFIG (Source: Department of Electrical Power Systems, University Duisburg-
Essen)
2.5.7 Reactive power capability

The figure shows the reactive power control opportunities of the DFIG based wind turbine. Due to the
decoupled control of active and reactive power through the use of power converters, there are two
options to control the reactive power at the point of interconnection with the power system.
The first and preferred option is the reactive power control of the generator via the MSC. Here the
reactive power control loop in the MSC is used to change the reactive power at the rotor and thus at
the stator terminal. The reactive power control can provide either inductive or capacitive reactive
power (note arrow of Qs in both directions). So, the rotor circuit carries the magnetization of the
generator and the additional reactive power coming from the reactive power control loop for the stator.
The second option is to use the reactive power control loop in the LSC circuit. Here the converter can
also provide either inductive or capacitive reactive power (note arrow of QLSC in both directions), but
the smaller rating of the converter has to be considered.
The reactive powers of the stator and the LSC are superposed at the point of interconnection with the
power system. The set-points are forwarded from the outer wind turbine control to the individual
converter. For steady-state power factor correction at the point of interconnection, the first option to
control the reactive power of the generator via the MSC is usually used. For short-term reactive power
injection (during grid faults for instance), the second option can be used in parallel with the first in
order to increase the dynamic performance. Using the first reactive power control option, the time
constant of the generator has to be considered which makes the first option somewhat slower (in the
millisecond range).

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Reactive power capability in the DFIG (Source: Department of Electrical Power Systems, University
Duisburg-Essen)
2.5.8 Characteristic parameters

As shown in the table, rated stator voltage for a 6 MW machine is around 6.6 kV while for a 2 MW
machine it is around 0.69 kV. The LSC voltages in both machine types are almost the same. This implies
that the 2 MW machine can be connected to the grid through a 2-winding three-phase transformer
while the 6 MW machine can only be connected to the grid with a 3-winding three-phase transformer
because of the different voltages at the stator and the LSC.
The nominal rotor and LSC currents are higher in the 6 MW machine because both the MSC and LSC
have to carry more current as compared to the 2 MW machine.
For the 2 MW machine
The rotor power was previously given by.
Assuming that the turbine does not supply any reactive power, that there are no losses in the
converters and machine, and that the slip is 30%, the rotor power equation becomes
This much power will flow in the rotor circuit (MSC and LSC).
For the 6 MW machine
The rotor power can be calculated as follows
Again, this power will flow in the rotor circuit (MSC and LSC).

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From this, it becomes clear that for the same voltage on rotor and LSC, the 6 MW machine has to carry
almost 3 times the rotor current as compared to the 2 MW machine. Similarly, the power converter
system has to be designed and sized for a current 3 times higher.
Characteristic parameters of the DFIG (Data source: Department of Electrical Power Systems,
2.5.9 Power tracking curve

The figure shows the per-unit generated electrical power output pG versus the rotational speed per-
unit of a wind turbine generator for different wind speeds. The bold black curve is the optimal tracking
curve which is the total amount of power existing in the wind under different wind speeds. The curve
connects all peaks (maxima) of the different wind power curves. The red curve is known as the real
maximum power tracking curve of the DFIG which is the active power extracted from the wind by the
wind turbine.
Under low wind speed conditions (3 to 4 m/s) the wind turbine synchronizes with the power system
and generates a small amount of active power (Section A-B on the curve). The typical speed range of
the generator here is 0.7 p.u. This means that a machine with two pole pairs and thus a synchronous
speed of 1 p.u. equal to 1500 rev/min starts to synchronize at 0.7 p.u. 1500 rev/min = 1050 rev/min.
During partial generation between 3-4 m/s and 12 m/s the turbine and the generator try to follow the
maximum power available in the wind (Section B-C). This maximum power tracking is performed by
the control of the wind turbine and its converter. During partial operation, the electrical power output
has to be adapted to the mechanical power provided by the turbine. The generator has speed
limitations at approximately 1.2 p.u. equal to 1800 rev/min. Here the generator cannot follow the
maximum power available in the wind (Section C-D). At that operating point the generator increases
electrical power output almost linearly until it reaches the nominal active power out of 1 p.u. (y-axis,
indicated by D).
Also under higher wind speed conditions (above 12 m/s) the turbine has to remain in its speed
limitation. For this the pitch controller is activated and is working as a partial aerodynamic break. So,

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the turbine cannot follow the optimal tracking curve. Furthermore, during fast wind gusts a short-term
over-speed capability has to be considered, while the pitch controller adjusts the speed of the turbine
and consequently the speed of the generator.
Moreover, the red curve clearly shows the link between variable speed operation (and thus speed
control) and the amount of power that can be extracted from the wind. It is worth saying that this
operation can only be achieved by the power electronic converters used in the modern wind turbine
technology.
Power tracking curve of the DFIG (Source: Department of Electrical Power Systems, University
Duisburg-Essen)
2.6 Generator with Fully Rated Converter (variable speed) (E)

• explain the use of generators with fully rated converter for wind turbines,
• describe the components of such a generator and their functions,
• identify the differences of high speed and low speed generator converter concepts and
• name control mechanisms of this generator type.

