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Diversity management: a systematic review

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Diversity management: a Diversity

management: a
systematic review systematic
review
Shatrughan Yadav and Usha Lenka
Department of Management Studies, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee,
Roorkee, India
Received 3 July 2019
Abstract Revised 19 December 2019
Purpose – Diversity management plays a significant role in the organization’s outcomes. This study seeks to 27 February 2020
provide a brief review of the history of diversity management and to identify the articles published on diversity Accepted 13 April 2020
management since 1991. A systematic review of the literature has been carried out to understand the literature
in more detail to know the future scope of research.
Design/methodology/approach – This study provides a comprehensive systematic review of quantitative,
qualitative and theoretical studies published in leading peer-reviewed management journals from 1991 to 2018
and identifies 123 articles that fall within its established search inclusion criteria.
Findings – The literature review highlighted several aspects related to diversity management. The findings of
the study revealed that there is a high concentration of researches in the USA and most number of articles
published in the Academy of Management Journal. Although diversity management is a very emerging topic
across the globe in management literature yet there is a lack of research in developed countries. Furthermore,
most studies are found empirical in nature and the majority of the studies were published during the period of
1996–2000. This finding suggests that age, gender and racial diversity have been repeatedly discussed in
diversity management research while other forms of diversity have given less attention
Originality/value – This study is one of the first systematic studies that describe the in-depth analysis of
diversity management literature. The significant contribution of this study is to propose the integrated model
with contemporary trends and patterns of results reported in diversity research, as well as contextual factors
that have received more attention to date.
Keywords Demographic diversity, Diversity management, Systematic literature review, Workforce diversity
Paper type Literature review

1. Introduction
Socio-cultural and economic transformations, along with economic liberalization,
globalization and changing preferences of customers, have substantially increased
workforce diversity, which forces organizations to make their workforce more diverse,
innovative and competitive (Cook and Glass, 2009). Innovative workforce can be ensured by
hiring multiple talents from different backgrounds for providing better products and services
to the customer and clients (Salau et al., 2018). However, challenges of a diverse workforce are
umpteen, which arise due to differences in the workplace. To successfully manage the
challenges of a diverse workforce, organizations have emphasized understanding the root
cause of diversity and found that diversity management can address the problem and
enhance problem-solving and decision-making power (Pelled, 1996). Therefore, organizations
have made a huge investment into managing diversity effectively and also over the past three
decades a plethora of diversity research has examined the positive impact of diversity on
performance, creativity, innovation, problem-solving and decision-making skills (Elsass and
Graves, 1997; Yang and Konrad, 2010), as well as the adverse impact on group cohesion,
conflicts and turnover (Roberson, 2019).
The purpose of diversity management is to enhance the performance of a heterogeneous
workforce and inclusive development of people with differences in gender, ethnicity,
nationality, cultural and educational backgrounds. The reason for heterogeneity in the
Equality, Diversity and Inclusion:
An International Journal
The authors would like to express their gratitude to the anonymous reviewers and Editor for their © Emerald Publishing Limited
2040-7149
valuable inputs to publish this article. DOI 10.1108/EDI-07-2019-0197
EDI workforce is the recruitment of ethnic minorities, women, underrepresented groups and the
migration of people in search of job opportunities (Tsui et al., 1992). Each individual has
unique knowledge, which needs to be recognized by organizations for their holistic
development. Conclusively, diversity management plays a massive role in knowledge
sharing and the overall development of organizations. Several studies have discussed the
relationship between diversity and performance of an organization. To understand and
manage the dynamics of workforce diversity researchers have remarkably explored the
outcomes of diversity at an individual level (Chatman and Flynn, 2001), group level
(Schippers et al., 2003; Leslie, 2017) and organization level (Richard and Johnson, 2001;
Armstrong et al., 2010). Individual-level outcomes are such as commitment, absenteeism,
satisfaction and turnover (Tsui et al., 1992). The group-level outcomes are conflict, cohesion,
creativity, group performance and idea generation (Williams and O’Reilly, 1998). Finally, the
organizational-level outcomes are financial performance, productivity and firm
competitiveness (Cox and Blake, 1991; Richard, 2000).
Researchers have performed studies and found that diversity management positively
influences organizational effectiveness and firm performance (Watson et al., 1993; Richard
et al., 2004). In contrast, some studies have reported that diversity has negative effects like
social exclusion, miscommunication, conflicts and turnover (Williams and O’Reilly, 1998). In a
meta-analysis of 24 studies, Webber and Donahue (2001) found that neither type of diversity
had a relationship with group cohesion and performance. Similarly, Horwitz and Horwitz
(2007) found that job-oriented diversity has a positive impact on team performance, whereas
demographic diversity was not significantly associated with team performance. The
inconsistencies in several studies have led researchers to report diversity as a “double-edged
sword” (Milliken and Martins, 1996; Williams and O’Reilly, 1998). These mixed findings can
be attributed to different contextual factors, which suggests that diversity research should be
context-specific (Joshi and Roh, 2009). Because of inconsistencies that have widely ignored in
the tradition review paper, there is a need for a systematic review of the literature.
This study has not designed in any particular country context and only summarized the
previous findings of diversity, dimensions of diversity and suggests gaps and new avenues
for research. Moreover, previous studies have only focused on particular areas of diversity
(e.g., cultural and racial diversity) while largely ignoring diversity and its types like
workplace diversity, organizational diversity, informational diversity and relational
demography. Hence, this study includes overall diversity and its dimension to broaden the
scope for future studies. This study intensely reviews a large number of articles in
comparison to other review papers to report a clearer and more comprehensive picture of
diversity. Conclusively, the research in the area of workforce diversity has rapidly increased
in the last two decades. However, there are still certain research questions remain, which our
study intends to address through the following research objectives:
Objective 1: To explore dimensions of diversity from past literature.
Objective 2: To identify the different antecedents, consequences and contextual factors to
propose an integrative model of diversity management.
Objective 3: To identify emerging issues in diversity research and suggest avenues for
future research.

