The Solar System 􀀁a huge disc- and spiral-shaped aggregation of about at

> 1 Star> 8 Planets> 63 (Major Moons)> Asteroids, least 100 billion stars and other bodies;
Comets, Meteoroids
Terrestrial Planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars) B. Its spiral arms rotate around a globular cluster or
 >Closest To the Sun > Small Masses >Rocky and Solid  bulge of many, many stars, at the center ofwhich lies a
Surfaces >No Rings>High Densities >Slow Rotation >W supermassive blackhole;
eak Magnetic Field >Few Moons
Jovian Planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune) C. This galaxy is about 100 million light years across (1
>Far from Sun >Large Masses >Gaseous Surface >Low  light year = 9.4607 × 1012 km;
Densities>Fast Rotations >Strong Magnetic Field >Many 
Rings >Many Moons D. The solar system revolves around the galactic center
Meteoroids- interplanetary rocky material smaller than once in about 240 million years;
100m (down to grain size).
E. The Milky Way is part of the so-called Local Group of
> called a meteor as it burns in the Earth’s atmosphere
galaxies, which in turn is part of the Virgo supercluster of
 >if it makes it to the ground, it is a meteorite
Comets- Dirty snowballs –dusts and rock in methane, galaxies;
ammonia, and ice. F. Based on the assumption that they are remnants of
Nebular Theory for Solar System formation- Our Sun
the materials from which they were formed, radioactive
and the planets began from a cloud of dust and gas
(Nebula) dating of meteorites, suggests that the Earth and solar
>As the cloud contracts under its own gravity, the sun is system are 4.6 billion years old.
formed at the center. Age of Solar System is at 4.6 billion years old based
 >The cloud starts to spin and the smaller it contracts,
on radioactive dating of meteorites (Solar System is
the faster it spins.>Cloud forms a flattened, pancake
shape.>A flattened solar nebula disks exists after cloud much younger than the Universe);
spins and contracts.>Condensation nuclei form clumps Nebular Hypothesis
that grow into moon-size planetesimals>Solar wind from
the star formation (Sun forming) blow out the rest of the In the 1700s Emanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant,
gas>Planetesimals collide and grow and Pierre-Simon Laplace independently thought of a
>Planetesimals form the basic planets over hundred rotating gaseous cloud that cools and contracts in the
million years middle to form the sun and the rest into a disc that
become the planets. This nebular theory failed to
>Star- A ball of matter that is pulled together by gravity, account for the distribution of angular momentum in the
and that gives off energy as a result of NUCLEAR solar system.
FUSION. - Nuclear Fusion- when two atoms bond
together to make one heavier atom. The process Similar size and mass of Venus and Earth. Mars is about
releases large amounts of energy. half the Earth's size.
>Composition of Stars- The two most abundant • All the three planets have spheroidal shape.
elements in stars are HYDROGEN and HELIUM.
-Scientist determine the composition by studying the • Rows color coded to indicate relationship.
LIGHT that comes from a star.
>How light shows composition- when elements in a • Escape velocity - minimum speed an object needs to
star burn, they give off certain colors of light. The color escape a planet's pull of gravity.
of light corresponds to a specific wavelength of the
• Surface pressure – atmospheric pressure at a location
light.
>Magnitude- The Brightness of a star depends on on the surface of the planet. It is proportional to the mass
three things-Size -Temperature Distance from us of air above the location
>Apparent Magnitude-
• Temperature if no GHG - this would be the temperature
How bright a star is when viewed from Earth.
of the planet without the warming effect of greenhouse
A very large, hot star could look dim just because it is so
far away gases. Note that the temperature of the Earth would be
(How bright we see it) Absolute Magnitude- The ~18 0C lower without greenhouse warming.
amount of light that is given off by a star
• Emphasize to the students that the greenhouse effect
. (How bright it actually is )
is not necessarily undesirable. It is run-away greenhouse
>Constellations-are patterns of stars in sky.
Earth’s Systems effect which we would like to avoid.
-Planet Earth is made up of different Spheres: Length of day - a function of rotational speed.
>Lithosphere-
Solid part of Earth (Includes the crust and mantle) • The Earth's magnetic field is believed to be the
>Atmosphere- Gaseous part of Earth. consequence of the presence of a solid metallic inner
>Hydrosphere-Water part of Earth. core and a liquid metallic outer core. (Topic to be
>Biosphere- Living Things on Earth. discussed in succeeding lessons -Earth's Interior.
Earth Spheres- (Hydrosphere, Lithosphere,
Atmosphere and Biosphere) are interconnected. - • The ability of a planet to retain its internal heat is
Many substances (e.g., Water, Carbon, Nitrogen) proportional to its size. Mars may have lost much of its
cycle through Earth’s spheres. These cycles are internal heat very early in its evolution.
called biogeochemical cycles.
>The Water Cycle- • A planet's temperature is a function of distance from
(Moves through the Atmosphere, Biosphere, the Sun but is modified by the amount of greenhouse
Hydrosphere & Lithosphere. warming.