• Application to wind turbines
• Detailed concepts
• Control overview
2.6.1 Application to wind turbines

The figure shows the Fully Rated Converter (FRC)-based wind turbine which consists of a generator, i.e.
synchronous generator or induction generator, and two bi-directional Voltage Source Converters (VSC)
with a back-to-back DC link. In this concept the generator is completely decoupled from the power
system, so the output frequency of the generator is different from the grid frequency. For a FRC–based

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wind turbine the converter has to be rated according to the active power rating of the generator plus
the reactive power capability. The different components are described below:
Synchronous Generator/Induction Generator (SG/IG): a synchronous generator can have either an
electrically excited rotor with salient poles or a rotor equipped with permanent magnets to provide the
rotating magnetic field. While both technologies are being used in industry, one attraction of the
permanent magnet machine is its high efficiency since no magnetizing or field current is necessary to
provide the magnetic field. The induction generator can have a squirrel-cage induction generator in
which the magnetization has to be provided by the machine side converter.
Voltage Source Converters (VSCs): VSCs are two back-to-back Pulse Width Modulated (PWM)
converters based on multi-chip IGBT modules, interconnected through DC-link capacitors. The grid
connected converter is the Line Side Converter (LSC) while the converter connected to the generator is
called Machine Side Converter (MSC), similar to the converter system of the DFIG. Between grid and
LSC there is an inductance in order to improve the power quality provided from the converter.
DC-link: the DC-link is the connection between the MSC and the LSC carrying a direct current. The
capacitor connected in the DC-link acts as a constant, ripple free DC voltage source. The DC-link
decouples the two unsynchronized AC systems with two frequencies and makes the wind turbine speed
variable. The first frequency is the grid frequency at the LSC while the second frequency is the
frequency of the generator.
DC Chopper protection: a DC-link braking resistor, also known as a DC-link chopper, is provided in the
DC-link bus to dissipate excess energy in the DC-link capacitor during a grid fault.
Gearbox: the gearbox gears up the low speed shaft of the wind turbine to the high-speed shaft of the
rotor. Depending on the design (number of pole pairs) of the generator a gearbox may not be necessary.
Turbine: the turbine of the wind turbine is commonly equipped with three rotor blades. The angle of
attack of each rotor blade is controlled individually by the pitch control of the wind turbine.

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Wind turbine with generator equipped with fully rated converter (Source: Department of Electrical
2.6.2 Detailed concepts

There are different generator converter concepts on the market equipped with the same basic principle
but with slightly different components. Therefore, the figure shows three different wind turbine
concepts with generators equipped with fully rated converter systems. They can be classified into high-
speed full generator converter concept where a gearbox gears up the low speed shaft of the turbine,
and a low-speed generator converter concept where no gearbox is used and the rotor of the generator
rotates slowly with the speed of the turbine.
High-speed generator concept with gearbox
The high-speed generator concept is mechanically similar to the DFIG type, using a normal gearbox
designed as three- or one-stage and a small size, high-speed Permanent Magnet Synchronous
Generator (PMSG) or Squirrel Cage Induction Generators (SCIG). Currently the first concept with PMSG
is more popular on the market. Both concepts are shown in the first two systems in the figure.
Advantages:
• lower generator weight and smaller size
• can be used to upgrade existing DFIG designs

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Low-speed generator concept without gearbox
The low-speed generator concept, also known as the gearless direct-drive concept, uses a large
diameter, low-speed generator (up to 30 rpm). Separately excited synchronous generators are typically
used. The excitation current can be taken directly from the DC link capacitor. The gearless concept is
shown in the last system in the figure.
Advantages:
• avoidance of mechanical gearbox losses
• avoidance of gearbox maintenance
• very short drive train and less rotating components
Concepts for wind turbine with fully rated converter (Source: Department of Electrical Power Systems,
2.6.3 Control overview

The figure shows the detailed three phase diagram of the FRC wind turbine. In order to ensure the
desired functionality of the FRC-based wind turbines, a control system is employed to generate the
following commands:
• Pitch angle (β) control: this control is used to ensure optimal wind power extraction by the
turbine blades.
• MSC control: this control is intended to control the MSC, which in turn controls the generator
torque loading.
• LSC control: this control is intended to control the LSC, in order to maintain constant voltage
on the DC link and additionally to control the reactive power output in a similar way as local
dynamic reactive power compensation devices can do.