2. Literature review
This section presents the evolution of diversity management, the conceptualization of diversity,
and dimensions of diversity given by several authors in different contexts accordingly.
2.1 Evolution of diversity management Diversity
Diversity management is the business strategy adopted by organizations to recruitment, management: a
retention and inclusive development of individuals from a variety of backgrounds (Thomas,
1991). The concept has become increasingly important due to globalization and the migration
systematic
of people across the globe (Al Ariss and Sidani, 2016). Roosevelt Thomas has coined the term review
diversity management in the year 1990 in the context of the USA and gradually, it dispersed
over the world (Kelly and Dobbin, 1998). The history behind the theory of diversity
management goes long back when affirmative action (AA) plans and equal employment
opportunities (EEO) act were incorporated through Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 in
the USA (Kelly and Dobbin, 1998). Prior to the 1990s, studies were conducted on the topic of
affirmative action programs and equal employment opportunity but after the emergence of
diversity management, researchers have gradually moved into cross-cultural diversity
research (Cox, 1991). The issue of diversity was completely ignored in organizations;
however, workplace diversity had become a critical issue in the year 1987 when the Hudson
Institute of USA published the report “Workforce 2000: Work and Workers for the
Twenty-First Century” (Johnson and Packer, 1987). To understand the problems of
increasing diversity in the organizations’ researchers have defined diversity in different ways
and conceptualized the diversity with support of different theories, which has discussed in
the following sections.
2.2 Conceptualization of diversity
Different authors have defined diversity, yet there is no single definition accepted globally.
Diversity is all about differences and dissimilarities among people. Although an organization
claims to be relatively homogenous, yet employees vary along with social identity
characteristics such as demographic variables (i.e., age, gender, race and ethnicity), values,
beliefs or cultural backgrounds (Weber et al., 2018). According to Williams and O’Reilly (1998,
p. 81), diversity is defined as “any attributes that people use to tell themselves that another
person is different.” Whereas Jackson et al. (2003) defined diversity as the differences in
personal attributes among individual members in the workgroup.
Diversity has been recognized as an immeasurable number of attributes like age, gender,
race, etc. based on which individuals may differ from each other. The heterogeneity in
diversity research has been explained with the help of underlying theories like social identity
(Tajfel and Turner, 1979), similarity-attraction (Byrne, 1971), and self-categorization (Turner
et al., 1987). These theories have been differentiated based on the perspectives of social and
personal identity of individuals. The social identity of an individual depends on group
membership, while personal identity is less or more independent of group memberships. The
self-categorization theory is referred that an individual engages in a group based on social
comparisons like status, income and education to differentiate between their in-groups and
others into different relevant groups (Turner et al., 1987). Whereas social identity theory states
that individuals’ perceptions classify themselves into social groups based on certain
attributes (e.g., age, race and gender) (Tajfel and Turner, 1979). Similarity-attraction theory
highlights that as individuals are likely to be attracted toward those who possess similar
attributes and attitudes, and in contrast, they feel challenging with others who have dissimilar
attitudes, values and experiences (Byrne, 1971). Collectively, these theories offer the
conceptual foundation of relational demography theory (Tsui et al., 1992), which proposes that
demographic attributes within work units will highly influence an individual’s behavior and
attitudes. Conclusively, these theories address the negative perspective of diversity in
workgroups related to diversity such as race, gender, age, nationality. However, these theories
suggest that a homogenous group of people are more productive and have less conflict rather
than diverse teams due to attraction toward in-group members with similar characteristics.
EDI Accordingly, these mentioned theories suggest that diversity may be negatively associated
with organizational performance and firm effectiveness (Pelled et al., 1999).
Optimistic researchers have argued that diversity can have a potential advantage to the
organizations. The positive viewpoint was supported by information decision-making
(Willimas and O’Reilly, 1998), upper echelon theory (Hambrick and Mason, 1984), and
integration learning perspective (Ely and Thomas, 2001). These theories have argued that
dissimilarity among group members results in the dissemination of knowledge, ideas, skills
and perspective, which enhances creativity, problem-solving capabilities, thereby improving
the quality of group performance, firm effectiveness and organizational performance. The
same concept has been reaffirmed by the upper echelon theory, which states that top
management team diversity has a positive impact on organizational outcomes due to diverse
experience, backgrounds and value systems (Knight et al., 1999; Simons et al., 1999). Diversity
in top management will help in improving the overall performance of all employees. The
performance is measured in terms of financial performance (e.g., return on equity, return on
investment, sales growth and productivity) and nonfinancial performance (e.g., employee
satisfaction, quality and quantity). Conclusively, researchers have found both positive and
negative effects of diversity on organizational outcomes (Milliken and Martins, 1996).
A review of 40 years of extant literature has been carried out to understand the dynamics
of literature on diversity management, which concluded that diversity has dual nature and
inconsistent findings (Willimas and O’Reilly, 1998). However, to overcome the inconsistency
and the inappropriate relationship between workgroup diversity and performance, a
categorization-elaboration model (CEM) was proposed by van Knippenberg et al. (2004). To
understand the combined effects of diversity on group performance, this model integrates
both positive and negative perspectives of theory and reconceptualize the two contradicting
viewpoints of diversity into a unified framework. Therefore, CEM has integrated the social
categorization and information decision-making theory and incorporated mediator and
moderator variables in a single framework to mitigate the negative effects of diversity, which
have typically been ignored in prior studies.

2.3 Exploring dimensions of diversity

To review the dimensions of diversity studied in diversity management, an extensive and
in-depth review of literature has been carried out. Diversity has been categorized into readily
detectable and underlying attributes (Jackson et al., 1995). Another typology categorized
diversity based on observable and underlying attributes (Milliken and Martins, 1996).
Observable attributes are age, gender, race, nationality, while underlying attributes are
personality, education, tenure, etc. Readily-detectable and observable attributes are similar
and highlight the same attributes. Another classification of diversity is categorized as high
visible (age, gender, race) and less visible dimensions like tenure, education and functional
background (Pelled, 1996). Further, in the sequel of studies, diversity has been categorized as
surface-level diversity and deep-level diversity by Harrison et al. (1998). Surface-level
diversity is observable attributes that can be easily identified based on physical features,
whereas deep-level diversity defines underlying attributes that are hidden, such as attitudes,
personality and values, etc. The aforementioned typologies of diversity have been proposed
through a 2 3 2 matrix that categorizes the different dimensions of diversity. Table 1 depicts
the typology of different dimensions of diversity, whereas Figure 1 represents the pictorial
descriptions of the evolution of diversity management and different types of dimensions of
diversity discussed by several researchers.
 Surface-level diversity Deep-level diversity
Diversity
management: a
Job-oriented attributes Organizational tenure Knowledge systematic
Team tenure Skills
Educational background Experience review
Functional background Abilities
Occupational background
Relations oriented attributes Sex Values
Age Personality
Race/ethnicity Social status Table 1.
Nationality Attitude Typology of diversity
Religion dimensions

