Meaning of Culture, Elements of Culture and Characteritics

Fayaz A.
Soomro, Faculty Member, National Officer's Academy-Chapter-2 (Culture)

NATIONAL OFFICER’S ACADEMY (NOA)
SOCIOLOGY, Lecture No. 2
Culture:
Before discussing Culture chapter, let us understand what are differences between Chinese
Culture and US culture with following 6 cultural differences between China and the USA:-
1. Privacy: Chinese people do not have the same concept of privacy as Americans do. They talk
about topics such as ages, income or marital status, which Americans think is annoying and
intrusive.
2. Family: In China, elders are traditionally treated with enormous respect and dignity while the
young are cherished and nurtured. In America, the goal of the family is to encourage
independence, particularly that of the children. Unlike the Chinese, older Americans seldom
live with their children.
3. Friends: Chinese people have different meanings to define friends. Just hanging out together
time to time is not friendship. Friendship means lifelong friends who feel deeply obligated to
give each other whatever help might seem required. Americans always call people they meet
friends, so the definition of friends is general and different. There are work friends, playing
friends, school friends and drinking friends.
4. Money: As is well known, the Chinese like to save. They are always conservative when they
are planning to spend money. It is different in the USA, where far fewer families are saving
money for emergencies and education than their Chinese counterparts.
5. Education: Chinese people value education and career more than Americans, who in turn put
more emphasis on good character and faith.
6. Collectivism vs. Individualism: Basically China values the community and the US values the
individual. If you achieve something in the US, it's because you were great. While in China, if
you achieve something in China it's because the team, or family, or company is great.
Everything you do gets attributed to the greater whole, while in America individual merits are
celebrated.
CULTURE:
The word 'culture' comes from the Latin cultus, which means 'care', and from the French colere
which means 'to till' as in 'till the ground'.
A definition of culture by Henry Pratt Fairchild : A collective name for all behavior patterns socially
acquired and transmitted by means of symbols; hence a name for all the distinctive achievements of
human groups, including not only such items as language, tool-making, industry, art, science, law,
government, morals and religion, but also the material instruments or artifacts in which cultural
achievements are embodied and by which intellectual cultural features are given practical effect, such
as buildings, tools, machines, communication devices, art objects, etc.
According to Taylor, culture is “that complex whole which includes knowledge , beliefs, art,
moral, law, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of
society.
Cooley, Argell and Car “The entire accumulation of artificial objects, conditions, tools,
techniques, ideas, symbols and behaviour patterns peculiar to a group of people, possessing a
certain consistency of its own, and capable of transmission from one generation to another.”
Fayaz A. Soomro, Faculty Member, National Officer's Academy-Chapter-2 (Culture)
Spencer-Oatey 2008: ‘Culture is a fuzzy set of basic assumptions and values, orientations to life,
beliefs, policies, procedures and behavioural conventions that are shared by a group of people,
and that influence (but do not determine) each member’s behaviour and his/her interpretations of the
‘meaning’ of other people’s behaviour.
According to Allama Iqbal “Culture encompasses all the mental, spiritual and physical activities
of a nation. It includes the basic beliefs and faith, values and literature, art and architecture,
music and mode of dress, manners and customs prevalent in a given society.
Avruch 1998: ‘Culture ... is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals,
law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.’
Kroeber & Kluckhohn 1952: 181; cited by Adler 1997: 14 : ‘Culture consists of patterns, explicit
and implicit, of and for behaviour acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive
achievements of human groups, including their embodiment in artifacts; the essential core of culture
consists of traditional (i.e. historically derived and selected) ideas and especially their attached values;
culture systems may, on the one hand, be considered as products of action, on the other, as conditional
elements of future action.
Culture is the sum of total of the learned behavior of a group of people that are generally
considered to be the tradition of that people and are transmitted from generation to generation.
Culture is a collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or
category of people from another.
Some aspects of human behavior, such as language, social practices such as kinship and marriage,
expressive forms such as art, music, dance, ritual, and religion, and technologies such as tool
usage, cooking, shelter, and clothing are said to be cultural universals, found in all human societies.
Culture is most important concepts in social sciences and psychology. Study of human society
immediately leads to study of human culture. culture and society are inseparable entities with each
other. Working together is a big challenge in 21st century: Working together with people of different
cultures than your own can be very difficult. It’s not just a challenge in Japan, but for people all over
the world and in any industry. As our world becomes increasingly globalized the opportunities are
enormous but so are the challenges.
Components of culture: A culture is a abstract nature of phenomenon, therefore, components of

culture can help to understand it and help to give a proper definition. These components vary such as
Religion, Language, Technology, Art, Architecture, Music, Sports, Dress, Diet , Government,
Technology, economy, agriculture, Law, rules, regulations, values, education, recreation, work ethics,
etiquettes etc.
MEANING AND CHARACTERISTICS:

i. Culture is learnt
ii. Culture is social
iii. Culture is shared
iv. Culture is trans missive
v. Culture is continuous and cumulative
vi. Culture is consistent and integrated
vii. Culture is dynamic and adaptive
viii. Culture is gratifying
ix. Culture varies from society to society
x. Culture is Super organic and ideational
TYPES OF CULTURE: Scholars believe that there are two major types of culture one is material
and another non material, but because of globalization and industrialization the world has got
borderless society and shirked into global village, there are other two types as well i.e. Real culture,
Ideal culture. Hence culture has four types i.e. Material culture, Non -Material culture, ideal culture
and Realistic culture.
FUNCTIONS OF CULTURE:
CULTURE IS TREASURY OF KNOWLEDGE: Provides knowledge essential for physical, social
and intellectual existence of human being. Birds and animals have instinctively knowledge, but man
has to learn from the society. There is difference between human and animal life. Man has greater
learning capacity. adopt himself according to the changing circumstances. preserves knowledge and
enables him to behave according to the situation. Man receives everything from the culture and feels
adjusted
CULTURE DEFINES SITUATIONS: It determines the situations and enable us how to behave with
the social situations. what knowledge we should get, whom to meet, how to talk, how to laugh, how to
convince and how to observe situations. Each culture has many subtle cues which define each
situation. It reveals whether one should prepare to fight, run, laugh or make love. For example,
suppose someone approaches you with right hand outstretched at waist level. What does this mean?
That he wishes to shake hands in friendly greeting is perfectly obvious – obvious, that is to anyone
familiar with our culture. But in another place or time the outstretched hand might mean hostility or
warning. One does not know what to do in a situation until he has defined the situation. Each society
has its insults and fighting words. The cues (hints) which define situations appear in infinite variety. A
person who moves from one society into another will spend many years misreading the cues. For
example, laughing at the wrong places.
CULTURE DEFINES ATTITUDES, VALUES AND GOALS: Attitude refers the tendency to feel
and act in certain ways. Values are the measures of goodness or desirability. Goals refers to the
attainments which our values defines as worthy. It is our culture that conditions our attitudes towards
various issues such as religion, morality, marriage, science, family planning and so on. Each person
learns in his culture what is good, true, and beautiful. Attitudes, values and goals are defined by the
culture. While the individual normally learns them as unconsciously as he learns the language.
Attitude are tendencies to feel and act in certain ways. Values are measures of goodness or
desirability, for example, we value private property, (representative) Government and many other
things and experience.. Goals are those attainments which our values define as worthy, (e.g.) winning
the race, gaining the affections of a particular person, or becoming president of the firm. By approving
certain goals and ridiculing others, the culture channels individual ambitions. In these ways culture
determines the goals of life.
CULTURE MOULDS PERSONALITY: (ANNA AND ISABELLE)
 Environment
 Cultural norms dictate
 Early childhood experiences
 A competitive culture
 A creative culture
 Hardworking culture
 Religious culture
 Music culture
 (Child is father of man)
CULTURE DEFINES MYTHS, LEGENDS, AND THE SUPERNATURAL: Myths and legends
are important part of every culture. They may inspire, reinforce effort and sacrifice and bring comfort
in bereavement. Whether they are true is sociologically unimportant. Ghosts are real to people who
believe in them and who act upon this belief. We cannot understand the behaviour of any group
without knowing something of the myths, legends, and supernatural beliefs they hold. Myths and
legends are powerful forces in a group’s behaviour. Culture also provides the individual with a ready-
made view of the universe. The nature of divine power and the important moral issues are defined by
the culture.
CULTURE PROVIDES BEHAVIOUR PATTERNS: The individual need not go through painful
trial and error learning to know what foods can be eaten (without poisoning himself), or how to live
among people without fear. He finds a ready-made set of patterns awaiting him which he needs only to
learn and follow. The culture maps out the path to matrimony. The individual does not have to wonder
how one secures a mate; he knows the procedure defined by his culture. If men use culture to advance
their purposes, it seems clear also that a culture imposes limits on human and activities. The need for
order calls forth another function of culture that of so directing behaviour that disorderly behaviour is
restricted and orderly behaviour is promoted. A society without rules or norms to define right and
wrong behaviour would be very much like a heavily travelled street without traffic signs or any
understood rules for meeting and passing vehicles. Chaos would be the result in either case. Social
order cannot rest on the assumption that men will spontaneously behave in ways conducive to social
harmony.