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Operation of the wind turbine
The variable magnitude, variable frequency output of the generator voltage, here a permanent magnet
synchronous generator (PMSG), is converted to a fixed magnitude, fixed frequency grid voltage Ug by
the fully rated converter consisting of MSC, LSC and a DC link. Both converters are designed to handle
the full rated power of the wind turbine.
One important note to mention is that multi-pole (50 - 100 pole pairs) PMSG-based wind turbines have
been designed to eliminate the gearbox. The coupling of the rotor hub directly to the generator without
a gearbox also eliminates the mechanical noise produced by conventional turbines and increases
lifetime of the machine.
Compared to DFIG-based wind turbines, the FRC-based WT provides the widest range of speed control.
Moreover, the Fully Rated Converter is isolating both the dynamics of the electrical generator and the
transients coming from the grid side. The drawback of FRC wind turbines is the expense of the
converter system which must be rated to cope with the full power output of the generator plus the
reactive power capability of the wind turbine. As a consequence, the total losses in each converter
(typically 1-1.5% per converter) are much higher for a FRC system than for a DFIG system where the
converter is only dimensioned for 30-35% of the total power of the system.
Control overview of wind turbines with generators equipped with Fully Rated Converter systems
(Source: Department of Electrical Power Systems, University Duisburg-Essen)

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2.7 Wind turbine protection systems (E)
Learning objective: After this page, you should be able to
• explain the main features of the protection system of a type 3 and type 4 wind turbine and
• name the two main protecting components and their protection functions.
Modern wind turbines have to withstand short-circuits in the connected power system as this is
requested in many grid codes worldwide. They have to remain connected to the power system for a
short time without opening any circuit breaker. This is why modern wind turbines are equipped with
certain protection devices in order to protect the electrical components (the generator and especially
the sensitive power converters) against high transient currents during short-circuits in the grid. There
are two main protection functions for the wind turbine protection:
• DC Chopper Protection
• AC Crowbar Protection
DC Chopper Protection: as shown in the upper part of the figure, a DC-link braking resistor, also known
as a DC-link chopper, is provided in the DC-link bus to dissipate excess energy in the DC-link during a
grid fault. The arrangement consists of a resistor and an electronic switch, usually an IGBT. Several units
of DC-link braking resistors can be arranged in parallel to increase energy dissipation capacity. The
amount of power burned in the resistor is controlled by an electronic switch device (IGBT). The DC-link
braking resistor can be dimensioned to fully handle the entire energy dissipation during fault.
Alternately, the resistor can be designed to only handle partial power. Obviously, to be able to ride
through a severe fault, the latter option must be combined with other measures, for instance injecting
active power to the grid.
AC Crowbar Protection: for DFIG-based wind turbines a rotor crowbar is designed to bypass the rotor-
side converter, i.e. to short-circuit the rotor, in order to avoid overcurrent on the MSC as well as
overvoltage on the DC-link capacitor. The crowbar can consist of thyristors with an external resistance
insertion. As shown in the lower part of the figure, the crowbar can be constructed by placing two pairs
of anti-parallel thyristors between the phases or by using a combination of a diode bridge and a single
thyristor. Typically, the crowbar resistance value is 1 to 10 times the rotor resistances; however, the size
is actually dependent on machine parameters. A higher crowbar resistance value is preferred to quickly
dampen rotor transient current. On the other hand, a resistance value that is too high may lead to the
risk of overvoltage on the converter. Therefore, the value of the resistance must be designed as a
compromise between these two factors. The crowbar action can be triggered either by DC-link
overvoltage or by MSC overcurrent.
During the activation of the AC crowbar the DFIG acts as a common induction machine without control
capability by the MSC. In this case the generator receives its magnetization via the stator from the grid.
Many grid codes require capacitive reactive current during grid faults to support the grid voltage. This
is not possible during the activation of the AC crowbar.

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Wind turbine protection system (Source: Department of Electrical Power Systems, University
Duisburg-Essen)

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2.8 Summary of wind turbine attributes
The figure shows a summary of wind turbine classifications. It summarizes the most important
attributes of the wind turbine types and assigns them to the corresponding speed range.
State of the art modern variable speed wind turbine technologies (Type 3 and 4) are replacing the fixed
speed wind turbine technologies (Type 1 and 2) for the following reasons:
• system operators have full control over the operation of variable speed wind turbines
• compliance with advanced grid codes of countries with high wind penetration (not possible
with fixed speed wind turbines)
• improved system efficiency and maximum energy capture
• reduction in mechanical stress on the shaft
• reduction in acoustic noise
• generator power factor is controllable with variable speed wind turbines
• decoupled control of P and Q due to the utilization of converter systems
• security equipment for WT, chopper (Type 4) and chopper and crowbar (Type 3)
There are some drawbacks to the variable speed wind turbine technologies:
• operation is much more complex than the fixed speed wind turbines
• very costly compared to fixed speed wind turbines
• multiple point of failures (though rare) due to the power electronics and other sensitive
components
• efficiency losses in the power electronic converters
Type 1 to 4 wind turbines (Data source: Department of Electrical Power Systems, University Duisburg-
Essen)