3. Research methodology
A systematic review of the extant literature on diversity management was carried out
through relevant search of keywords. The systematic review is a transparent process to
synthesize and disseminate evidence by minimizing the bias through an exhaustive search of
published literature (Tranfield et al., 2003). Specific keywords like “workplace diversity,”
“diversity management,” ”workforce diversity,” “heterogeneous workforce” and “managing
diversity” were searched, followed by certain inclusion and exclusion criteria. Search criteria
included articles written in the English language and published in peer-reviewed journals
from 1991 to 2018. This period was chosen because the term diversity management was
coined in 1990, and a 28-year time span would be sufficient to uncover the early roots of
studies about diversity management. Initially, to access the relevant articles from diversity
research, the authors searched relevant databases (Google Scholar, Emeralds, Scopus, SAGE
and JSTOR). Besides, the reference lists of relevant articles to the area were manually
searched in located additional journals of Wiley, Springer and APA PsycNET. Further, a
chapter by Jackson et al. (1995) is also included, which is most cited and referred to in diversity
research. Through all these processes a total of 1787 articles were identified directly from the
search database, and 68 papers were selected through cross-referencing. Moreover, the total
articles were very large in number and not related to diversity management, and were
excluded. However, the diversity term has been used in numerous fields (e.g., biodiversity,
nursing, social policy, etc.), but this review primarily focuses on being more specific to
research in human resource management, organizational behavior and psychology. The
paper related to diversity management practices, programs, training and policies were also
excluded because our main objective was to identify the antecedents, consequences,
moderators and mediators studied in the previous literature. All research notes, short articles,
book reviews, conference proceedings and news were excluded from this study. A total of 265
articles were retrieved in the Zotero software, where after the screening, 43 articles were
duplicates. Finally, 222 full-text articles were assessed in which 99 articles were not relevant.
Out of 222 papers, 123 articles were included in the final study. The final selection of articles
included in this study was categorized into four different steps: Identification, Screening,
Eligibility and Inclusion. Figure 2 clearly depicts the preferred reporting items for systematic
reviews and meta-analysis (PRISMA) diagrams of selected articles.
Consequently, each article was placed in a Microsoft Excel file and information like the
publication year, journal’s name, country, study type, antecedents, consequences, mediator
and moderator variables were manually analyzed and entered. The articles were looking for
terms like gender, age, ethnicity, workforce diversity, organizational diversity, team diversity
and diversity management. This study has also examined the type of industry, respondents
and methodology adopted in empirical studies. This process has been repeatedly carried out
EDI Title VII of Civil Rights Act,
1964 in USA

Affirmative Action Law Equal Employment Opportunity

Managing Diversity 1980

Hudson report “Workforce 2000”

by (Johnston & Packer, 1987)

Diversity Management (Roosevelt.

Thomas Jr., 1990)

Task Related Relations Oriented Task Related Relations Oriented

Organization & Team Age, Sex, Race, Knowledge, Skills, Social status, Attitudes,
Tenure, Educational Ethnicity, Nationality Abilities, Experience Values, Personality

Readily Detectable Underlying

Attributes Attributes

Observable Attributes Jackson, May, & High Visibility

Race, Age, Gender, Ethnicity, Whitney, 1995 Age, Gender, Race
Nationality

Milliken & Dimensions of Diversity Pelled ,

Martins, 1996 1996

Underlying Attributes Low Visibility

Harrison, Price &
Personality, Socioeconomic, Group, Tenure, Educational and
Bell, 1998
Figure 1. Functional, Educational, & Functional Background
Flow chart of the Occupational background, Tenure
evolution of diversity
management and Surface Level Diversity Deep Level Diversity
dimensions of diversity Age, Sex, Race, Ethnicity Attitudes, Knowledge, Values, Skills

in all 123 articles and categorized into different themes. This discussion analyzes the
outcomes of diversity at the individual, group and organizational levels to differentiate the
effects of diversity. With this procedure, a complete picture of extant literature has
represented in the findings section, which will help in developing the integrated model of
diversity management.

4. Results
In order to develop a complete conceptual overview, a systematic review of 123 research
articles has been carried out in this section, which depicts a comprehensive analysis of the
included literature.
 Automatic Search Process Additional record from Elsevier,
Diversity
Database: References Emeralds, Springer, Annual Reviews, management: a
Google Scholar-
JSTOR-
672
222
PsycNET, and Wiley Library
identified through reference section
systematic
Scopus- 309 of included papers review
Sage- 584
Identification

Total number of records identify Total no of records

database search (n = 68)
(n = 1787)

Excluded: Excluded: 16
1574

Screening Total number of records after Articles after screening on

screening on the basis of Title, basis of Title, Abstract and
Abstract and Keyword (TAK) Keyword (TAK) (n = 52)
(n = 213)

Uploaded all file in Zotero software

Records after removing duplication Duplicates
n = 265 n = 43

Eligibility

Full articles studies assessed for eligibility Full articles

n = 222 excluded n = 99

Included Total articles included in review paper

N = 123
Figure 2.
PRISMA flow diagram

4.1 Journal wise distribution of literature

The final sample consists of a total of 123 articles drawn from 30 peer-reviewed journals
published between 1991 and 2018 and dispersed in a five-year time interval. The last interval
includes only three years of publications (2016–2018). The most frequently published papers
in this discipline were identified in the following orders: Academy of Management Journal
(16), Journal of Organizational Behavior (12), Journal of Management (8) and Academy of
Management Review (7). A maximum of 16 papers was published in the Academy of
Management Journal (AMJ). One of the reasons for the maximum number of publications in
AMJ may be the foundation of diversity as a field of study within the Academy of
Management (AOM) while another reason is the formalization of women in the management
EDI 1991– 1996– 2001– 2006– 2011– 2016– Total
Journal title 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2018 articles %