FACTORS OF CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT:-
1. CULTURAL DIFFUSION: Both material artifacts and ideas from one culture to another culture.
Sociologists estimate that about 90 % of the contents of every culture are borrowed from others
cultures. some scientists and anthropologists consider diffusion as the main source of cultural and
social change. Sociologists define cultural diffusion as " the borrowing of cultural elements from
another society". diffusion takes place in every society. The most outstanding contemporary social
change- the spread of modernization process around the world- represents the diffusion of
industrialism from the advanced to the less developed societies. Material artifacts that prove useful are
more readily of the society into which they diffuse. For the reasons, the less developed societies
always accepts the normative orders of advanced societies.
2. INVENTION: Invention refers to "new combination of or new use of existing knowledge" Horton
and Hunt. "An invention is the combination or new use of existing knowledge to produce something
that did not exist before" Ian Robertson. " An invention is any re-combination of existing cultural
elements in such a fashion as to produce something new" Lorman and Gorman. Invention may be
either material (Bow and arrow, gun, spacecraft, computer etc). Social or non-Social material
(Constitutional government, corporations, alphabet, dance, drama and literature etc). The nature and
rate of cultural invention also varies from culture to culture and depends upon existing store of
knowledge.
For cave dweller, their knowledge was much limited and therefore, bow and arrow was just big
achievements. Modern people are clever than primitive people due to repository of knowledge. A
number of inventions have been witnessed by human societies such as:
 Machines,
 Plans for many machines that were workable in principle
 helicopters
 submarines
 machine guns
 air conditions
 areal bombs
 hydraulic pumps etc
3. DISCOVERY: Discovery can also be defined as third source of socio-cultural change. According
to Hurton and Hunt, " A discovery is a shared human perception of an aspect of reality which
already exists". A new continent, the composition of the atmosphere, the power of steam, the
circulation of the blood etc were already there but a new discovery becomes source of addition.
PAKISTANI CULTURE IS AN ISLAMIC CULTURE

Pakistan is an ideological Islamic State. Its very existence is due to Islam, so the Pakistani culture is
primarily based on the Islamic way of life. All other ingredients of culture are inspired by Islam.
Pakistani culture is highlighted by its grandeur, simplicity, firm convictions and noble deeds and ideas.
Salient Features of Pakistani Culture
1. Religious Uniformity: Pakistan came into existence to provide its people a system of life
based on Islam. The people, in spite of some differences of languages, customs and traditions
commonly follow one religion of Islam. This is the religion, which is practiced by all people of
Pakistan.
2. Language: A number of languages are spoken in Pakistan. Some of them are Punjabi, Sindhi,
Pushto and Balochi. But Urdu is spoken and understand in all parts of Pakistan. Being the
official language, it is the media of communication between all regions of Pakistan
3. Literature and Poetry: Literature is an important aspect of our cultural life. Most of our
poets reflect Islamic code and trend in their poetry. They gave the message of love and
brotherhood. Similarity of thought amongst poets and writers of all regions is an important
factor of our cultural life.
4. Dress and Diet: Dress is an important manifestation of culture. The regional dresses of
Pakistan undergo changes in the light of local traditions, economic condition, way of living and
wealth in the region. But in all Provinces people generally wear Shalwar Kameez.
5. Mixed Culture: Pakistani culture is mixed culture although majority of people are Muslims by
birth and faith. But there is great influence of Hindus and British culture on the present
Pakistani society.
6. Male Dominated Society: In Pakistani culture, the male member of the family enjoys the key
position. Family is headed by a male member and in most cases, he is the sole source of
income for other members of the family
7. Arts and Architecture: The iconoclasm of Islam has given a characteristic form and pattern in
the use of elegant designs, based on geometric figures and floral forms borrowed from nature.
The Shah Jahan Masjid, Shalimar Garden, Badshahi Masjid, Shahi Qila and many such
graceful buildings are a living proof of the excellent Mughal architecture
8. Handicrafts: Embroidery, leather works, glazed pottery, wood work, carpet making, metal
crafts and ivory are the essential parts of our culture. Pakistani craftsmen are considered as the
best in their craftsmanship. They are known for the high quality works which is very popular in
foreign countries.
9. Recreational Activities – Sports: The recreational activities all over the Pakistan are
common. The games like Cricket, Hockey, Football, Kabaddi etc are popular in every part of
our country. These games reflect our cultural identity.
10. Education: Education contributes a great deal in developing national character. Educational
system plays a vital role in the formation of Culture, Unity and Solidarity of a nation. It is
therefore, important that the entire syllabus right from the lower to higher level should be
placed in accordance with the ideology of Pakistan
11. Religious Festivals: Festivals play an important part of our culture. Eid-ul-Fitr and Eid-ul-
Azha are our two main religious festivals. They are celebrated with great happiness throughout
the country
12. Islamic Rituals and Religious Festivals: Islamic rituals and festivals play an important part of
our culture. The rituals and festivals are observed with unusual enthusiasm. Obligatory prayers,
fasts during the month of Ramadan and the payment of Zakat prescribed by Islam are being
observed almost everywhere. Statistics reveal that Paksitanis attendance at Hajj is usually very
high. The enthusiasm with which Pakistani families celebrate religious festivals is a
inspirational spectacle. Eid-ul-Fitr and Eid-ul-Azha are our two main religious festivals. They
are celebrated with great happiness throughout the country.
13. Ulema, Mushaikh and Sufi Poets: Ulema, Mushaikh and Sufi Poets occupy an honoured
place in our cultural aspect of life. Sufis like Lal Shahbaz, Data GanjBaksh, Shah Abdul latif,
Sachal Sarmast, Hazrat Sultan Bahu and Waris Shah rendered meritorious services for the
spread of Islam in the Sub Continent.
ELEMENTS of CULTURE:
INTRODUCTION: Culture was defined earlier as the symbols, language, beliefs, values, and
artifacts that are part of any society. As this definition suggests, there are two basic components of
culture: ideas and symbols on the one hand and artifacts (material objects) on the other. The first type,
called nonmaterial culture, includes the values, beliefs, symbols, and language that define a society.
The second type, called material culture, includes all the society’s physical objects, such as its tools
and technology, clothing, eating utensils, and means of transportation. These elements of culture are
discussed next.
1. NORMS:
Simply put, a norm is a rule that guides behavior among members of a society or group. Definition:
Norms refer to conditions for social relations between groups and individuals, for the structure of
society and the difference between societies, and for human behavior in general.
Norms are shared rules, customs, and guidelines that govern society and define how people should
behave in the company of others.
A customary way is called Norm.
Founding sociologist Émile Durkheim considered norms to be social facts: things which exist in
society independent of individuals, and that shape our thoughts and behavior. Norms may be
applicable to all members of society or only to certain subsets of the population, such as students,
teachers, clergy, police officers, or soldiers in warfare.
Norms guide smooth and peaceful interactions by prescribing predictable behavior in different
situations. For instance, in the Pakistan and other societies of the world, handshaking is a traditional
greeting;saying salm while entering in the house, waring dress during the rituals, wearing various
kinds of clothes occasionally etc.
Norms are generally accepted prescriptions for or prohibitions against behavior, belief, or feeling.
Norms cannot and must be upheld by a group. Norms always include sanctions but values never do.
We learn norms in a variety of settings and from various factors, including our families, from teachers
and peers in school, through the media, and simply by interacting with others as we go about our daily
business.
TYPES OF NORMS: Sociologists divide norms into four types: Folkways, mores, taboos, and laws.
1. FOLKWAYS: The world is one, big community which is made up of several different societies
that are distinct from one another. These societies have their own history, laws, beliefs, traditions,
practices, customs, and ways of life. These make each society different and shape how their people
act. Even a nation or country can have societies or ethnic groups that differ, each according to their
own customs, traditions, and religions which they have followed from their ancestors.
These beliefs, habits, practices, rules, customs, traditions, and manners are called by different names.
They are called etiquette, decorum, propriety, values, virtues, folkways, and mores.
According to Reuter and Hart (1933), “The folkways are simple habits of action common to the
members of the group; they are the ways of the folks that are somewhat standardised and have
some degree of traditional sanction for their persistence”.
Maclver and Page (1949) defined it as: “The folkways are the recognized or accepted ways of
behaving in the society.”
In sociology, folkways are generally discussed in contrast to mores because they are both types of
social norms, though they vary in the degree to which they are enforced.
Folkways are the customs or conventions of daily life. They are a type of social norm --
expectations for how we act.