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2.9 Market share of wind turbine technologies
• name the global market shares of different types of wind turbines and
• explain the market trends and market potential of different wind turbine types.
Of the four wind turbine types introduced, the preferred technology changed in the ten years from
1995 to 2005. A detailed investigation of the market penetration and development of the different
wind turbine types is shown in the figure. It shows the results of the investigation which is based on
data provided by BMT Consults. The graph reflects the global market penetration of the four wind
turbine Types 1, 2, 3 and 4 from the top 22 wind turbine market suppliers from 1995 to 2005. [1]
During the years 1995-1997 the fixed speed wind turbine concept (Type 1) was the predominant wind
turbine technology, due to its simplicity and robustness. However, from 1997 the DFIG wind turbine
(Type 3) gained an increasing market share, while the demand for Types 1 and 2 continuously
decreased. (There is no updated data on this topic available.)
In 2013, according to experts, the doubly-fed induction generator was the most used generator
concept. However, the variable speed wind turbine generator with full scale frequency converter (Type
4) was expected to take the lead in the future. [2] Type 1 and 2 do not play a role on the market
anymore.
Besides the previously discussed four types, a fifth type appeared on the market but without
significant market share. That type is a directly coupled synchronous machine that keeps a constant
rotation of the generator due to the variable-speed gearbox.
Global market share of wind turbine technologies (Data source: Hansen/Hansen 2007)

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2.10 Summary AC generators
AC generators are a fundamental component of power systems all over the world. In nearly all power
systems the classical large scale synchronous generator is the main generation unit. The situation is
changing due to the increase of renewable energy sources with alternative generation concepts. Both
synchronous and other AC generators have to be studied in order to guarantee reliable power
generation for the future. The main features of AC generators are given below:
• Fixed speed synchronous generator applications are robust with a long lifetime and are
technically nearly fully developed. They offer excellent solutions for base load generation
together with the capability to provide reactive power control.
• Fixed speed and limited variable speed AC generators used in wind turbine applications have
their limitations (e.g. no speed variability and no internal reactive power control) and thus are
not relevant in the wind power market today.
• Speed variable AC generators like the doubly fed induction generator or the generator with
fully rated converter system are technically highly developed and the most popular solution in
the wind power market. They offer excellent electrical behavior and compliance with modern
grid codes.
• Technical development especially in the wind power market has not reached the final stage;
for the future, alternative concepts for instance wind turbines with hydrodynamic torque
converters are expected to come onto the market
Wind Substation (Source: RENAC)

2.11 Endnotes to the chapter
[1]: Hansen, Anca D. and Hansen, Lars H.: Market penetration of wind turbine concepts over the years,
2007
[2]: Blaabjerg, Frede and Ma, Ke: Future on Power Electronics for Wind Turbine Systems; IEEE Journal
of Emerging and Selected Topics in Power Electronics, Vol. 1, No. 3, September 2013; available online:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?arnumber=6573352

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3 DC generators
3.1 Introduction to DC generators
The focus of the third chapter of this module is on DC generators for renewable generation. Power
systems all over the world are using AC transmission systems. This is why DC generators have to convert
DC electricity into AC electricity. This conversion is usually performed by inverter systems. Photovoltaics
and fuel cells can be categorized as DC generators. This chapter focuses exclusively on photovoltaics
(PV).
Categorisation of DC generators (Source: RENAC)
3.2 Photovoltaics
• name the components of a PV system and explain their functions from the power generation
perspective,
• distinguish between grid-connected and off-grid PV system,
• describe the systematic buildup of a PV array,
• interpret the I(U) and P(U) curves of PV systems and
• explain the principles of maximum power point tracking.

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• Components of a PV System
• Stand-alone and grid-connected photovoltaic systems
• Photovoltaic cells and arrays
• Photovoltaic I(U) and P(U) curves
• Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) of photovoltaics
3.2.1 Components of a PV System

A photovoltaic (PV) system is an arrangement of components designed to supply electric power for a
variety of purposes, using the sun and its irradiation as the power source. The main components are:
• PV array / generator: a photovoltaic array (also called a solar array) consists of multiple
photovoltaic modules, generally referred to as solar panels, to convert solar irradiation
(sunlight) into DC current and voltage. The PV arrays are arranged in such a way that the
required current and voltage is achieved. The output current and voltage of the PV array are a
function of solar irradiation Ga and temperature Ta. Photovoltaic module power production is
directly related to the intensity of the sunlight which is affected by the daily sun cycle, clouds
and shading from nearby objects (trees, tall buildings, other PV modules).
• Controller: the controller controls the inverter (power flow) by pulse width modulated (PWM)
signals and prevents battery overcharging. If batteries are allowed to routinely overcharge,
their life expectancy will dramatically reduce. A controller will sense the battery voltage and
reduce or stop the charging current when the voltage gets high enough.
• Inverter: the inverter converts direct current (DC) output of a photovoltaic (PV) array into
alternating current (AC) with the desired frequency that is then fed into the electricity grid at
the point of common coupling. The inverter is controlled by the controller for power
conversion, optimal utilization of the available DC power and, additionally, reactive power
provision.
A battery bank can be part of the PV system depending on the application:

• Battery bank: batteries accumulate excess energy created by the PV system and store it to be
used at night or when there is no other energy input.