Academy of Management 3 6 3 2 2 16 13.01

Journal
Journal of Organizational 1 1 5 3 2 12 9.76
Behavior
Journal of Management 3 1 3 1 8 6.5
Academy of Management 6 1 7 5.69
Review
Academy of Management 2 3 1 6 4.88
Executive
Administrative Science 1 3 2 6 4.88
Quarterly
Group and Organization 1 1 1 1 2 6 4.88
Management
Journal of Applied 1 1 1 2 1 6 4.88
Psychology
Human Relations 1 2 2 5 4.07
International Journal of 3 2 5 4.07
Hospitality Management
Journal of Managerial Issues 2 1 2 5 4.07
Public Administration 1 2 2 5 4.07
Review
Human Resource 1 2 1 4 3.25
Management
Public Administration 1 3 4 3.25
Quarterly
Public Personnel 3 3 2.44
Management
Academy of Management 1 1 2 1.63
Learning and Education
Cornell Hospitality Quarterly 1 1 2 1.63
Cross-Cultural and Strategic 2 2 1.63
Management
Employee Relations 1 1 2 1.63
Human Resource 1 1 2 1.63
Management Review
Journal of Business Ethics 2 2 1.63
Organizational Science 1 1 2 1.63
Organizational Behavior and 1 1 2 1.63
Human Decision Processes
Personal Review 1 1 2 1.63
Strategic Management 1 1 2 1.63
Journal
Annual Review of 1 1 0.81
Psychology
Public Organization Review 1 1 0.81
Research in Organizational 1 1 0.81
Behavior
Sage Open 1 1 0.81
Table 2. Team Effectiveness and 1 1 0.81
Distribution of papers Decision making in
based on journal and Organizations
time period Total 13 29 18 24 25 14 123 100.0

research group and establishment of “Gender and Diversity in Organisations Division” in

AOM in the year 1988 (Nkomo et al., 2019). The following rest publications in other journals
have been depicted in Table 2.
 Year Wise Distribution of Articles Diversity
10 management: a
9 systematic
8 review
Number of Publications

7
6
5
4
3
2 Figure 3.
1 Number of
publications on
0
diversity management
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
4.2 Distribution based on year of publications
The objective of this section was to categorize the articles according to publication year and
know the year wise trends of published articles. Figure 3 delineates the year-wise publication
of papers that found a maximum of nine papers in the year 1996, and a minimum of 1 article
was published in 2002. Surprisingly, our analysis of results shows that from the year 1991–
2002, there was a huge variation in the published papers because sometimes the number of
papers has decreased and sometimes increased. However, if we leave the exceptional case in
the year 2005, 2008 and 2014, it can be seen an average of four publications per year that
represents the interest in diversity management discipline is gradually increasing,
particularly from 2003 onward. Especially in the last ten years, there has been a
considerable increment in the number of published articles. The increasing interest in
diversity discipline has also been confirmed by a recently published article on diversity in
Annual Reviews by Roberson (2019).

1991– 1996– 2001– 2006– 2011– 2016–

Country 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2018 Total %

USA 9 26 13 14 12 6 80 65.04
Canada 2 1 2 1 1 1 8 6.5
Netherland 2 2 2 1 7 5.69
United 4 3 7 5.69
Kingdom
Australia 2 1 1 1 5 4.07
India 1 1 1 3 2.44
Ireland 1 1 2 1.63
Germany 1 1 2 1.62
China 1 1 0.81
Cyprus 1 1 0.81
France 1 1 0.81
Hong Kong 1 1 0.81
Japan 1 1 0.81
Korea 1 1 0.81
Malaysia 1 1 0.81 Table 3.
Taiwan 1 1 0.81 Country-wise and time-
Thailand 1 1 0.81 period based
Total 13 29 18 24 25 14 123 100.0 distribution of papers
EDI 4.3 Country and time period-based classification of articles
The purpose of this section was to identify the country, which has published the maximum
number of articles in diversity research and why? It was easy to identify the country in the
empirical paper based on collected data from the respondent’s countries, while in the
conceptual paper, it was identified through the country of affiliation of the corresponding
author. Table 3 represents the segregation of 123 published papers in seventeen countries. 65
% of papers were published from the USA while 35 % of remaining papers have been
published from Canada (6.5 %), Netherland (5.6 %), UK (5.6%), Australia (4.07%) and India
(2.44%). A large number of research papers have been published from the USA due to the
migration of labor forces, ethnic minorities and underrepresented groups in search of job
opportunities, which may not be relevant in other national contexts (Schippers et al., 2003). In
addition, the growing body of research published from the USA is due to the participation of
members and the presence of women in the Academy of Management annual programs
organized in the USA (Nkomo et al., 2019). The year-wise segregation of Table 3 depicts that
at an early stage only five countries USA, Canada, Netherlands, Australia and Ireland have
reviewed the problems of workforce diversity whereas similar problems have been
encountered by the rest of the countries after the year 2005 and gradually they have also
picked up research in this domain. Moreover, this finding is very similar to Joshi and Roh
(2007), who have found 57% of the studies reviewed in the American context. Lesser number
of studies in a country like India and China show that there should more research on diversity
management because these are emerging countries and several MNCs are expanding their
business markets.

4.4 Industry-wise classification of articles

The objective of industry-wise classification of articles was to identify the specific industry,
where the highest number of research problems have been conducted. Diversity research-
related data were collected from 29 industries. The significant industries include academic
university (15.52), public sectors (12.07), hotels and restaurants (6.03), IT industry (6.03),
manufacturing industry (6.03) and mix industry (8.62) respectively depicted in Table 4. The
findings of Table 4 suggest that business schools and universities were the most influential
industry where researchers have conducted the study and examined the effects of diversity in
laboratories and classroom studies. One of the reasons for the maximum number of papers
that have been published in academic universities may be due to the presence of respondents
from diverse backgrounds at one place and knowledge sharing among the students vis-
a-vis
improvement in academic performance. There are several industries where only one or two
studies have been conducted so far, and hence, there is a need to conduct diversity research in
unexplored industries.