Folkways are mildly enforced social expectations, while mores are strictly held beliefs about
behaviors. Mores dictate right and wrong, while folkways distinguish between proper and rude
behavior. Most people in a society follow traditional folkways but failure to conform to them is
considered neither illegal nor immoral. How do you greet someone when you first meet him? Often,
greetings include some form of 'Hello' and 'How are you?'. Perhaps you shake the person's hand and
smile when you introduce yourself. You probably expect similar behaviors from the other person.
You can be confident that the person you're meeting will reciprocate in a similar manner because these
behaviors are folkways.
Noted early American sociologist, William G. Sumner (1840-1910) identified two types of norms
in his book Folkways (1906), which he labelled as ‘folkways’ and ‘mores’. They represent modes
of procedure in a society or in a group.
They present to us the most frequent or most accepted or most standardised ways of doing this or that.
Folkways are distinguished from mores not by their content but by the degree to which group
members are compelled to conform to them, by the degree of importance, by the severity of
punishment if they are violated, or by the intensity of feelings associated with adherence to them.
2. MORES: refer to stronger norms with associated moral values. Mores are strict norms that
control moral and ethical behavior. Mores are norms based on definitions of right and wrong.
Unlike folkways, mores are morally significant. People feel strongly about them and violating them
typically results in disapproval. Religious doctrines are an example of mores. For instance, if someone
were to attend church in the nude, he or she would offend most people of that culture and would be
morally shunned. Also, parents who believe in the more that only married people should live together
will disapprove of their daughter living with her boyfriend. They may consider the daughter’s actions
a violation of their moral guidelines. Examples of common mores found in almost all societies are
prohibitions robbery, abusing, snatching, abusing, murder and ill speaking against religions doctrines.
3. TABOOS: Rituals and customs accepted in one culture may be thought of as downright bizarre in
another. "Taboo" delves into that dichotomy, taking viewers across cultural borders to explore
traditional beliefs and deliberate lifestyle choices, ranging from body modification and gender
decisions to nudity and spiritual quests that test the limits of the human body.
Taboos refer to the strongest types of mores.
Taboos include the belief that certain activities, such cannibalism (flesh eating) , are outside the
bounds of cultural acceptance.
Violations of mores and taboos tend to be treated with strong social disapproval or criminal
consequences. Often times the violator of the taboo is considered unfit to live in that society.
For instance, in some Muslim cultures, eating pork is taboo because the pig is considered unclean. At
the more extreme end, incest and cannibalism are taboos in most countries.
4. LAWS: Laws refer to the mores that are formally enforced by political authority and backed by the
power of the state. Laws may enforce norms or work to change them. Examples of laws that worked to
change existing norms include the liquor prohibition laws of the 1920s or civil rights legislation of the
1950s. Ultimately, social norms are important, in part, because they enable individuals to agree on a
shared interpretation of the social situation and prevent harmful social interactions. When individuals
transgress against existing norms, they are engaging in a norm violation. Norm violations refer to
public or private instances of transgression and deviance from culturally-sanctioned behaviors
(Kiesler, 1967).
2. VALUES:
values are a culture’s standard for discerning what is good and just in society. Values are deeply
embedded and critical for transmitting and teaching a culture’s beliefs. Values are another important
element of culture and involve judgments of what is good or bad and desirable or undesirable. Values
help shape a society by suggesting what is good and bad, beautiful and ugly, sought or avoided.
Values often suggest how people should behave, but they don’t accurately reflect how people do
behave. Values portray an ideal culture, the standards society would like to embrace and live up to.
But ideal culture differs from real culture, the way society actually is, based on what occurs and exists.
A culture’s values shape its norms. In Japan, for example, a central value is group harmony.
EXAMPLE:
 The Japanese place great emphasis on harmonious social relationships and dislike interpersonal
conflict. When interpersonal disputes do arise, Japanese do their best to minimize conflict by
trying to resolve the disputes amicably.
 People often wanted to have Engineering rather than Doctor or vice versa is value
 People preferring higher education from abroad rather than local institutions is values
 Preferring food from restaurants rather than home is value
 Enjoying foreign trips rather than visiting one’s own country’s places is values
 Preferring family members as business partners is called values
 Reading foreign stuff rather than local stories is called values etc
3. SYMBOLS:
Every culture is filled with symbols, or things that stand for something else and that often evoke
various reactions and emotions. Some symbols are actually types of nonverbal communication, while
other symbols are in fact material objects. Symbols make social interaction possible. Let’s look at
nonverbal symbols first. A common one is shaking hands, which is done in some societies but not in
others. It commonly conveys friendship and is used as a sign of both greeting and departure. Probably
all societies have nonverbal symbols we call gestures, movements of the hand, arm, or other parts of
the body that are meant to convey certain ideas or emotions. However, the same gesture can mean one
thing in one society and something quite different in another society (Axtell, 1998). In the our society,
for example, if we nod our head up and down, we mean yes, and if we shake it back and forth, we
mean no.
In most of Bulgaria, however, nodding means no, while shaking our head back and forth means yes! In
the United States, if we make an “O” by putting our thumb and forefinger together, we mean “OK,”
but the same gesture in certain parts of Europe signifies an obscenity. “Thumbs up” in the United
States means “great” or “wonderful,” but in Australia it means the same thing as extending the middle
finger in the United States. Certain parts of the Middle East and Asia would be offended if they saw
you using your left hand to eat, because they use their left hand for bathroom hygiene. Some of our
most important symbols are objects. Here the U.S. flag is a prime example. For most Americans, the
flag is not just a piece of cloth with red and white stripes and white stars against a field of blue.
Instead, it is a symbol of freedom, democracy, and other American values and, accordingly, inspires
pride and patriotism.
During the Vietnam War, however, the flag became too many Americans a symbol of war and
imperialism. Some burned the flag in protest, prompting angry attacks by bystanders and negative
coverage by the news media. Other objects have symbolic value for religious reasons. Three of the
most familiar religious symbols in many nations are the cross, the Star of David, and the crescent
moon, which stand for Christianity, Judaism, and Islam, respectively. Whereas many cultures attach
no religious significance to these shapes, for many people across the world they evoke very strong
feelings of religious faith. Recognizing this, hate groups have often desecrated these symbols. As these
examples indicate, shared symbols, both nonverbal communication and tangible objects, are an
important part of any culture but also can lead to misunderstandings and even hostility. These
problems underscore the significance of symbols for social interaction and meaning.
4. LANGUAGE:
Perhaps our most important set of symbols is language. In English, the word chair means something
we sit on. In French, the word chaise means the same thing. As long as we agree how to interpret these
words, a shared language and thus society are possible. By the same token, differences in languages
can make it quite difficult to communicate. For example, imagine you are in a foreign country where
you do not know their language and they do not know yours. As this scenario suggests, language is
crucial to communication and thus to any society’s culture. Children learn language from their culture
just as they learn about shaking hands, about gestures, and about the significance of the flag and other
symbols. Humans have a capacity for language that no other animal species possesses.
Our capacity for language in turn helps make our complex culture possible. In the United States, some
people consider a common language so important that they advocate making English the official
language of certain cities or states or even the whole country and banning bilingual education in the
public schools . Language, of course, can be spoken or written. One of the most important
developments in the evolution of society was the creation of written language. Some of the
preindustrial societies that anthropologists have studied have written language, while others do not,
and in the remaining societies the “written” language consists mainly of pictures, not words.
5. RITUALS:
Different cultures also have different rituals, or established procedures and ceremonies that often mark
transitions in the life course. As such, rituals both reflect and transmit a culture’s norms and other
elements from one generation to the next. Initiation and commencement ceremonies in colleges and
universities are familiar examples of time-honored rituals. Boys have their own initiation ceremonies,
some of them involving circumcision. That said, the ways in which circumcisions are done and the
ceremonies accompanying them differ widely. Are rituals more common in preindustrial societies than
in modern ones such as the United States? Consider the Nacirema, studied by anthropologist Horace
Miner more than 50 years ago (Miner, 1956). In this society, many rituals have been developed to deal
with the culture’s fundamental belief that the human body is ugly and in danger of suffering many
diseases. Reflecting this belief, every household has at least one shrine in which various rituals are
performed to cleanse the body. Often these shrines contain magic potions acquired from medicine
men.
6. WORK ETHICS:
Another important value in the most of cultures is the work ethic. A strong work ethic is vital to a
company achieving its goals. Every employee, from the CEO to entry-level workers, must have a good
work ethic to keep the company functioning at its peak. A work ethic is a set of moral principals an
employee uses in his job. Certain factors come together to create a strong work ethic.
i. INTEGRITY: Integrity stretches to all aspects of an employee's job. An employee with

integrity fosters trusting relationships with clients, coworkers and supervisors. Coworkers
value the employee's ability to give honest feedback. Clients trust the employee's advice.