A. The solar system is located in the Milky Way galaxy Water - in the liquid form, turns out to be one of the most
important prerequisites for life as we know it.
• There is recent evidence that liquid water, in the form 6. Introduce the term biosphere.
of brine (salty water) flows intermittently on the surface
of Mars. A. The biosphere is the set of all life forms on Earth.

• Thermophiles - bacteria that can tolerate extreme B. It covers all ecosystems—from the soil to the
temperatures (41 to 122 0C) commonly associated with rainforest, from mangroves to coral reefs, and from the
hot springs and deep-sea hydrothermal vents. Life, in plankton-rich ocean surface to the deep sea.
general can tolerate a wide range of temperature C. For the majority of life on Earth, the base of the food
conditions. The temperature range that allows water to chain comprises photosynthetic organisms. During
exist in the liquid state is the over-riding factor. photosynthesis, CO2 is sequestered from the
• Planets should have sufficient size to hold a significant atmosphere, while oxygen is released as a byproduct.
atmosphere. The composition of the atmosphere, The biosphere is a CO2 sink, and therefore, an important
specifically, the amount of greenhouse gases, influences part of the carbon cycle.
the planet surface temperature. D. Sunlight is not necessary for life.
• The amount of solar radiation that a planet receives is 7. Introduce the term hydrosphere.
primarily a function of distance from the sun. Sunlight is
essential for photosynthesis, but some organisms can A. About 70% of the Earth is covered with liquid water
extract energy from other sources (chemosynthetic (hydrosphere) and much of it is in the form of ocean
organisms). water (Figure 3).

• A system that will be able to constantly supply nutrients B. Only 3% of Earth's water is fresh: two-thirds are in the
to organisms is important to sustain life. On Earth, form of ice, and the remaining one-third is present in
nutrients are cycled through the hydrologic cycle and streams, lakes, and groundwater.
plate tectonics (volcanism)
• Warm air converges and rises to form lowpressure
• Internal heat drives plate tectonics. The ability of a zones. Low-pressure areas are associated with
planet to maintain internal heat is related to size. increased precipitation. By contrast, cold air descends to
form highpressure regions (dry regions).
1. Venus, Earth, and Mars are part of the inner terrestrial
or "rocky" planets. Their composition and densities are • The concept of Plate Tectonics will be discussed in
not too different from each other. detail in the succeeding lessons (Internal Structure of the
Earth)
2. Venus is considered to be the Earth's twin planet. It
has a very similar size and mass with the Earth. Mars is • The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon is
about half the Earth's size. transferred among the atmosphere, oceans, soil, and
living organisms.
3. Orbital period and velocity are related to the planet's
distance from the sun. Among the three planets, Venus • Isolated and complex ecosystems thrive in the deep
is the nearest and Mars is the farthest from the Sun. sea floor at depths beyond the reach of sunlight. The
base of the food chain for such ecosystems is called
4. Rotational speed of Earth and Mars are very similar. chemosynthetic organisms. Instead of sunlight, these
Rotational speed of Venus is extremely slow. organisms use energy from hydrothermal vents or
5. Abundance of liquid water on Earth, hence the blue methane seeps (Methane seeping through rocks and
color. The Earth is a habitable planet. sediments) to produce simple sugars.

4. Introduce the term atmosphere. 8. The origin of the systems approach to the study of the
Earth
A. The atmosphere is the thin gaseous layer that
envelopes the lithosphere. A. One of the first scientist to push for a more integrated
or holistic approach in the understanding of the universe
B. The present atmosphere is composed of 78% (and by extension the Earth) was Friedrich Wilhelm
nitrogen (N), 21% oxygen (O2), 0.9% argon, and trace Heinrich Alexander von Humboldt. He considered the
amount of other gases. universe as one interacting entity.