4.5 Respondents in diversity research

The analysis of 69 empirical studies depicts that respondents were from the top, middle and
lower levels such as presidents, CEOs, supervisors, team members, subordinates and
coworkers in organizations, as well as students from different grades in the business schools.
The identity of respondents was not disclosed, but out of these studies, several comparative
assessments have revealed that most of the respondents were female and minority
employees. Table 5 highlights that 50.72% of the respondents were employees working at a
lower and middle level, while 15.94% of them were top-level executives. Whereas, 26.1% of
respondents were students from various grades in the academic institutions. Conclusively,
research on diversity management has focused on collecting responses from employees
because it allows researchers to address various issues in managing diversity at the lower
and middle levels of organizations.
 1991– 1996– 2001– 2006– 2011– 2016– Total
Diversity
Industry 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2018 articles % management: a
systematic
Academic university 4 2 5 4 3 18 15.52
Public sector 2 1 1 5 4 1 14 12.07 review
Mix industry 1 3 1 1 1 3 10 8.62
Bank industry 2 1 3 1 1 8 6.9
Hospitality and 2 3 2 7 6.03
restaurant industry
IT industry 2 2 2 1 7 6.03
Manufacturing 1 1 4 1 7 6.03
industry
Chemical 1 2 1 4 3.45
Food beverage 1 2 1 4 3.45
industry
Electronic 1 3 1 4 3.45
manufacturer
Financial firms 3 1 4 3.45
Energy and transport 2 1 3 2.59
Life insurance 1 1 1 3 2.59
company
Retail 1 2 3 2.59
Consulting firm 1 1 2 1.72
Hospital 1 1 2 1.72
Petroleum company 1 1 2 1.72
Pharmaceutical 2 2 1.72
industry
Agriculture 1 1 0.86
Textile industry 1 1 0.86
Defense industry 1 1 0.86
Forestry 1 1 0.86
Grocery store 1 1 0.86
Household goods 1 1 0.86
moving industry
Law firm 1 1 0.86
Mining, oil and gas 1 1 0.86
Operation division 1 1 0.86
Printing company 1 1 0.86 Table 4.
Shopping mall 1 1 0.86 Industry-wise and
Travel and tourism 1 1 0.86 time-period based
Total 116 100.0 classification of articles

Respondents profile n (total number of articles) %

Employees 35 50.72
Executives(HRs, President, CEO) 11 15.94
University graduate students 5 7.25
MBA students 5 7.25
Top management team 5 7.25
Upper-level undergraduate students 3 4.35
Undergraduate and graduate students 2 2.90
Undergraduate business students 2 2.90 Table 5.
Deans of business schools 1 1.45 Respondents wise
Total 69 100.0 distributions of articles
EDI 4.6 Classification based on the adopted methodology
The literature on diversity management has focused on both quantitative and qualitative
studies. Qualitative studies are subjective assessments of research areas like literature
review, conceptual studies, focus-group interviews and case studies (Tranfield et al., 2003).
Literature reviews analyze multiple articles related to diversity management, whereas
conceptual review deals with the theoretical framework of diversity proposed by researchers
for measuring the performance outcomes of diversity. Quantitative studies are objective
assessments of research problems like meta-analysis and empirical investigation of data
collected through primary surveys and questionnaire methods (Tranfield et al., 2003). Table 6
presents the methodology-based classification of papers. 49.60% (61 out of 123) studies were
quantitative studies and responses were collected through questionnaires, Internet, postage
survey and case study observations. In which, 30.08% of responses were procured through a
questionnaire survey, and 17.88% were Internet surveys. A total of 23.57% of studies were
conceptual, followed by 8.94% of them were literature review, qualitative studies and a
mixed-methods approach. The finding suggests that quantitative studies have frequently
been used in the research because this methodology mostly used to collect a large sample of
individuals’ responses while the interview method and pilot study are conducted in a small
group of the sample, which may not be feasible in diversity research. Although some of the
studies have used a qualitative method approach, it was found only in the top
management team.

4.7 Classification of diversity dimensions and sources

Based on the discussion in the literature review section of this study, dimensions of diversity
have broadly categorized into two parts: relations oriented and job-oriented attributes.
Although previous studies have proposed several dimensions of diversity, yet a total of ten
dimensions have finally surfaced from literature and classified as relations oriented and job-
oriented attributes (Jackson et al., 1995). However, as depicted in Table 2, relation-oriented
and job-oriented are parts of surface-level diversity. The following section discusses
dimensions of surface-level diversity emanating from a systematic review of literature, as
exhibited in Table 7.
A total of 38 studies have been conducted on race and ethnic diversity, followed by 32
articles on gender and 25 on age diversity, respectively. Ethnic diversity has been found to be
one of the interesting topics among researchers and academicians. However, a study

Methods Number of publications %

Quantitative 61 49.60
Questionnaire survey 37
Email/internet survey 16
Postage/mail survey 6
Case study 2
Qualitative 11 8.94
Conceptual review 29 23.57
Literature review 11 8.94
Mixed approach 11 8.94
Survey and interviews 3
Table 6. Content analyses 2
Diversity articles by Meta-analyses 3
the adopted Unspecified 3
methodology Total 123 100%
Diversity Surface-level Total
Diversity
attributes diversity Supporting references references % management: a
systematic
1. Relations 1.1 Age [4] [8] [10] [28] [36] [37] [42] [43] [45] [46] [47] 25 16.56
oriented [50] [57] [64] [66] [67] [74] [80] [81] [87] [89] review
attributes [92] [101] [102] [103]
1.2 Gender [4] [7] [8] [9] [10] [13] [14] [20] [23] [26] [28] 32 21.20
[39] [42] [43 [46] [47] [52] [53] [57] [63] [64]
[66] [77] [80] [81] [88] [89] [92] [95] [98] [101]
[103]
1.3 Ethnicity/race [7] [8] [9] [10] [13] [14] [15] [16] [20] [22] [23] 38 25.17
[26] [28] [39] [42] [43] [46] [47] [53] [56] [64]
[66] [63] [67] [69] [72] [73] [74] [75] [77] [88]
[89] [91] [92] [98] [100] [101] [103]
1.4 Religion [1] [47] 2 1.32
1.5 Nationality [7] [13] [18] [23] [45] [53] [64] [68] [100] [101] 10 6.62
2. Job oriented 2.1 Organizational [4] [8] [36] [39] [42] [50] [64] [66] [67] [87] [92] 13 8.61
attributes tenure [102] [103]
2.2 Team tenure [43] [66] [77] [80] [95] [102] 6 3.97
2.3 Educational [4] [16] [36] [43] [45] [47] [50] [66] [80] [81] 14 9.27
background [87] [89] [92] [103]
2.4 Functional [4] [43] [50] [64] [66] [67] [87] [95] [103] 9 5.96
background
2.5 Occupational [16] [103] 2 1.32
Table 7.
background Classification of
Total 151* 100.0 diversity dimensions
Note(s): *The total number of articles is not equal to total references because authors have considered multiple with supporting
attributes in a single study references

conducted by Jackson et al. (2003) reveals that researchers have more focused on gender and
age rather than ethnic diversity. Moreover, based on these findings, it has been observed that
the focus of researchers is on relations oriented rather than job-oriented diversity.
Conclusively, 70.86% (i.e., 107/151) of the diversity research focused on relations oriented
diversity, while only 29.14% (i.e., 44/151) articles were focused on job-oriented diversity. This
finding represents that researchers have given less attention to job-oriented attributes, which
have confirmed the statement of Webber and Donahue (2001) that job-related diversity is a
much-needed topic in future studies. Therefore, for a productive organization, job-oriented
diversity needs to be given wider attention in future research.