Supervisors rely on the employee's high moral standards, trusting him not to steal from the
company or create problems.
ii. SENSE OF RESPONSIBILITY: A strong sense of responsibility affects how an employee
works and the amount of work she does. When the employee feels personally responsible for
her job performance, she shows up on time, puts in her best effort and completes projects to the
best of her ability.
iii. EMPHASIS ON QUALITY: Some employees do only the bare minimum, just enough to
keep their job intact. Employees with a strong work ethic care about the quality of their work.
They do their best to produce great work, not merely churn out what is needed. The employee's
commitment to quality improves the company's overall quality.
iv. DISCIPLINE: It takes a certain level of commitment to finish your tasks every day. An
employee with good discipline stays focused on his goals and is determined to complete his
assignments. These employees show a high level of dedication to the company, always
ensuring they do their part.
v. SENSE OF TEAMWORK: Most employees have to work together to meet a company's
objectives. An employee with a high sense of teamwork helps a team meet its goals and deliver
quality work. These employees respect their peers and help where they can, making
collaborations go smoother.
7. ARTIFACTS:
Cultural artifact, or artifact, is a term used in the social sciences, particularly anthropology
and sociology for anything created by humans which gives information about the culture of its creator
and users. Cultural artifact is a more generic term and should be considered with two words of similar,
but narrower, nuance: social artifact and archaeological artifact.
Cultural artifacts can include objects recovered from archaeological sites, or archaeological artifacts,
but can also include objects of modern or near-modern society, or social artifacts. Cultural artifacts,
whether ancient or current, have a significance because they offer an insight into: technological
processes, economic development and social structure, among other attributes. The last element of
culture is the artifacts, or material objects, that constitute a society’s material culture. In the most
simple societies, artifacts are largely limited to a few tools, the huts people live in, and the clothing
they wear. Although the wheel was a great invention, artifacts are obviously much more numerous and
complex in modern industrial societies. Because of technological advances during the past two
decades, many such societies may be said to have a wireless culture, as smartphones, netbooks and
laptops, and GPS devices now dominate so much of modern life. The artifacts associated with this
culture were unknown a generation ago. Technological development created these artifacts and also
new language to describe them and the functions they perform. Today’s wireless artifacts in turn help
reinforce our own commitment to wireless technology as a way of life, if only because children are
now growing up with them, often even before they can read and write.
ETHNOCENTRISM
A World of Diversity Ethnocentric, derived from the Greek words of Ethnos, meaning race, people or
cultural group, and Kentrikos, meaning concentrated about or directed to a center is a word that
greatly describes many cultures on this planet we call Earth .
The official definition of Ethnocentric is “ characterized or based on the attitude that ones own
group is superior” or “having race as a central interest”.
People from other cultures often do things that annoy, frustrate, and offend us, which is also true in
reverse. This is a fact of life—and one which is not confined to cross-cultural interactions; people from
our own culture can also annoy and offend us. While we do not feel bad if we are upset when someone
from our own culture irks us, when the perpetrator is from another culture, we wonder if we have the
right to be upset. Is it really fair to be angry with that person?
Needless to say, when someone violates one of our cultural norms and does something that is
unnatural, this behavior is going to provoke strong responses because abnormal behavior undermines
our norms and thereby threatens what makes interaction possible and holds our culture together. In
short, when we react to or judge the behavior of someone else, we are performing an essential function
for the survival of our culture and society.
Thus, being ethnocentric is human nature. It is only when you’re dealing with people who come from
another ethnos that ethnocentrism doesn’t always work so well. If you happen to be in their culture, for
example, then the burden is on you to figure out their ethnos. But if you’re in your own ethnos, then it
is appropriate—and a very good idea—to be ethnocentric.
If that is true, then where does this idea of trying to be culturally sensitive fit in? It doesn’t mean not
judging the behavior of others but being open to the possibility that the “abnormal” behavior someone
has done may not seem abnormal to them. It is still wrong for you, and it probably wouldn’t hurt to let
that person know, even as you would appreciate knowing when you violated another culture’s norm.
Being culturally sensitive has very little to do with liking or accepting the strange behaviors of people
from other cultures; it means acknowledging that we’re all strange depending on the context. Cultural
differences and the judgments they provoke aren’t the problem; the problem is to deny culture, which
is just what you do when you ask people not to judge.
This is, admittedly, a rather extreme definition. The usual dictionary definition of ethnocentrism is
"the tendency to regard one’s own group and culture as intrinsically superior to all others" (Webster’s
Dictionary).
Superiority of the own group and culture, however, (psycho)logically implies inferiority of other
groups and cultures. And viewing other groups/cultures as inferior empirically appears to imply some
degree (however small) of contempt, stereotyping, discrimination and dehumanization of, and at least
a modicum of hostility toward, members of those other groups/cultures.
ETHNOCENTRISM: BRIEF HISTORY OF THE CONCEPT
'Ethnocentrism' is a major theme in both biological and cultural theories of the causes of primitive war.
Darwin (1871) had noticed that early humans and contemporary primitive peoples as a rule confined
their sympathy to the own tribe and generally did not regard violence against other tribes as a crime.
He clearly saw the correlation between intergroup competition and intragroup cooperation, which is
the core of the ethnocentrism syndrome, in human evolution.
Thus Tylor viewed ethnocentrism (as well as the obligations of the blood feud) as making sense
within a framework of primitive concepts of law and justice. Furthermore, it is a relatively old
one. Though the term 'ethnocentrism' was to be coined a few decades later, the concept was by no
means unknown among 19th century anthropologists such as Tylor (1871):
Comte: In his Cours de la philosophie positive (1830-42) Comte dismissed the notion of a peaceful
golden age at the dawn of history. On the contrary, perennial and savage warfare forced, according to
his rather gloomy view, social solidarity as a defense against enemy groups.
Spencer (1850) thought that war had fostered ’social cohesion’ in ’conquering races’. In 1892-1893,
after half a century of work, Spencer completed his vast system of philosophy with two volumes on
The Principles of Ethics. In his studies of evolution he had hoped to find a code which placed human
conduct on a scientific footing. Instead, he discovered that evolution, as seen to work in human
communities, spoke with two voices, each enunciating a separate code.
Allama Ibn-e-Khuldoon’s theory of Alasabiya (Social Social solidarity) contains more or less same
meanings.
DEFINITION:
In simple words, ethnocentrism means considering one’s own culture superior to all other cultures.
Ethnocentrism makes our culture into a gauge with which to measure all other cultures as good or bad,
high or low in the proportion as they resemble ours. Most, if not all, groups within the society are
ethnocentric.
 Sociology. the belief in the inherent superiority of one's own ethnic group or culture.
 Belief in the superiority of one's own ethnic group
 Overriding concern with ethnicity
Ethnocentrism is judging another culture solely by the values and standards of one's own culture.
Ethnocentric individuals judge other groups relative to their own ethnic group or culture, especially
with concern for language, behavior, customs, and religion. These ethnic distinctions and subdivisions
serve to define each ethnicity's unique cultural identity. Ethnocentrism may be overt or subtle, and
while it is considered a natural proclivity of human psychology, it has developed a generally negative
connotation.
A tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of one's own traditional, deferred, or
adoptive ethnic culture.
SOME EXAMPLES OF ETHNOCENTRISM:

EXAMPLE 1― NAZI GERMANY: This is one of the worst, most extreme, and most tragic
examples of ethnocentrism. Hitler believed that Jews, as well as people belonging to some other
communities were all inferior to his ethnicity, and did not deserve to live. He had thousands and
thousands of innocent people slaughtered in concentration camps, all because they weren't of his 'pure'
race, which was, according to him, superior among all. Though ethnocentrism is not always this
extreme, history does tell us stories about how the concept and prejudice that rose from it, took such a
turn for the worse, and had horrible consequences.
EXAMPLE 2― IMPERIALISM: Imperialism is defined as a policy or practice by which a country
increases its power by gaining control over other areas of the world (Merriam-Webster). The most
famous example of it would be European imperialism, where European countries believed that the
other areas of the world, such as Africa, America, India, etc. needed to be controlled by them owing to
their supposed underdeveloped natures. European countries establishing their colonies in other parts of
the world is an example of ethnocentrism: they believed that they were superior, civilized, and
developed than other countries, which is why they 'needed' to establish control in order to help these
countries come up to their standards, too.
EXAMPLE 3― TERRORISM AND HATE CRIMES: This is again a negative example of
ethnocentrism. Terrorism and hate crimes take place when one religion or community believes that it
is superior, and better than any other religion or community. Ethnocentrism tends to blind people from
seeing things from another perspective― just because another community does something that yours
doesn't― like a particular style of worship, for instance, doesn't make it inferior to yours, and nor does
it make the other community's style of worshiping incorrect. However, ethnocentrism can make
individuals feel as if the other community is bad, or wrong, and can make them take action in the form
of terrorist attacks or hate crimes.