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Basic components of a PV system (Source: Department of Electrical Power Systems, University
Duisburg-Essen)
3.2.2 Stand-alone and grid-connected photovoltaic systems

PV systems can be split into two main categories depending on how they are connected to the electrical
power system: Stand-alone system and grid-connected system.
Stand-alone system:
Stand-alone PV systems are not connected to the electricity grid; they are used on their own or in
combination with diesel generators or wind turbines and are completely independent of the electricity
grid. For such systems, the inclusion of batteries is very important. A battery bank is used to store the
additional energy that is not needed at the time of DC to AC conversion by the inverter. This stored
energy can be used at any other time when there is no DC power available from the PV array, for
example at night. These kinds of systems are usually installed by the home owners (small scale)
especially in rural areas where there is no grid connection.
Some drawbacks of such systems are given below:
• as stand-alone PV systems can only produce electricity during daytime, an alternative power
source is required during the night or on days with little solar irradiation.
• Energy can be stored in batteries but there are practical limitations to this such as the cost and
availability of batteries, their high maintenance requirement, and their short lifetime.
Grid-connected system:
Grid-connected PV systems are power systems that are connected to the electricity grid. The grid has
influence over the operation of such systems. It is not necessary to use batteries as excess electricity
can be fed into the grid. Residential grid-connected photovoltaic systems with a capacity less than 10
kilowatts meet the load of most consumers and additional electricity generation is fed into the grid. A

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grid connection agreement is required between the consumer and the electricity utility before the
photovoltaic system may be connected to the grid.
• Some advantages of grid-connected PV systems are given below:
• grid-connected PV systems can reduce the electricity bill if it is possible to sell surplus
electricity to the grid operator.
• grid-connected PV systems are easier to install than stand-alone PV systems as they do not
require batteries.
• grid-connected PV systems utilize the generated power more effectively since there are no
storage losses involved.
Stand-alone and grid-connected PV systems (Source: RENAC)
3.2.3 Photovoltaic cells and arrays

Photovoltaic cells are made of semiconductor materials (usually silicon), which are specially treated to
form an electric field. When solar energy (photons) hits the photovoltaic cell, electrons are knocked
loose from the atoms in the semiconductor material, creating electron-hole pairs. If electrical
conductors are attached to the positive and negative sides, forming an electrical circuit, the electrons
are captured in the form of electrical current.
Photovoltaic cells are normally grouped into “modules” which are encapsulated in various materials to
protect the cells and the electrical connectors from the environment. The modules in a PV system are
arranged in panels which are then connected in series/parallel configurations to form PV arrays. Solar

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cells are made from a variety of different materials with crystalline silicon being the most common.
Thin film cells made from copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) are also extensively used.
Since modules made from crystalline silicon are generally more efficient than thin-film modules, they
are used wherever space is at a premium, such as on the roofs of single-family homes. Module
efficiency therefore solely affects the space requirements for the PV plant. For instance: in the case of
crystalline solar modules, an area of around five to nine square meters (m2) is needed to achieve an
output of one kilowatt peak (kWp), whereas for thin-film modules the area required for the same
output is between 8 and 10 m2, depending on the technology used.
PV cells and array (Source: Department of Electrical Power Systems, University Duisburg-Essen)
3.2.4 Photovoltaic I(V) and P(V) Curves

The current and voltage produced by a PV cell vary considerably with varying irradiation and cell
temperature. This results in an increase or decrease in PV cell power output. It is essential to set the
PV system to function at MPP (Maximum Power Point) to deliver the maximum possible power. When
describing the I(V) characteristics of PV systems, three main measurements should be mentioned:
• MPP
• short circuit measurement
• open circuit measurement
MPP is the Maximum Power Point at which the photovoltaic system delivers the maximum power
for a particular irradiance and temperature. The voltage at MPP, Vmpp and the current at MPP, Impp can
be obtained from this. Short circuit measurement at zero voltage can give the short circuit current, Isc.
The open circuit measurement with a disconnected load can provide the open circuit voltage, Voc .
These measurements are shown in the figure.
The I(V) and P(V) curves for different irradiations at standard temperature of 25° Celsius are shown.
These curves are drawn for the complete system (not for an individual module).

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It can be noticed from the figure that the value of Vmpp is lower than Voc and also that Impp is lower than
the short circuit current Isc . The efficiency will be the highest if the PV system is operating at MPP.
The dependence of voltage and current on changing irradiation is also shown in the figure. It shows
that the current is more dependent on the irradiance than the voltage.
PV I(V) curves for large arrays (Source: RENAC)

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PV P(V) curves for large arrays (Source: RENAC)
3.2.5 Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) of photovoltaics

The main function of the inverter is to control the DC voltage in order to ensure that the PV system
always operates at the maximum power point. This Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT) function is
very important as it is the main factor of efficiency of the PV system. The PV system should adapt to
changing environmental conditions such as solar irradiance, ambient temperature and shading
conditions, and must shift the operating point to maximum power as any of the above mentioned
parameters change.
There are two main methods used for maximum power point tracking:
• Perturb and Observe (P&O)
• Incremental Conductance (IncCond)
Only Perturb and Observe (P &O) is described here as it is simple and explains the basics of MPPT quite
clearly.
There are three main areas in the MPPT curve (depending on the position of I and U) as marked in the
figure:
𝑑𝑃
• 𝑑𝑈
> 0 which shows that the operating point of the system is on the left side of the curve. In
this condition, additional voltage is added to the DC output value (DC voltage is incremented),
𝑑𝑃
so that the operating point moves towards the optimal MPP defined by the condition 𝑑𝑈 = 0.