4.8 Antecedents and consequences of diversity

The antecedents of diversity have mostly found at the group and organizational levels.
Group-level antecedents are such as group diversity (Ely, 2004), team diversity (Jackson et al.,
2003) and organizational-level antecedents are diversity management practices (Konrad et al.,
2016), diversity initiatives (Windscheid et al., 2017), diversity perspectives (Ely and Thomas,
2001) and organizational diversity (Guillaume et al., 2015), etc. While the research on age,
gender and race, has mostly evolved independently and most research in this area has been
focused on the effects of age, gender, and race diversity on different levels outcomes rather
than antecedents of diversity (Shore et al., 2009). Hence, this section performs a systematic
review of 123 articles to identify the antecedents and consequences of diversity discussed in
the previously proposed model. Further, due to more interest of researchers in the effects of
diversity on outcomes at different levels, the consequences of diversity have been categorized
into individual, group and organizational levels (see Table 8).
EDI 1. Antecedents Supporting references
Racial diversity [35] [72] [73] [75]
Cultural diversity [14] [22] [32] [53] [58] [65] [68] [74] [100]
Team diversity [33] [38] [39] [43] [84] [90] [95] [97]
TMT diversity [4] [30] [50] [87] [96] [104]
Relational demography [19] [23] [28] [36] [44] [77] [92]
Demographic fault lines [31] [54] [55] [96]
Discourse of fashion on DM [70]
Diversity training [5] [24] [65]
Organizational diversity [6] [24] [27] [34] [38]
Informational diversity [16] [31] [41] [81]
Organization inclusion [83] [85] [86]
Organizational justice [48] [57]
Diversity perspectives [21] [17] [22] [29]
Diversity initiatives [3] [11] [12] [17] [25] [40] [76] [79] [104]
Diversity management practices [2] [105] [99] [35] [48] [51] [59]
2. Consequences Supporting references
2.1 Individual-level Consequences
Turnover intention [34] [36] [46] [47] [64] [66] [92] [93]
Recruitment [36]
Behavior intention [57]
Absenteeism [36] [64] [92]
Psychological attachment [92] [36]
Promotion [36] [46] [47] [92]
Job satisfaction [4] [7] [23] [60] [78] [88]
Work tension [78]
Organizational citizenship [9] [34] [71] [91]
behavior
Self-perception [4]
Perceived discrimination [88]
Performance [7] [23] [34] [42] [64]
Individual creativity [84]
2.2 Group-level consequences
Cooperative response [15]
Idea generation [61] [66]
Commitment [9] [77] [80]
Decision making [46] [66]
Communication [53] [100]
Problem-solving [66]
Satisfaction [18] [55] [69] [80]
Team turnover [16] [64] [66] [102] [106]
Group cohesiveness [28] [77] [103] [106]
Conflict and cooperativeness [4] [63]
Strategic consensus [50]
Team effectiveness [7] [16] [49] [104]
Group development [54]
Group performance [4] [18] [19] [31] [39] [41] [43] [45] [55] [56] [64] [67] [68] [69] [77] [80] [82] [94] [95] [100]
[101] [103]
Team creativity [29] [58]
2.3 Organizational-level consequences
Commitment [26] [47] [91] [92]
Table 8.
Organizational performance [10] [51] [52] [62] [72] [73] [74] [75] [76] [83] [87]
Antecedents and
Organizational competitiveness [14] [25] [26] [76]
consequences of
Organizational innovation [98]
diversity management
Organizational fairness [48]
4.9 Moderators and mediators in workplace diversity Diversity
As discussed in the previous sections about antecedents and consequences, the following management: a
section discusses mediator and moderator variables of diversity management. The objective
of identifying moderator and mediator variables is to explore contextual variables that may
systematic
influence organizational performance due to workplace diversity. The contextual variables review
help in addressing the number of reasons why diversity research has inconsistent findings
and suggested to enhance the positive effects of diversity and mitigate negative effects (van
Knippneberg et al., 2004). Consideration of contextual variables in diversity research is very
critical, and therefore, a detailed description of these variables is required. Table 9 lists all
identified moderator, mediator variables and their supporting references in diversity
management research.

4.10 Breadth and depth of diversity article

This is one of the unique studies in the context of breadth and depth of diversity management
research, which elaborately discusses diversity dimensions and its outcomes. This section
adopts the conceptual description of diversity dimensions and its related outcomes developed
by Wise and Tschirhart (2000) and further elaborated accordingly. Table 10 summarizes the
dimensions and outcomes of diversity management related research articles published from
the year 1991–2018. Most articles covered more than one diversity dimension and some
covered more than one outcome; hence, the total sum in Table 10 exceeds the number of total
articles procured through a systematic review.
The total values shown in Table 10 draw an idea on how much cumulative research has
been done to connect a diversity dimension to specific outcomes. The diversity dimensions
with most coverage are race/ethnicity with 60 times, gender 49 times and age 41 times. The
table depicts that certain dimensions have been repeatedly used in various studies and
concludes that maximum studies in diversity management research focused on relationship-
oriented diversity. While less research has been conducted on job-oriented attributes such as
functional background 19 times, educational background 27 times, team tenure 11 times and
organizational tenure 28 times. In contrast, diversity outcomes with most coverage are team
performance 44 times, turnover 21 times, firm performance 19 times and less research has
focused on outcomes like cooperative response and OCB only one time, behavior intention,
innovation two times and organizational competitiveness three times. The overall analysis of
this table identifies that the research on diversity dimensions has affected performance at
every level, but the greatest number of studies examined group-level outcomes 126 times
followed by individual-level outcomes 85 times and organizational outcomes 48 times. The
study found that relatively less attention has given on organizational-level outcomes. Thus
there is a requirement to conduct more studies on the organization-level outcome.