EXAMPLE 4― IN MOVIES: In movies and other sources of entertainment, ethnocentrism is often,
but not always, portrayed in a humorous, light-hearted manner. One example of ethnocentrism
portrayed in a light manner would be the movie, 'The Big Fat Greek Wedding', where a Greek family
believes that being Greek is the one and only acceptable way of living. However, the makers of the
movie took great care to make sure that the Greek culture was never shown in a negative or pushy
manner, and that the audiences took it in the way it was supposed to be taken.
EXAMPLE 5― IN BUSINESS: Though it is easy to assume that ethnocentrism affects only the
lesser-educated, less aware people in the world, it is not really true. Ethnocentrism can be seen on a
large scale in business, and at the workplace. For instance, an employee may refer to his client as a
'moron' if the client needed some time to understand whatever the employee was trying to tell him. A
business owner might yell at his foreign employees and call them stupid because of their different
races, cultures, or values that are different from the boss'. Another business owner based in a
developed country may refuse to merge with a company that is originally based in a developing
country because he believes that the developing country is very inferior to his own. Ethnocentrism
thus is a part of business and is experienced at the workplace, but if it is not controlled, it has the
capability to even destroy a company.
EXAMPLE 6― IN SCHOOLS: Ethnocentrism can be witnessed in schools across the world. Many
experts agree that focusing a curriculum, say a world history curriculum, only on the history of the
major developed countries and ignoring the developing and underdeveloped countries altogether, is an
example of ethnocentrism in schools. Children are taught only the greatness of one country, which
might lead them to develop prejudices against other countries. Sometimes, teachers and teaching
patterns can also be slightly discriminatory, which leads to ethnocentrism. The students belonging to
minority communities can feel sidelined, targeted, or ignored.
EXAMPLE 7― CONSUMER ETHNOCENTRISM: Consumer ethnocentrism is observed in those
consumers who judge others buying imported goods instead of nationally or locally― produced
goods. Choosing to buy a good is actually an individual choice, and judging someone on the basis of
their taste or preference is not a good idea. Consumer ethnocentrism has become much more obvious
since globalization, and consumers affected by ethnocentrism believe that purchasing foreign goods is
unpatriotic, as it does not support the domestic economy but helps foreign economies instead.
EXAMPLE 8― IN AMERICAN SOCIETY: The popular belief among American ethnocentric
people is that their country, culture, values, development, and everything else is superior to every other
nation in the world, and that every other nation is inferior to the United States. This belief has led to
political meddling among the matters of other countries, leading to misunderstandings and
miscommunication between different countries in the world. The present-day politics are a good
example of the same. Here, the country as a whole can be considered as one group, or the in-group.
EXAMPLE 9― ETHNOCENTRISM AND CULTURE: Every culture on earth tends to impart
ethnocentrism, albeit unintentionally. Various aspects of culture such as mythological tales, folktales,
legends, religion, songs, proverbs, language, rituals, etc. promote the superiority of that one culture
over others. Though this is an unintentional kind of promotion of ethnocentrism, it instills the belief
that 'my race/my culture' is really better than the rest, in so many ways in most of us, especially during
childhood or teenage.
EXAMPLE 10― IN DAILY LIFE: Like I said earlier, most of us tend to vehemently deny this.
However, it is true that we're all ethnocentric sometime or the other in our lives, without even realizing
it. For instance, if we see someone dressed according to a style we don't follow, we immediately
develop a biased judgment against them. "God, what is he/she wearing? It's clear he/she has no sense
of fashion." In an instance as small as this, we tend to immediately conclude that the person we're
judging has a bad fashion taste, and we're much better than him/her.
RECENTLY THE EXAMPLES THAT WE HAVE BEEN FACED ABOUT
ETHNOCENTRISM ARE FOLLOWING:
 Movement for creation of Hazara province
 Movement for creation of Saraiki province
 Movement for creation of Bahawalpur province
 Issues and controversy between religious groups specially in sunni and shiah
 Abomination between the people of different provinces for example: Punjabi and sindhi,
 Punjabi and Pathan Baloches want to their own power and rules in their tribes.
 Muhajir (MQM) in Karachi has started movements for their protections
POSITIVE EFFECTS OF ETHNOCENTRISM:
 Ethnocentric group seems to survive better than tolerant groups.
 It justifies sacrifice and sanctifies martyrdom.
 It reinforces nationalism and patriotism
 Without ethnocentrism, a vigor national consciousness is probably impossible.
 It encourages social solidarity in societies
 Forces of cooperation become stronger
 It helps to keep the nations tied to the concept of national sovereignty.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF ETHNOCENTRISM:
Since no culture is static, every culture must change if it is to survive, but ethnocentrism do not
support change in culture.
 It creates tight boundaries among various groups.
 Prejudice is created.
 Due to prejudice, hatred also takes its place in society.
 Process of social relations get slower.
 Conflict is created among various groups.
 It limits a person to a particular group, to which he belongs.
 Ethnocentric people are not influenced by social changes taking place around them.
 It discourages cultural change and due to this it creates backwardness.
 National development is hampered due to ethnocentrism
UNDERSTANDING XENOCENTRISM
In psychological terms, Xenocentrism is considered a type of deviant behavior because it sways from
the norms of society. It is unexpected that an individual would value the goods, services, styles, ideas
and other cultural elements of another nation. However, in some limited, circumstances, it has been
noted that Xenocentrism can help to shed light on cultural deficiencies, whether it be ideas or
products, and offers the opportunity to fix that which may legitimately inferior to another country or
culture.
It is also noted that self-perception and self esteem can contribute to Xenocentrism. In certain
circumstances, some individuals may attempt to elevate their perception among others by eschewing
domestic products for foreign ones. By doing so, the individual believes she is painting herself in a
better light as a more educated, worldly and savvy consumer.
The opposite of Xenocentrism is ethnocentrism which is the tendency to overvalue one's own native
cultural beliefs and values and therefore devalues the worth of the elements of other cultures.
DEFINITION:
In literary sense, Xenocentrism means a preference for the foreign, broadly speaking, Xenocentrism is
the term used that the people have been convinced that any products developed in their own countries
are inferior to those that are produced in more industrialized nations.
Xenocentrism is the opposite of ethnocentrism which means preferring ideas and things from other
cultures over ideas and things from your own culture.
Or more precisely in sociology term we can define it as that: It is the belief by the people that the
products, styles, or ideas of their own society are inferior to those that originates elsewhere in any
other developed society.
SOME EXAMPLES OF XENOCENTRISM
 Americans' belief that European's produce superior automotive vehicles
 European Renaissance artists desire to emulate ancient Greek artwork
 Americans belief that French or Spanish wine is superior to what is produced by American
vineyards
 The belief that cheeses in France are far superior to those in the United States
 The concept that the quality of Ireland's beer is far superior to that produced domestically
 Coveting the culture of another country such as in Central America where the work day is set
up far differently than in the United States
 The belief that the way of dress by another culture is significantly superior and that those
within one's native country should adopt that same dress
 The belief that other countries produce better children's toys
 The concept that a quality product can't be purchased in one's native country
 The idea that cloth to make clothes is better produced by other nations
CAUSES OF XENOCENTRISM IN PAKISTAN:
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS: It is the very duty of educational institutions to develop pride
among the members of the nations that they belong to a respectable and honorable culture. If this
feeling is developed, then nobody will feel inferiority about his/her own culture. But unfortunately our
educational institutions did not perform their duty well. Our education policy is not such that we
realize our own cultural superiority among the masses but it is more towards the Xenocentrism.
Might be it is one of the reason of our colonial masters who give us British and western culture. We
are neither proper Muslim, nor proper western civilized. We are hanging in between our own Muslims,
Indians or Hindus and western cultures. All this is what we are teaching to our children and what we
are learning in our educational institutions.
Some people of Pakistan are from foreign educational institutions. These institutions inject in their
delicate mind that your own culture is inferior to ours. So if you want to learn civilization, then salute
our culture and hate your own culture.
MEDIA, A CAUSE OF XENOCENTRISM: Media plays an important role in order to develop the
minds of a nation. Western media is promoting their own culture, values and norms and show other
cultures as a deviance. The common example of this is the French media making propagandas against
American media. But in case of Pakistan or other colonial culture the things are totally opposite our
media is showing which should not be there on the screen. They are playing with our culture, changing
the mind of the nation and taken to the masses away from our own norms and values.
WRONG PICTURE OF SOCIETY BY MEDIA: Sometimes advertisements promotes what
actually lacks in the society, but promoted in a way as if it’s penetrated deep in their roots. This is why
we say media / advertisements are used for propaganda purpose too. The advertisements that have
special messages in terms of glamour, elevates temptation to cause to switch. The degree of
acceptance may vary from individual to individual. It may have ‘macro effects’ and not ‘micro’ ones
on the society and sometimes the change comes so gradually that before we realize it, we are
practically into it. Cultural and Social norms are such issues that are at a stake almost in every society,
especially in the developing ones, like Pakistan.