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𝑑𝑃
• 𝑑𝑈
< 0 which shows that the operating point of the system is on the right side of the curve. In
this condition, additional voltage is subtracted from the DC output value (DC voltage is
decremented), so that the operating point moves towards the optimal MPP.
𝑑𝑃
• = 0 shows that the inverter is operating at the optimal MPP. This is the ideal condition of
𝑑𝑈
operation.
The MPPT algorithm described above tracks the MPP under changing environmental conditions.
The speed and accuracy of the algorithm depends on the step size and the additional incremental
voltage (gain) of the algorithm.
The P&O method is not very efficient as the MPPT moves around the MPP optimum location or has to
have a tolerance band around the MPP. This movement around the MPP or the tolerance band around
the MPP increases the losses in the system because the MPP is not always reached and so the DC power
output from the PV modules not always maximized. To solve this problem, the Incremental
Conductance (IncCond) method can be used in parallel or alone.
PV Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) (Source: RENAC)

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3.3 Inverter topology (E)
• explain how direct current is converted into alternating current,
• differentiate between controlling the magnitude and controlling the phase angle of the
inverter output voltage and
• distinguish two inverter configurations, the central and the string configuration, and name the
advantages of each.

• Single/three-phase inverter topology
• Photovoltaic inverter control
• Control overview of the three-phase PV inverter
• Large-scale photovoltaic plants
3.3.1 Single/three-phase inverter topology

The classic H-bridge topology is very versatile as it can be used for both DC–DC and DC–AC conversion
and can also be implemented in full-bridge form (with two switching legs) or in half-bridge form (with
one switching leg). The practical PV inverter topology based on the full-bridge inverter is shown in
Figure a. Two main modulation strategies can be used:
• bipolar modulation
• unipolar modulation
Only bipolar modulation is explained here. In the case of bipolar modulation, the switches are switched
diagonally.
The main features of this converter are:
• Leg A S1 and Leg B S4 (green line) as well as Leg A S2 and Leg B S3 (red line) are switched
synchronously in the diagonal with high frequency and the same sinusoidal reference. AC
voltage can be generated.
• An LCL filter is used to eliminate the high frequency harmonics which are superimposed on the
fundamental frequency components due to the IGBT switching.
The combination of inductance in series, capacitor in parallel and again inductance in series (so called
LCL filter) works as a low pass filter. It blocks the frequencies above a threshold value (cut-off frequency)
while allowing the frequencies below cut-off frequency. The dynamics of the filter have a significant
impact on the working of the inverter; hence the design of the filter is an important issue in the
modeling of grid connected inverters.
For residential PV generation, single-phase PV systems are of interest because small-scale PV
installations can normally be connected by a single-phase inverter to the low voltage network (typically
less than 5 kW) while larger PV installations are connected via a three-phase inverter to the power
system in order to avoid unbalanced generation conditions.

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Voltage imbalance in the low voltage network can increase due to a large number of unbalanced
distributed single-phase PV systems. Thus, unbalanced distributed single-phase PV systems should be
avoided during the installation.
The operation of the three-phase inverter is similar to the single-phase inverter (see Figure b). The only
difference is that the three-phase inverter has one additional Leg C with two additional IGBT Switches
(S5, S6). In this case, Switches (S1, S3 and S5) are switched simultaneously, as are Switches (S2, S4 and
S6). The most common switching technique used for the switching of IGBTs is the SPWM (Sinusoidal
Pulse Width Modulation).
Single / three-phase PV inverter topology (Data source: Department of Electrical Power Systems,
3.3.2 Photovoltaic inverter control

The PV inverter has a decoupled control of active and reactive power. The mathematical power
equations of the inverter are similar to the power equation of the synchronous machine, but here the
angle (in synchronous machine the load angle) between inverter voltage Vinverter and grid voltage Vgrid is
assumed to be small.
The figure shows the simple equivalent circuit (a) and phasor diagram (b) for the control of the PV
inverter. X represents the coupling inductance between the grid voltage and the inverter AC output
voltage.