C. One of the most important processes by which the B. The term "biosphere" was popularized by Vladimir
heat on the Earth's surface is redistributed is through Vernadsky (1863-1945), a Russian - Ukrainian scientist
atmospheric circulation. who hypothesized that life is a geological force that
shapes the Earth.
D. There is also a constant exchange of heat and
moisture between the atmosphere and the hydrosphere C. In the 1970s, the Gaia Hypothesis was jointly
through the hydrologic cycle. developed by James Lovelock, an English
scientist/naturalist, and Lynn Margulis, an American
5. Introduce the term lithosphere. microbiologist. According to the Gaia Hypothesis. the
A. The lithosphere includes the rocks of the crust and biosphere is a self-regulating system that can control its
mantle, the metallic liquid outer core, and the solid physical and chemical environment.
metallic inner core. D. In 1983, NASA advisory council established the Earth
B. Briefly discuss the Plate Tectonics as an important Systems Science Committee. The committee, chaired by
process shaping the surface of the Earth. The primary Moustafa Chahine, published a groundbreaking report
driving mechanism is the Earth's internal heat, such as Earth System Science: A Program for Global Change in
that in mantle convection. 1988. For the first time, scientist were able to
demonstrate how the many systems interact.
2. Introduce the list of important terms that learners will • Hydrogen, helium, and lithium are the three most
encounter. abundant elements.

A. Crust – thin, outermost layer of the Earth; is of two • Stars - the building block of galaxies born out of clouds
different types: continental crust and oceanic crust of gas and dust in galaxies (fig. 4). Instabilities within the
clouds eventually results into gravitational collapse,
B. Mantle – middle layer of the earth between the crust rotation, heating up, and transformation to a protostar-
and the core; makes up about 83% of Earth’s interior the core of a future star as thermonuclear reactions set
C. Core – innermost layer of the earth; outer core is in a in.
liquid state whereas inner core is in solid state • Stellar interiors are like furnaces where elements are
D. Lithosphere – rigid outer layer of the layer which is synthesized or combined/fused together. Most stars
made up of the brittle crust and upper mantle such as the Sun belong to the so-called “main sequence
stars.” In the cores of such stars, hydrogen atoms are
E. Asthenosphere – layer of weak, ductile rock in the fused through thermonuclear reactions to make helium
mantle; situated below the lithosphere atoms (fig.4). Massive main sequence stars burn up their
hydrogen faster than smaller stars. Stars like our Sun
F. Moho – boundary separating the crust and the mantle
burnup hydrogen in about 10 billion years.
G. Seismic wave – an elastic shock wave that travels
Hydrogen and Helium as the most abundant elements in
outward in all directions from an earthquake source
the universe. Having the lowest mass, these are the first
H. Convection – transfer of heat by mass movement or elements to be, formed in the Big Bang Model of the
circulation of a substance Origin of the Universe.

I. Plate tectonics – theory which proposes that the • The remaining dust and gas may end up as they are or
earth’s crust and upper mantle to be composed of as planets, asteroids, or other bodies in the
several large, thin, and relatively rigid plates that move accompanying planetary system.
relative to one another.
• A galaxy is a cluster of billions of stars and clusters of
a. Baryonic matter - "ordinary" matter consisting of galaxies form superclusters. In between the clusters is
protons, electrons, and neutrons that comprises atoms, practically an empty space. This organization of matter in
planets, stars, galaxies, and other bodies the universe suggests that it is indeed clumpy at a
certain scale. But at a large scale, it appears
b. Dark matter - matter that has gravity but does not homogeneous and isotropic.
emit light.
• Based on recent data, the universe is 13.8 billion years
c. Dark Energy - a source of anti-gravity; a force that old. The diameter of the universe is possibly infinite but
counteracts gravity and causes the universe to expand. should be at least 91 billion light-years (1 light-year =
9.4607 × 1012 km). Its density is 4.5 x 10-31 g/cm3.
d. Protostar- an early stage in the formation of a star
resulting from the gravitational collapse of gases. C. Expanding Universe
e. Thermonuclear reaction - a nuclear fusion reaction • In 1929, Edwin Hubble announced his significant
responsible for the energy produced by stars. discovery of the “redshift” (fig. 5) and its interpretation
that galaxies are moving away from each other, hence
f. Main Sequence Stars - stars that fuse hydrogen
as evidence for an expanding universe, just as predicted
atoms to form helium atoms in their cores; outward
by Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity.
pressure resulting from nuclear fusion is balanced by
gravitational forces • He observed that spectral lines of starlight made to
pass through a prism are shifted toward the red part of
g. light years - the distance light can travel in a year; a
the electromagnetic spectrum, i.e., toward the band of
unit of length used to measure astronomical distance.
lower frequency; thus, the inference that the star or
The Universe is at least 13.8 billion of years old and galaxy must be moving away from us.
the Earth/ Solar System at least 4.5-4.6 billion of
• A star's energy comes from combining light elements
years old.
into heavier elements by fusion, or “nucler burning”
B. Structure, Composition, and Age (nucleosynthesis).