INFLUENCE OF THE WESTERN CULTURE: It is very common in our society when one wants
to impress his/her fellows he says,” oh I bought this from Europe or I went to England and was
amazed to see their lifestyle and if I get I chance I will go there as I am wasting time in Pakistan”.
Sad but it is a fact that our people prefer imported things over our products although they are much
better. It’s just not the matter of products but each and every aspect of our life unconsciously
influenced by Xenocentrism. Whether it may be the matter of dress, we prefer theirs and feel confident
and fashionable. We talk in their language and imitate their accent, which we think can help us in
making our status high. Even if we want to astound others, we speak in English.
Once our dramas, talk shows and other programs were famous all over the world and other countries
used to copy our ideas but know the situation has totally changed. All programs have fallen victim of
Xenocentrism. It’s just not the media world but our living style, our politics, education, culture and
even our religion have become an amalgamation of western and eastern.
FEUDALISM: Pakistan is hardly in metaphysical stage. It is among developing countries with very
low development rate. This is particularly so with regard to clichés such as ‘Pakistan is an agrarian
economy’, and the view, that ‘Pakistan is largely rural’ this causes disappointment in Pakistanis.
ILLITERACY: Pakistan is considered as an illiterate country. Foreigners take it as less civilized and
ill mannered nation state. Foreigner’s down pay sight of honor to this country. Pakistanis are
considered to be less motivated towards education and those who get education having poor standard,
don’t know its practical implementation. So, in practical life they really failed in the society.
EFFECTS OF XENOCENTRISM ON PAKISTANI SOCIETY:
DEVALUING OF CULTURE: This is the very effect of Xenocentrism in a society. A
Xenocentrism person always hates all the features of his culture rather all the features are not bad. But
once he has developed Xenocentrism, he always dislikes his cultural characteristics.
CONFLICTS AMONG CIVILIZATIONS: Ethnocentrism and Xenocentrism cause conflicts
among civilizations. For example, cultural conflicts of eastern and western culture are one of the
reason of xenocentrism among the society.
PRODUCT CHOICES: Xenocentrism has made Pakistanis more brand conscious “Be Pakistani &
Buy Pakistani” concept failed to being adopted. People take Pakistani home product as sub standard
cheap and go to buy imported ones
CHANGE OF STYLES, ARCHITECTURE, DRESSES & FOODS: Our eastern and subcontinent
way of construction and architecture are now transferred toward western style. Our dresses are no
more National dresses. We usually use western style of wearing. We are more towards fast foods from
continental foods.
DESTRUCTION OF FAMILY SYSTEM: Xenocentrism has destroyed our family structure. Earlier
we had a pride on our joint family system. But now we don’t like joint family system. Now Pakistanis
are more towards nuclear family system.
DESTRUCTION OF NATIONAL LANGUAGE: Our national language is Urdu. But we feel shy to
speak in Urdu. It is because of Xenocentrism. We feel proud to talk in English. No one can e
successful in life if he is not experts in English. We have destroyed our national valuable heritage only
because of this Xenocentrism.
LOSS OF BUSINESSES IN THE HOME COUNTRY
LOSS OF JOBS IN THE HOME COUNTRY
DEGRADED ECONOMICAL SITUATION
OVERALL REDUCTION OF MORALE WITHIN THE NATION
A LOSS OF POPULATION TO EMIGRATION
NEGATIVE IMPACT ON THE IDENTITY OF OTHERS IN RELATION TO CULTURE
HOW TO REDUCE XENOCENTRISM IN PAKISTAN:

 Our Institutions must be strong; our social institutions are polluted with Xenocentrism and
are suffering from inferiority complex. So first we need to strengthen our social institutions.
 Ideology of Pakistan should be properly defined and propagated.
 The concept of be Pakistani, buy Pakistani should be strengthened. We should be proud of be
Pakistani.
 Media should portray the real and positive picture of Pakistan rather than copying the
western media. It is the responsibility of media to promote our own cultures, values rather than
others.
 To develop cultural policy: We have to develop certain culture policy so that the common
men are made aware of our true culture. Common man doesn’t know that what the true
national culture of Pakistan is. We are stagnant with our ethical culture. But we didn’t think
what the whole culture of Pakistan is. Even, nowadays we do not have true ethical culture . We
are lacking behind in proper promotion of our culture, the need of the hour is that Pakistani
culture at the international level will be promoted.
CONCLUSION:
In our fast-changing world, the rapid transformations in communication and technology are bound to
influence our culture.
If confidence and pride is not restored to our cultural values, it could result in the adoption of only
superficial symbols of these new changes.
Such an adoption would lead neither to any meaningful change in our socio-economic development
nor to a meaningful integration of our social consciousness.
It is essential that our cultural structure is receptive to new ideas to comprehend the technological
stimulation of consciousness.
If globalization finds us in cultural confusion and chaos, we are bound to suffer from externally
imposed cultural patterns.
Our cultural heritage is one of the oldest in the world and our people have always shown resilience to
new ideas.
We need to rehabilitate our cultural pride and to anticipate its future manifestations so that we emerge
as a nation living in the modern world with a unique, distinct, and proud heritage.
SOCIALIZATION
Culture and Socialization; formal and non-formal socialization, transmission of culture, cultural
relativism. Sub-cultures.
Socialization:
Young and Mack: the process of introducing the individual into social word is called socialization. In
common sense, socialization is a life long training for the adjustment of one’s life in society. The
process of socialization is process of learning norms, roles, techniques and other social patterns.
Peter says that socialization is process of transmission of culture, the process whereby man learns the
rules and practices of social groups
Horton and Hunt said that socialization is the process whereby one internalizes the norms of groups
among whom one lives so that a unique “self” emerges.
FACTORS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY
 Biological inheritance: The nature-nurture debate
 Physical environment: The climate & geographic conditions
 Culture: Components of culture
 Group experience: Birds of a feather flock together
 Unique experience: Siblings have different personalities
 Religion, education, politics: values, beliefs, philosophy, learning of knowledge and skills
 society: society in ourselves
TYPES OF SOCIALIZATION
 Primary socialization
 Anticipatory socialization
 Developmental socialization
 Re-socialization
SOURCE /AGENCIES OF SOCIALIZATION
The family, Neighbors, Religion, Religion, Economics, Politics, Education, Peers or age mates,
Social institutions, Literature and mass media of communication, The community, Media, Folkways,
Mores, Customs, Clubs, Associations, Networks
FUNCTION OF SOCIALIZATION
 Man from biological being to social being
 Development of the personality
 Helps to become disciplined
 Helps to enact different roles
 Provides knowledge and skills
 Helps to develop right aspirations of life
 Contributes to the stability of social order
 Helps to reduce social distance
 Provides scope for bright future
 Helps the transformation of culture
FORMAL AND NON FORMAL SOCIALIZATION

Formal socialization is learning skills, values, and norms with planned and organized experiences such
as in school. Informal socialization is learning without an institution or formal procedure.
Formal education – Organized, guided by a formal curriculum, leads to a formally recognized
credential such as a high school completion diploma or a degree, and is often guided and recognized
by government at some level. Teachers are usually trained as professionals in some way.
Non-formal learning – Organized (even if it is only loosely organized), may or may not be guided by
a formal curriculum. This type of education may be led by a qualified teacher or by a leader with more
experience. Though it doesn’t result in a formal degree or diploma, non-formal education is highly
enriching and builds an individual’s skills and capacities. Continuing education courses are an
example for adults. Girl guides and boy scouts are an example for children. It is often considered more
engaging, as the learner’s interest is a driving force behind their participation.
Informal learning – No formal curriculum and no credits earned. The teacher is simply someone with
more experience such as a parent, grandparent or a friend. A father teaching his child to play catch or a
babysitter teaching a child their ABC’s is an example of informal education.
These may be overly simplified explanations. There are times when the lines between each type of
learning get blurred, as well. It isn’t always as cut and dry as it seems, but these definitions give you a
general idea of each type of learning.
STAGES OF SOCIALIZATION
1. Oral Stage
2. Anal Stage
3. Genital (Oedipal) Stage
4. Latency Stage
5. Adolescence Stage.
Erikson (1950) believes that personality continues to be moulded throughout the entire lifespan from
birth to death. This period has been divided into eight stages by him. Each stage has its characteristic
features marked and affected by emotional crisis, particular culture of the person and his interaction
with the society of which he is a part.
1. ORAL STAGE:
This stage expands from zero to one-and-a-half years. During this period mouth is the sensitive zone
of the body and the main source of joy and pleasure for the child. How the infant is being cared for by
the mother makes the infant trust or mistrusts the world (represented by mother) around him. If his
wants are frequently satisfied, he develops trust and believes that the world will take care of him. In
case of frequent dissatisfaction, mistrust develops leading the infant to believe that the people around
him cannot be believed, relied on, and that he is going to lose most of what he wants. After the first six
months (sucking period), the remaining one year (biting period) is fairly difficult for the child and
mother because of eruption of teeth and weaning. If properly handled, infant’s trust gets reinforced and
he develops an in-built and lifelong spring of optimism and hope.