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As the voltage on the grid side Vgrid is fixed by the power system and cannot be controlled, the inverter
voltage Vinverter across the inductance X is controlled in magnitude and phase with respect to the grid
voltage Vgrid.
From the active power equation, it can be seen that the active power transfer depends mainly on the
phase angle δ. The reactive power transfer depends mainly on magnitude of the inverter voltage and
so the voltage drop across the inductor.
The operation of the inverter and the power transferred from the inverter to the grid are controlled by
adjusting the magnitude and angle of the voltage at the inductor which is coupling the inverter with
the grid. The magnitude Vinverter and angle δ required at the terminal of the inverter are calculated as
follows:
where 𝑃ref_inv is the reference value of the active power that can be transferred from the inverter to
the grid and 𝑄ref_inv is the reference value for the reactive power.
Controlling the magnitude of the inverter voltage controls the reactive power of the inverter.
Controlling the phase angle of the inverter voltage controls the active power. So, both active and
reactive power can be controlled with respect to the grid.
PV inverter control (Source: Department of Electrical Power Systems, University Duisburg-Essen)

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3.3.3 Control overview of the three-phase PV inverter
The figure shows the schematic diagram of the PV system. The main components are
• PV array: a photovoltaic array consists of multiple photovoltaic modules which convert solar
irradiation (sunlight) into DC current and voltage.
• DC link capacitor: the bus link capacitor Cdc is used in DC to AC inverters to decouple the effects
of the inductance from the DC voltage source from the inverter bridge. The bus link capacitor
Cdc provides a low impedance path for the ripple currents associated with a switched inverter
and also balances the DC voltage.
• MPPT tracking: power supplied from a PV array depends mostly on current environmental
conditions (irradiation, temperature and shading), therefore in order to harvest the maximum
available power the operating point needs to be tracked continuously using a Maximum Power
Point Tracking algorithm which sends the command Pref to the inverter control.
• Inverter control: the inverter controller controls the DC link voltage (keeps it flexible so that
all the power that is generated in the PV array can be transferred to the AC side) and reactive
power of the inverter.
• Inverter: the type of inverter used is usually an IGBT-based inverter controlled by PWM
techniques. The inverter active and reactive power is controlled independently.
• Transformer: the transformer is optional and its inclusion depends on the DC voltage and thus
the inverter voltage.
General and control overview of the three-phase PV inverter (Source: Department of Electrical Power

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3.3.4 Large-scale photovoltaic plants
Recent times have seen the construction of ever larger PV plants. Tens of thousands of modules are
required to build large-scale solar power plants. The fact that photovoltaic generation involves so many
small elements means that, depending on the power rating, several options are available for feeding
into the grid. Two types of solar inverter configurations for large-scale PV integration are used:
Central configuration: all module strings can be connected to one single inverter. This requires all
modules to be exposed to the same irradiation conditions (in particular: same orientation and pitch,
no temporary shading). Central inverters have proven successful in both small- and large-scale PV
installations. Central configuration offers simplicity of installation. There are some disadvantages to
this configuration, namely:
• uniform orientation and configuration of the PV modules is required.
• there is a single point of failure (only one inverter), meaning no n-1 security criteria for the
centralized configuration
• absence of individual MPP tracking for each string connected in parallel. This means that the
maximum power output from each string is not achieved because the operating point (voltage
level) of the strings cannot vary. Slightly different environmental conditions between the
strings will result in less harvested power.
• increased mismatch losses. Mismatch between the amounts of energy generated by two or
more modules inside an array. This mismatch can be caused, for instance, by partial shading
of the modules.
String configuration: string Configuration allows MPP tracking at string level which yields maximum
power output. It covers wide power ranges. Unlike the central inverter configuration, it does not have
a single point of failure, thus has higher reliability. Each string can be monitored individually and if a
fault arises it can easily be found and cleared. A string configuration is easier to transport because it is
lighter and smaller than a central inverter configuration. String configuration offers more advantages
than the central configuration which is why the market share of string inverters is increasing compared
to central PV inverters.
Large-scale PV plants (Source: Department of Electrical Power Systems, University Duisburg-Essen)

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3.4 Effects of photovoltaic power generation on the grid (E)
• calculate the voltage at the Point of Common Coupling of a PV system,
• explain the function of reactive power supply by the inverter and
• name the limiting factors of power carrying capability of the inverter.

• Grid integration
• Inverter sizing
3.4.1 Grid integration

Integration of PV plants into the electrical network has given rise to some problems. The most
significant of them is that of voltage regulation. In high voltage networks, the value of line reactance is
considerably higher than of line resistance; therefore, the voltage depends upon the reactive voltage
drop component. In low voltage grids, the value of resistance is quite high compared to reactance.
Therefore, the voltage in low voltage grids depends mainly on the active voltage drop component. In
practice, the voltage is primarily influenced by the active power and the resistance of the line.
Typically, distribution networks are designed to carry power in one direction, from medium voltage
side to low voltage side to provide power to low voltage customers. The figure shows the schematic
diagram of the grid.
Voltage at the point of common coupling (PCC) is given by
Where I is the current that flows in the line and Z is the impedance of the line.
In case of no PV feed-in Ppv = 0, hence power flow is in the direction from medium voltage to the load
and Vpcc is lower than Vgrid because of voltage drop along the line as shown by the green line in the
figure. As soon as the PV feeds in the power and Ppv > Pload, the power flow reverses and power flows
towards the medium voltage substation which results in voltage rise at the PCC given by
This shows that voltage at PCC can increase because of PV feed-in (yellow line) and power flow direction
can reverse. This results in a situation in which the voltage rise at the PCC may violate the voltage
deviation limit imposed by the system operators. In such a case, the reactive power capability of the
inverter can be used to lower the voltage during high irradiation times by providing inductive reactive
power, and can support the voltage during low irradiation times by providing the capacitive reactive
power. Also, limiting the generated active power can reduce the voltage increase but has the drawback
of low efficiency.