5. Discussion
The purpose of this systematic review was to explore the dimensions, contextual variables,
antecedents, consequences and emerging research trends in diversity management research.
The systematic review of each section has guided different outcomes based on the previous
research findings, which have discussed in this section. First, the major trends about the
growing body of research were published in the Academy of Management Journal due to the
participation of researchers and the presence of women in annual diversity programs
conducted by the Academy of Management (Nkomo et al., 2019). The major theme of the
journal has been identified, such as demographic diversity (i.e. gender, age and race),
relational demography, racial diversity, cultural diversity and team diversity. Next, the
majority of the research has been conducted in western countries like the USA, Canada and
EDI Moderators Supporting references
Constructive conflict [46]
Creative self-efficacy [84]
Dogmatism [9]
Diversity climate [26]
Diversity beliefs [31] [93]
Group fault line [55]
Employee involvement [97]
Employee status [36]
Entrepreneurial innovation [74]
Ethnic status [34]
Industry type [75]
Organizational culture [10] [32]
Shared objectives [95]
Sociocultural values [102]
Social context [39]
Transformational leadership [45] [84]
Business strategy [72]
Innovation strategy [73]
Communication and coordination [63]
Group longevity [66] [67] [80]
Team interdependence [80] [43]
Goal orientation [68]
Team size [32] [49]
Team leadership [49] [63]
Group process (conflict) [4] [10]
Team type [103]
Team orientation [63]
Task Type [41]
Task interdependence [32] [41] [49] [58] [106]
Task intellectiveness [58]
Task complexity [58]
Task requirements [94]
Task ability [94]
Task motivation [94]
Task routineness [67]
Mediators Supporting references
Cooperative norms [7]
Conflict [41] [49] [50] [66] [67]
Decision comprehensiveness [87]
Diversity equality management system [2]
Team identification [18] [45] [93]
Impression formation [23]
Intercultural obstacles [58]
Job performance [34] [42]
Peers relation (trust and attraction) [8]
Procedural justice and affective commitment [91]
Organization-based self-esteem [8]
Role ambiguity and role conflict [60]
Table 9. Team efficacy [18]
Moderator and Team reflexivity [80]
mediators Task relevant information elaboration [27] [29] [31] [45] [68]
Diversity dimensions
Total Total
Relations oriented attributes values Job-oriented attributes values
Functional Educational Team Org.
Outcomes Age Gender Race Nationality background background tenure tenure

Individual-level total 59 26
Absenteeism 2 2 2 1 7 1 1 2 4
Commitment 1 1 1 3 1 1 2
Behavior intention 1 1 2
Compensation 1 1 1 3
Cooperative response 1 1
Promotion 2 1 1 4 2 1 3
Job performance 1 3 4 2 10 1 1
OCB 1 1 2 4 1 1
Pay 1 1 1 3 1 1
Satisfaction 1 3 3 2 9 1 1 1 3
Recruitment 1 1 1 1 2
Turnover 4 3 4 1 12 2 3 1 3 9
Group-level total 82 44
Cooperative response 1 1
Group interaction 1 2 2 5
Cohesiveness 2 2 3 7 1 1 1 3
Commitment 1 3 2 6 1 2 3
Conflict 1 2 2 5 1 1 1 3
Efficiency and 1 2 1 4 1 1
effectiveness
Group decision making 2 3 3 8 1 1 1 1 4
Idea generation 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 4
Team performance 7 8 8 6 29 5 4 2 4 15
Problem-solving 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 4
Satisfaction 1 2 1 1 5 1 1 2
Team turnover 2 1 2 1 6 1 1 1 2 5
Organizational level 35 13

(continued )
systematic
review
management: a
Diversity

work outcomes and

diversity research
diversity dimensions in
Number of studies by
Table 10.
 EDI

Table 10.
Diversity dimensions
Total Total
Relations oriented attributes values Job-oriented attributes values
Functional Educational Team Org.
Outcomes Age Gender Race Nationality background background tenure tenure

Innovation 1 1 2
Organizational 1 1 2
competitiveness
Commitment 2 3 4 9 2 1 3
Firm performance 4 3 6 1 14 2 1 2 5
OCB 1 1
Turnover 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 2
Self-esteem 1 1 2
Strategic consensus 1 1 1 1 1 3
Total values 41 49 60 20 19 27 11 28
European countries while other countries were underreported, and hence, there is further Diversity
need to focus on developing countries like India and China due to lack of study and its management: a
practical pertinence more. Next, most of the research found that diversity is prominent in the
groups that have been studied in the laboratory or classroom, instead of conducting in the
systematic
organization among group members. In the classroom, studies results have found that group review
diversity can improve the decision-making skills or can generate the idea while research on
intact working groups in the organization depicts a pessimistic view of the diversity on group
performance (Williams and O’Reilly, 1998). A similar result has been confirmed in Table 4 of
this study that the maximum number of diversity research has been conducted in classrooms
of business institutions instead of industries. The next finding concluded that 50% of the
research papers were empirical in nature and 32.52% articles conceptual and literature
review paper while systematic review, qualitative studies and meta-analysis papers have
very little representation. None of the studies have conducted a scientometric analysis of
diversity management research. The finding also reveals that diversity as a broad topic has
repeatedly examined only the top three dimensions such as age, gender and race. While other
relationship-oriented dimensions like LGBT, disability, religion, language and job-oriented
dimensions such as functional, education and tenure diversity have been widely ignored in
diversity management research. Antecedents like cultural diversity, racial diversity and
relational demography were studied at the individual level, team diversity, workgroup
diversity at the group level and top management team diversity, and diversity management
practices have performed at an organizational level. Next, the categorization of outcomes at
different levels shows that organizational-level outcomes have relatively less explored in
comparison to individual and group-level outcomes; hence, future research needs to be
focused on organizational-level outcomes such as organizational citizenship behavior,
organizational effectiveness, innovation and fairness.
Conclusively, the majority of the researchers have used three mentioned theories to
explain the effects of diversity on organizational outcomes. Different theories often lead to
contradicting thoughts among researches. A maximum number of researchers have used
similarity attraction (Byrne, 1971), self-categorization (Turner et al., 1987) and social identity
theory (Tajfel and Turner, 1979) while few optimistic researchers have used information
decision-making (Williams and O’Reilly, 1998) and upper echelon theory (Hambrick and
Mason, 1984). Further, the studies based on the aforementioned theories found that increased
diversity in terms of age, gender and race has negative effects on social integration, cohesion,
communication and conflicts (Jehn et al., 1999; Williams and O’Reilly, 1998). While optimistic
researchers have argued that increased diversity in terms of knowledge, skills and ability are
more likely to enhance problem-solving and decision making power in the groups. Few
studies also highlight that top management team diversity at the organizational level is
positively related to organizational performance (van Knippenberg et al., 2011). The findings
also highlight the importance of mediator and moderator variables suggested by van
Knippenberg et al. (2004) in the CEM model, which overcome the negative effects through
integrating the dual aspects of diversity. Several mediators and moderator variables have
been identified, but none of the studies have explored HR practices and diversity
management practices as moderators in workplace diversity to eliminate the negative
aspects of diversity and enhance organizational performance. While leadership, social
context and communication have relatively less explored as moderator variables. Ultimately,
based on the overall findings of the systematic review, an integrative model of diversity
management has developed in Figure 4. The model consolidates dimensions of diversity,
mediator and moderator variables along with outcomes, which emerged from existing
literature. Each aspect of diversity is supported by a distinct theory like the positive aspects
of diversity has addressed by decision-making theory and negative aspects of diversity
addressed by social categorization and similarity-attraction theories. Upper echelon theory is
 EDI