Broken Family: Persons, who had an unpleasant (abandoned, unloved and uncared) babyhood, are
likely to find parenthood as burdensome and may express dependent, helpless, abusive behaviour, and
angry outbursts i.e., oral character. To such people, caseworker is like parents, who helps the client to
verbalise his anger and distrust and later provides emotional support and protective services.
2. ANAL STAGE:
Towards the end of biting period of oral stage, the child is able to walk, talk, and eat on his own. He
can retain or release something that he has. This is true of bowel and bladder function also. He can
either retain or release his bowel and bladder contents. Now, the child no more depends upon the
mouth zone for pleasure. He now derives pleasure from bowel and bladder (anal zone) functioning,
which entails anxiety because of toilet training by parents. Child is taught where to pass urine and
where to go for defecation etc. In this training of bladder and bowel control, child may develop
autonomy, or shame and doubt. The task of anal is to develop autonomy. If the parents are supportive
without being overprotective and if the child is allowed to function with some independence, he gains
some confidence in his autonomy probably by the age of three and prefers love over hate, cooperation
over willfulness, and self-expression over suppression.
Autonomy, thus, overbalances shame and doubt and leads to development of confidence that he can
control his functions, and also, to some extent, the people around him. Contrary to this, the child may
feel angry, foolish and ashamed if parents criticise his faeces and over-control his bowel and bladder
functioning during the training for toilet. Observations of sanskaras convey acceptance to the child and
help the parents to train them in appropriate manner. The children (with more mistrust and doubt in
their share) when adults may need help in accepting failures and imperfection as an inherent part of
one’s life. By accepting the client as he is, the caseworker can reduce his feeling of self-hatred and
perfectionism. Over-demanding adults or those who express temper tantrums when asked to assume
responsibility may need to be helped to control their impulsive acts. They should be rewarded when
they exhibit controls, and one should reinforce their autonomy and independence when exercised.
Autonomy and independence are totally different from impulsive acts as these involve rationality and
not emotionality.
3. GENITAL (OEDIPAL) STAGE:
The task for this period is to develop and strengthen initiative, failing which the child develops a
strong feeling of guilt. This period extends from 3rd to 6th years of life, i.e., pre-school period. He is
now capable of initiating activity, both intellectual as well as motor on his own. How far this initiative
is reinforced depends upon how much physical freedom is given to the child and how far his curiosity
is satisfied. If he is led to feel bad about his behaviour or his interests, he may grow with a sense of
guilt about his self-initiated activities.
Erikson (1950) opines that the child takes first initiative at home when he/she expresses passionate
interest in his/her parent of opposite sex. The parents ultimately disappoint him/her. They should try to
help the child to identify with the same sex parent, e.g., the girl should be encouraged to identify with
mother and the son with the father. In addition to this initiative, the child also attempts to wrest a place
for self in the race of siblings for parents affection. He sees the difference between what he wants and
what he is asked to do. This culminates into a clear-cut division between the child’s set of expanded
desires and the parental set of restrictions. He gradually “turns these values (restrictions, i.e.,. don’ts)
into self-punishment”.
Slowly and gradually, he extracts more initiative from the conflict and grows happily if his initiative
gets proper and adequate reinforcement. The caseworker encourages the clients burdened with guilt
feelings to take initiative in family as well as in other situations, and works with his social
environment to strengthen his capacity to take initiative.
4. LATENCY STAGE:
This stage covers the period from 6 to 11 years, i.e., school age. The child can reason out rationally
and can use the tools that adults use. The sexual interests and curiosity (common in genital period) get
suppressed till puberty. If encouraged and given opportunity, he gains confidence in his ability to
perform and use adult materials. This leads to feeling of industry in him. When unable to use adult
materials, he develops inferiority feelings. Such children may develop problems with peers. They need
to be encouraged to interact with classmates and be less dependent upon others. If the child has
mastered the task of genital period (initiative in place of guilt) he will be able to master the tasks of
latency (industry in place of inferiority) also provided he is encouraged to undertake and helped to
execute the responsibilities entrusted to him.
5. ADOLESCENCE STAGE:
This period, regarded as a period of turmoil, usually starts at 12-13 years and can extend up to 18-19
years. The adolescents, during this transitional process from childhood to maturity, behave something
like an adult and sometimes like a child. Parents too show their ambivalence to accept them in their
new role of an adult in-the-making. This stage exhibits all the psycho-social characteristics of earlier
period and only towards the end, all these get resolved into a new set of role (identity) for the
adolescent. In order to develop a personal identity, he becomes fan of some hero, starts following
certain ideologies, and tries his luck with opposite sex.
Indecision and confusion are not uncommon in this stage. Identification with a wrong person shall
create problems for him. The task of this age is to develop identity, i.e., values, strengths, skills,
various roles, limitations, etc., failing which his identity gets diffused and he fails to know how to
behave in different situations. He needs to be helped to deal with the physiological, emotional
pressures along-with pressures from parents, peers, etc. Group work is more helpful with problem-
adolescents. When showing confusion about their role, they can be helped to emulate the group leader
or identify with group worker. Parents can handle adolescents properly if educated adequately about
the needs and problems of this age.
Similarly, tasks for young adulthood, adulthood and old age are intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs.
stagnation, and ego-integrity vs. despair. These psycho-analytical concepts are helpful in
understanding behaviour of the individuals. Apart from these, there are some other tasks described by
some other scholars for each stage which according to them are to be achieved for a normal human
development.
THEORIES OF SOCIALIZATION
1. THE LOOKING-GLASS SELF
(In 1902, Charles Horton Cooley created the concept of the looking-glass self, which explored how
identity is formed)
The looking-glass self is a social psychological concept created by Charles Horton Cooley in 1902. It
states that a person's self grows out of society's interpersonal interactions and the perceptions of others.
The term refers to people shaping their identity based on the perception of others, which leads the
people to reinforce other people's perspectives on themselves. People shape themselves based on what
other people perceive and confirm other people's opinion of themselves.
The looking-glass self is a social psychological concept, created by C H Cooley in 1902. A person's
self grows out of society's interpersonal interactions and the perceptions of others about him/her. A
social self of this sort might be called the reflected or looking-glass self. C.H. Cooley has summed it
up in his statement: "I am not what I think I am and I am not what you think I am; I am what I think
that you think I am. There are three main components of the looking-glass self:
 First, we imagine how we must appear to others.

 Second, we imagine the judgment of that appearance.
 Finally, we develop our self through the judgments of others.
The self builds only with the help of others. If others start treating a pretty girl as unattractive she will
never feel beautiful. We discover our self through the reactions of others is called “looking-glass self”.
In the looking-glass self a person views himself or herself through others' perceptions in society and in
turn gains identity. Identity, or self, is the result of the concept in which we learn to see ourselves as
others do (Yeung & Martin 2003). The looking-glass self begins at an early age and continues
throughout a person’s life.
In hypothesizing the framework for the looking glass self, Cooley said, "the mind is mental" because
"the human mind is social. " In other words, the mind's mental ability is a direct result of human social
interaction. Beginning as children, humans begin to define themselves within the context of their
socializations. The child learns that the symbol of his/her crying will elicit a response from his/her
parents, not only when they are in need of necessities, such as food, but also as a symbol to receive
their attention. George Herbert Mead described the self as "taking the role of the other," the premise
for which the self is actualized. Through interaction with others, we begin to develop an identity about
who we are, as well as empathy for others.
2. SIGMUND FREUD
(6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939). He is considered to be the founder of the psychodynamic
approach to psychology which looks closely at the unconscious drives that motivate people to act in
certain ways.
Freud’s Model of Personality

Basic drives and influence of society
Basic Human Needs Society in Action
The three parts of personality- operating within human mind

Ego
(the Control Centre)
A person’s conscious efforts to
balance innate pleasure-seeking
drives with the demands of society.
Id Superego
the instinctive and (the Police Force)
unsocialized desires. the operation of
It’s selfish & culture & society
antisocial within the individual
Learning Objectives
Explain the theory of psychosexual stages in the context of adult personality development. Describe
Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality
Key Points
Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality argues that human behavior is the result of the
interactions among three component parts of the mind: the id, ego, and superego. This "structural
theory" of personality places great importance on how conflicts among the parts of the mind shape
behavior and personality. These conflicts are mostly unconscious.
According to Freud, personality develops during childhood and is critically shaped through a series of
five psychosexual stages, which he called his psychosexual theory of development. During each stage,
a child is presented with a conflict between biological drives and social expectations; successful
navigation of these internal conflicts will lead to mastery of each developmental stage, and ultimately
to a fully mature personality. Freud's ideas have since been met with criticism, in part because of his
singular focus on sexuality as the main driver of human personality development.