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Effect of PV on the low voltage power system (Source: Department of Electrical Power Systems,
3.4.2 Inverter sizing

As shown on the previous screen, integrating large amounts of PV into the low voltage grid results in
voltage regulation problems which can be overcome by using the reactive power capability of PV
inverters. As shown in Figure a, when there is no requirement for the reactive power from the inverter,
all of its size (capacity) is used for the conversion of DC power into AC active power. In this case the
apparent power of the inverter SPV is equal to the active power PPV supplied by the inverter, as given
by the equation
In the case that voltage regulation using reactive power capability of the inverter is required, the active
power capability of the inverter decreases (for same apparent power) for supplying the reactive power
as shown in Figure b.
This implies that the size of the inverter must be increased for the same amount of active power if the
reactive power capability is required from it. In this case, the apparent power rating of the inverter
becomes
Where QPV is the reactive power (inductive or capacitive) required from the inverter.

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ΔP (as shown in Figure b) is the active power which now cannot be supplied by the inverter because of
the requirement for the reactive power.
Another important issue to be considered is the power and current carrying limitation of the IGBT
inverters which limit the power carrying capability of the inverters. Power, and thus current, limitation
are important for the hardware components (e.g. power electronic (IGBTs) or filter) of the PV system.
For example: assuming a reactive power of QPV = 0.33 kvar which is required from the grid operator
while the maximum apparent power is assumed to be SPV = 1 kVA, then the remaining active power can
be calculated as
In the case of no required reactive power the active power is
Effect of PV on low power voltage system (Source: Department of Electrical Power Systems, University
Duisburg-Essen)

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3.5 Summary DC generators
State of the art technologies for PV systems allow the extraction of the maximum power output from
solar energy. The main features of PV power generation are given below:
• Compared to the past, the robustness of the entire PV system has improved due to
developments in the last years.
• Efficient maximum power point tracking methods allow an efficient utilization of the solar
energy provided by the sun.
• Single- and three-phase inverter systems allow a decoupled control of active and reactive
power.
• Reactive power capability of the inverter can be utilized for voltage regulation which may be
necessary at long low voltage feeders with a high penetration of PV.
• The volatility of PV and wind power generation has to be taken into account to ensure the
stability of the power system.
• Rural areas without connection to the grid are mostly in developing countries. Here it is highly
practical to use stand-alone PV systems there.
RENAC field trip to a 2 MW two axis tracking PV farm in Germany (Source: RENAC)

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4 Summary
4.1 Summary
This module presented an overview of the general concepts for electricity generation with AC and DC
generators.
In the second chapter, power generation from AC generators, such as fixed and variable speed
generators was introduced. The synchronous generator and various concepts for the induction
generator were explained in detail. Their application in wind and solar power systems was presented
and advantages and disadvantages were discussed.
The third chapter provided an introduction to DC generators. Here the focus was only on photovoltaic
systems which were explained in detail. The chapter gave on overview of power generation in
photovoltaic cells, the conversion from DC to AC electricity, and the corresponding inverter
technologies and AC grid connection.
For further studies on this topic the English book by Prabha Kundur “Power System Stability and
Control” is a reference book for classical components in the power system. Regarding the relatively
new technologies of renewable energies (such as wind power and photovoltaics) reference books are
rare because the technologies are still not fully developed.
Therefore, the scientific research base from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers “IEEE
Xplore” offers good and up-to-date articles in the area of renewable energies.
Impression of a wind park with 76 MW (Source: RENAC)

04/04/2017

SB GridGenC en Generator Concepts For Renewables

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Online course

Generator concepts for renewables

© Renewables Academy (RENAC) AG

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Learning objectives of the course:

Upon completion of this course, you will be able to

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Wind Farm in Germany (Source: RENAC)

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1.3 Introduction and classification of wind turbine generators

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2.2 Directly grid connected synchronous generator (E)

The structure of the section is as follows:

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2.2.2 Operating Principle

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2.2.4 Excitation systems

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This equation can be rearranged to give the stator current.

while the reactive power of the synchronous generator can be written as

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2.2.6 Example active and reactive power calculation

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2.3 Induction generator (fixed speed) (E)

The structure of the section is as follows:

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where 𝜔𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 is the angular electrical synchronous frequency.

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2.3.3 Torque speed curve

Here the angular electrical synchronous frequency is equal to 𝜔𝑠 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 50 Hz

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The structure of the section is as follows:

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2.5 Doubly Fed Induction Generator (variable speed) (E)

The structure of the section is as follows:

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2.5.1 General concept

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2.5.2 Different operating modes

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Synchronous speed mode (s = 0 and 𝜔𝑟 = 𝜔𝑠 )

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2.5.4 Equivalent circuit and magnetization

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2.5.5 Rotor frequency

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