Figure 4.
Integrative model of
diversity management
Dimensions of Diversity Mediator Consequences

Organizational Individual level Intervening Process Performance

level and group level mechanism Outcomes outcomes
(Process
Self-categorization, variables)
Similarity attraction, Conflict Firm
Social identity theory
effectiveness
Communication
Conflict
Organizational
Job satisfaction
Relations oriented Task relevant Innovation
Age diversity information Job performance
Creativity
Top Gender diversity
Team reflexivity Organizational
management Racial diversity Idea Generation
commitment
team diversity Group
Organizational
identification Organizational
competitiveness
citizenship
Job oriented Impression
behavior (OCB) Firm
Tenure formation
performance
Functional Social
Role ambiguity
Education integration Financial
Role conflict performance
Turnover
Team efficacy
Information decision
making theory
Upper Echelon

Task interdependence Team leadership Ethnic status

Task routineness Transformational leadership Business strategy
Moderators Task complexity Team size Shared objectives
Task ability Team orientation Social context
Task motivation Group longevity Organizational culture
Group fault line Diversity beliefs Diversity climate
traditionally used to support top management team diversity. The consequences of diversity Diversity
have been divided into process and performance outcomes, according to Jackson et al. (2003). management: a
systematic
6. Theoretical implications review
The findings of this study will benefit researchers in further research because this review
forms the first systematic review of literature on all emerging forms of diversity and provide
access to scholars as a one-stop-shop for the comprehensive solutions of diversity
management literature. It facilitates academicians and researchers by gaining insightful
study and analyze the current status of research on diversity management. The major
contribution of this study is the integration of theories into a single framework, connecting
multiple dimensions of diversity and linking process and performance outcomes with the
intervention of mediator and moderator variables that have lacked in previous studies (van
Knippenberg et al., 2004). The second contribution is the representation of the evolution of
diversity management and dimensions of diversity in a systematic way that will guide future
researchers. Conclusively, the categorization of outcomes of diversity at the individual, group
and organization level and differentiation between contextual variables might help to develop
the conceptual model in future research.

6.1 Practical implications

The practical relevance of the proposed model is primarily improving organizational
performance by diminishing the barriers in the group process. Our findings highlight the
importance of contextual variables, and managers need not worry that diversity negatively
affects team outcomes because the integration of contextual variables and environmental
factors diminish the negative and enhance the positive outcomes. Practitioners can foster
diversity management practices with HR practices as it has witnessed positive outcomes on
workforce diversity (Guillaume et al., 2015). Further diversity management practices like
cross-cultural training and team-building activities increase cooperation, communication and
information sharing.

7. Limitations and future research

Since our focus was to find the dimensions of diversity studied in the previous literature and
identify future avenues, diversity management practices and programs related literature has
been excluded. The filtering process may have omitted some good articles, such as a large
stream of diversity management programs and practices so that future research can merely
focus on different diversity management practices such as diversity training, diversity
programs, diversity policies and initiatives. This study found that surface-level diversity is a
widely discussed topic, and therefore, future researchers could emphasize more on deep-level
diversity attributes such as values, attitudes, personality. However, future research might
also investigate other types of diversity (e.g., separation, variety, disparity) proposed by
Harrison and Klein (2007). The less attention on job-related diversity in the proposed model
highlights that researchers and practitioners should stop thinking that diversity is a generic
concept, and it always has a positive outcome (Webber and Donahue, 2001). Instead,
researchers should go beyond demographic diversity and distinguishes based on task-related
knowledge, skills and perspectives, which reflect more positive outcomes on team
performance (Simons et al., 1999). This study has not discussed the operationalization of
different dimensions of diversity that how previous research has measured diversity so that
future studies could explore the different measurement methods of diversity. Finally, as we
have identified several contextual factors from the existing literature but some of the process
variables (e.g., value congruence, social integration and HR practices) have highly ignored in
the studies, which can be examined in future research.
EDI 8. Conclusion
The abundance of literature on diversity is found in western countries, but a literature review
paper is very limited. Therefore, this study is inspired by the scarcity of literature review
papers on diversity. This study investigates all types of diversity-related papers to get the
insightful impact of diversity and their influence on the work outcomes. By doing so, this
study fills a research gap and describe the holistic understanding of diversity issues and
benefits in organizations. This study concludes with an integrative model of diversity
management where several significant themes were reflected in a single framework such as
dimensions of diversity, contextual factors, process and performance outcomes. Diversity is
categorized at multiple levels, including individual, group and top management teams within
the organization, and these different levels of diversity have been supported with multiple
theories. Overall, this study makes significant contributions by providing a summary of
research in diversity that can help readers to find the antecedents, consequences, moderators
and mediators impart for future research.

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 Diversity
Appendix
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Numerical coding of
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