• The universe as we currently know it comprises all • In small stars like the sun, H burning is the fusion of 4
space and time, and all matter & energy in it. H nuclei (protons) into a He nucleus (2 protons + 2
neutrons).
• It is made of 4.6% baryonic matter (“ordinary” matter
consisting of protons, electrons, and neutrons: atoms, • Forming He from H gives off lots of energy (i.e., a
planets, stars, galaxies, nebulae, and other bodies), 24% natural hydrogen bomb).
cold dark matter (matter that has gravity but does not
• Nucleosynthesis requires very high T. The minimum T
emit light), and 71.4% dark energy (a source of
for H fusion is 5x106oC.
antigravity)
• Isotropic - having physical properties that are the same
• Dark matter can explain what may be holding galaxies
when measured in different directions
together for the reason that the low total mass is
insufficient for gravity alone to do so while dark energy • Two ways by which astronomers estimate the age of
can explain the observed accelerating expansion of the the universe :1) by estimating the age of the looking
universe. oldest stars; and 2) by measuring the rate of expansion
of the universe and extrapolating back to the Big Bang.
 longer hold the outer material to the central mass, and it
broke into a ring. This material condensed and formed a
planet.
Big Bang Theory

The event about 13.7 billion years ago when time, As it cooled by radiation and contracted, it rotated faster
space, matter, and energy came into existence. This and faster, causing the gas to take a disk – like form the
event started from a hot, dense state that has undergone process continued, forming planets at various distances
inflation – a short but rapid expansion – to,become the from the sun. The moons around the planets were
universe that is known today. formed by the same process.
Creationist Theory The three (3) predictions of scientists about the fate of
This theory states that God, the Supreme Being created the universe.
the whole universe out of nothing. The proof can be read 1. Big Crunch – a possible end of the universe, which
in the Holy Bible stipulating that God created the describes its collapses into a point similar to that before
heavens and the Earth including man. the Big Bang.
Oscillating Universe Theory 2. Big Freeze – a possible end of the universe, which
This theory was proposed by a Russian – born US describes it as cold and lifeless universe of space, time
cosmologist George Gamow who helped explain the Big and dark energy without physical matter.
Bang Theory. He said that the expansion of the universe 3. Big Rip – a possible end of the universe where
will eventually come to a halt then it collapses up to the galaxies, solar system, and everything in the universe
time that the universe will return to its original form and are torn apart.
another Big Bang will occur. This process will happen as
a cycle. What makes planet Earth unique from the other planets
in the Solar System?
Steady – State Theory
Earth is a unique planet that can sustain life because it
This theory states that the universe has always been the can maintain water in its liquid form, it has atmosphere,
same since the beginning and will remain in its present and it has four subsystems that work together.
state until eternity. It further claims that new galaxies
appear as a result of the drifting apart of other galaxies. Two major requirements for a planet to become
habitable
The universe that started with the big bang did not form
the stars and galaxies immediately. The formation of First, the star should survive long enough for its planets
stars and galaxies only started 300 to 500 million years to develop life.
after the big bang. The Solar System that is known today
only formed 8.5 to 9 billion years after the big bang. Second, the planet should exist in a region where water
could remain liquid.
Encounter Hypothesis
HYDROSPHERE
It states that the sun encountered a rogue star. Upon the
encounter, hot gas was removed from both stars due to Earth is sometimes called the Blue Planet or the Blue
their gravitational interaction. The hot gas then Marble because of its water component. The
accumulated and formed the planets. The material from hydrosphere makes up 71% of Earth’s surface, most of it
the less dense rogue star formed the outer planets, while is saltwater found in the oceans. Hydrosphere is a
that from the sun formed the inner planets. dynamic mass of water that interacts with each of Earth’s
spheres through the water cycle. Earth’s water is made
Protoplanet Hypothesis up of 97% saltwater and 3% freshwater. Only 22% of the
freshwater is accessible for human use in the form of
It suggests that a cloud of gas and dust, about 10 million groundwater.
kilometers in diameter, rotated slowly. Then, either
because of its own gravity or by the explosion of a ATMOSPHERE
passing star, the cloud of gas and dust began to
collapse. The collapse reduced the size of the cloud, The atmosphere is the thin, life – giving gaseous envelop
resulting to its increased rotation. The compression of Earth. This thin blanket of air provides us with air that
made the interior of the cloud hot, resulting to a we breathe. It also protects us from the sun’s dangerous
hydrogen fusion which formed the sun. Surrounding the ultraviolet radiation. The energy exchanges that
sun was a great plate – like disk containing a huge continually occur between the atmosphere and Earth’s
whirlpool (eddies) where matter accumulated due to surface and between the atmosphere and space
friction. The whirlpool or eddies shrank into compact produce our weather and climate.
masses, forming the protoplanets that later became the GEOSPHERE
planets and moons.
The geosphere is a major sphere of Earth that deals with
Nebular Hypothesis the solid components, such as landforms, rocks and
Out of the many proposed theories for the formation of layers of Earth. It is not lithosphere. Lithosphere refers
the Solar System, the nebular hypothesis that was first only to the crust and the top portion of the upper mantle.
proposed by Immanuel Kant and Pierre Simon BIOSPHERE
Laplace was the most favored model. That the solar
system evolved from a slowly rotating gaseous cloud. At The Biosphere is the biological component of Earth. It
a certain speed the gravitational attraction could no includes all of the microbes, plants, and animals that can
be found I km above sea level down to the deepest parts bodies from meter to kilometer in size. These proto-
of the oceans. It extends to any place where life of any planets are accretions of frozen water, ammonia,
kind might exist. Under the biosphere is the methane, silicon, aluminum, iron, and other metals in
anthroposphere or the “human sphere”. This sphere rock and mineral grains enveloped in hydrogen and
includes the part of Earth that has been modified by helium.
humans.
• High-speed collisions with large objects destroys much
of the mantle of Mercury, puts Venus in retrograde
rotation.
Radio Telescopes
• Collision of the Earth with large object produces the
These are instruments used by astronomers to study the moon. This is supported by the composition of the moon
electromagnetic waves other than visible light that are very similar to the Earth's Mantle
emitted by stars, galaxies, black holes, and other
astronomical objects. With the help of radio telescopes, • When the proto-Sun is established as a star, its solar
scientists were able to detect the evidence that support wind blasts hydrogen, helium, and volatiles from the
the origin of the universe and the Solar System. inner planets to beyond Mars to form the gas giants
leaving behind a system we know today.
2. Encounter Hypotheses:

• Buffon’s (1749) Sun-comet encounter that sent matter

to form planet;

• James Jeans’ (1917) sun-star encounter that would

have drawn from the sun matter that would condense to
planets,

• T.C. Chamberlain and F. R. Moulton’s (1904)

planetesimal hypothesis involving a star much bigger
than the Sun passing by the Sun and draws gaseous
filaments from both out which planetisimals were formed;

• Ray Lyttleton’s (1940) sun’s companion star colliding

with another to form a proto-planet that breaks up to
form Jupiter and Saturn.

• Otto Schmidt’s accretion theory proposed that the Sun

passed through a dense interstellar cloud and emerged
with a dusty, gaseous envelope that eventually became
the planets. However, it cannot explain how the planets
and satellites were formed. The time required to form the
planets exceeds the age of the solar system.

• M.M. Woolfson’s capture theory (Figure 4) is a variation

of James Jeans’ near-collision hypothesis. In this
scenario, the Sun drags from a near proto-star a filament
of material which becomes the planets. Collisions
between proto-planets close to the Sun produced the
terrestrial planets; condensations in the filament
produced the giant planets and their satellites. Different
ages for the Sun and planets is predicted by this theory.

• Nobel Prize winner Harold Urey’s compositional studies

on meteorites in the 1950s and other scientists’ work on
these objects led to the conclusion that meteorite
constituents have changed very little since the solar
system’s early history and can give clues about their
formation. The currently accepted theory on the origin of
the solar system relies much on information from
meteorites.

3. Protoplanet Hypotheses - Current Hypothesis

• About 4.6 billion years ago, in the Orion arm of the

Milky Way galaxy, a slowly-rotating gas and dust cloud
dominated by hydrogen and helium starts to contract due
to gravity (fig. 5).

• As most of the mass move to the center to eventually

become a proto-Sun, the remaining materials form a disc
that will eventually become the planets and momentum
is transferred outwards.

• Due to collisions, fragments of dust and solid matter

begin sticking to each other to form larger and larger