THE Id
The id, the most primitive of the three structures, is concerned with instant gratification of basic
physical needs and urges. It operates entirely unconsciously (outside of conscious thought). For
example, if your id walked past a stranger eating ice cream, it would most likely take the ice cream for
itself. It doesn't know, or care, that it is rude to take something belonging to someone else; it would
care only that you wanted the ice cream. In other words, Id is
 The id is the only component of personality that is present from birth.
 This aspect of personality is entirely unconscious
 According to Freud, the id is the source of all psychic energy (libido)
 The id is driven by the pleasure principle, which strives for immediate gratification of all
desires, wants, and needs
 If these needs are not satisfied immediately, the result is a state of anxiety or tension
However, immediately satisfying these needs is not always realistic or even possible
THE EGO
In contrast to the instinctual id and the moral superego, the ego is the rational, pragmatic part of our
personality. It is less primitive than the id and is partly conscious and partly unconscious. It's what
Freud considered to be the "self," and its job is to balance the demands of the id and superego in the
practical context of reality. So, if you walked past the stranger with ice cream one more time, your ego
would mediate the conflict between your id ("I want that ice cream right now") and superego ("It's
wrong to take someone else's ice cream") and decide to go buy your own ice cream. While this may
mean you have to wait 10 more minutes, which would frustrate your id, your ego decides to make that
sacrifice as part of the compromise– satisfying your desire for ice cream while also avoiding an
unpleasant social situation and potential feelings of shame. The ego is,
 The ego is the component of personality that is responsible for dealing with reality.
 According to Freud, the ego develops from the id and ensures that the impulses of the id can be
expressed in a manner acceptable by the society
 The ego functions in the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind
 The ego operates based on the reality principle, which strives to satisfy the id's desires in
realistic and socially appropriate ways
 The reality principle weighs the costs and benefits of an action before deciding to act upon or
abandon impulses
THE SUPEREGO
The superego is concerned with social rules and morals—similar to what many people call their
"conscience" or their "moral compass." It develops as a child learns what their culture considers right
and wrong. If your superego walked past the same stranger, it would not take their ice cream because
it would know that that would be rude. However, if both your id and your superego were involved,
and your id was strong enough to override your superego's concern, you would still take the ice cream,
but afterward you would most likely feel guilt and shame over your actions. The super ego,
 The superego is the aspect of personality that holds all of our internalized moral standards and
ideals that we acquire from both parents and society
 The superego provides guidelines for making judgments.
 According to Freud, the superego begins to emerge at around age five.
 There are two parts of the superego:
 The ego ideal: includes the rules and standards for good behaviors.
 The conscious: includes information about things that are viewed as bad by parents and
society.
 Culture controls human drives through superego- Freud called it “Repression”
 The competing demands of self and society are resolved through compromise- Freud called it “
sublimation” which transforms selfish drives into socially accepted activities.
Freud believed that the id, ego, and superego are in constant conflict and that adult personality and
behavior are rooted in the results of these internal struggles throughout childhood. He believed that a
person who has a strong ego has a healthy personality and that imbalances in this system can lead to
neurosis (what we now think of as anxiety and depression) and unhealthy behaviors.
Critical Analysis
 We appreciate Freud’s idea that early childhood experiences have lasting impact on our
personalities, and
 That we internalize social norms, but
 Most of the critics of Freud’s era refused to accept sex as basic human need
 Recently, Freud’s theory is criticized as male centered thereby devaluing women.
 Also Freud made biology a centre point of his theory ignoring social, cultural and other
individual aspects.
VERY IMPORTANT TERMONOLOGIES TO UNDERSTAND CULTURE AND
SOCIOLOGY
1. SUB CULTURE:
"a cultural group within a larger culture, often having beliefs or interests at variance with those of the
larger culture. (Oxford dictionary)
A subculture is a culture within a broader mainstream culture, with its own separate values, practices,
and beliefs. In sociology, the concept of subculture explains the behavior of some social groups;
sociologists study subcultures as one way of studying culture.)
A subculture is a cultural group within a culture that differs in one or more ways from the culture. This
would include differences in interest, behaviors or beliefs, like religion, ethnicity, and social or
economic status.
capital" as the cultural knowledge and commodities acquired by members of a subculture, raising their
status and helping differentiate themselves from members of other groups (Sarah Thornton)
Sociologists Gary Alan Fine argued that their 1979 research showed that a subculture is a group that
serves to motivate a potential member to adopt the artifacts, behaviors, norms, and values
characteristic of the group
Subcultures exists within the Pakistan, India, Japan and United States. Ethnic and racial groups share
the language, food, and customs of their heritage. Other subcultures are united by shared experiences.
EXAMPLE:
 Pakistani society has various sub cultures in dining, drinking, dressing and other social walks
of life
 For example, Biker culture revolves around a dedication to motorcycles.
 Ex: Chinatown: has American traits like public schools/Tvs/radio but their own foods,
clothing, customs, celebrations
 Ex. Soldiers on a military base have special traits like a rigid ranking system, regulation, dorms
 Social networking websites are quickly becoming the most used form of communication and
means to distribute information and news. They offer a way for people with similar
backgrounds, lifestyles, professions or hobbies to connect.
 such as tattoos, piercings, and certain forms of plastic surgery.
2. COUNTER CULTURE: A counterculture (also written counter-culture) is a subculture

whose values and norms of behavior differ substantially from those of mainstream society, often in
opposition to mainstream cultural mores. A countercultural movement expresses the ethos and
aspirations of a specific population during a well-defined era.
 A counterculture is a subculture that rejects and opposes significant elements of the dominant
culture. Countercultures can take many forms, from religious cults to communes to political
parties. A counterculture is a group of people whose values, norms, and behavior clash with
those of the prevalent culture
 A counterculture is a kind of subculture, a culture within a culture; however, not all subcultures
are countercultures.
Sociologists use the concept of counterculture to identify cultures that are antagonistic to a dominant
culture. Today, members of anti-government militia groups exemplify a counterculture because such
groups favor much weaker governments than mainstream culture does. Countercultures sometimes
meet active or even violent resistance from the dominant culture.
EXAMPLE:
 HIPPIE MOMENTS: Hippies were traditionally groups of people who started their own
communities where recreational drugs and free sex practices were imbraced. Hippies opposed
nuclear weapons, the Vietnam war, and established institutions. They were eco-friendly, and
supported sexual liberation
 SDS (STUDENTS FOR DEMOCRATIC SOCIETY-USA): Began in the early 60’s.
Advocated non-violent civil disobedience. Student activists. Wanted radical change in the
government. Broke up in 1969 at their last convention. Criticized racial discrimination,
economic equality, big business, trade unions and political parties. Promoted better
representation of the citizens, additional welfare to deal with poverty, and more involvement of
workers in business management. SDS melt down created several individual groups led by
various members of the original organization. One group kept the ideas of SDS, non-violent
civil disobedience. The other wanted direct action against the government
 THE WEATHER UNDERGROUND: Created a bomb factory in New York and led
bombings against police stations, government buildings, and businesses. Led by William
Ayers. Currently a professor. Led bombings against the Chicago and New York police
departments and the Pentagon
 Gay culture
 Homosexual activities
 Thousands of teens and young adults left school, jobs, and traditional home life.
 Freedoms often led to problems with drug addiction
 Such as Americans became more casual in the way they dressed and more open-minded about
lifestyles and social behavior.
 Attitudes about sexual behavior loosened.
 New style called pop art emerged.
 Aimed to appeal to popular tastes
 Andy Warhol led the movement.
 Film broadened its subject matter as censorship rules relaxed.
 Film industry adopted a rating system.
 He Beatles brought new techniques and ideas to rock and roll.
 Bob Dylan wrote political songs and became the spokesperson for his generation.
 Woodstock Music and Art Fair was the celebration of an era.
 Several websites appeared that posted user-created short stories dealing with sex, drugs and
violence.
3. CULTURAL RELATIVISM
Cultural relativism : refers to the belief that we should not judge any culture as superior or inferior to
another culture. In this view, all cultures have their benefits and disadvantages, and we should not
automatically assume that our own culture is better and “their” culture is worse.
Different cultures have different moral codes. Therefore, there is no objective truth in morality. Right
and wrong are only matters of opinion, and opinions vary from culture to culture.
Cultural relativism is the anthropological principle stating that a person’s beliefs and activities must be
understood in the local context of that person’s own culture.
The actions rightness or wrongness depends entirely on the attitudes of the culture a person finds him
or herself to be in.
Different societies share many general principles and virtues
E.g. prohibitions on killing, lying, theft
Endorse care of the weak and courage
Different ethical practices reflect different conditions, not different principles
Aristotle: we all aim to achieve the best life
We all live in some society, and will need similar virtues for this. Some societies endorse traits that
don’t help people flourish
There is no one ‘best’ life for people – the idea is culturally relative. Not all societies believe everyone
is equal, so don’t agree that everyone should be assisted to achieve the best life.
4. CULTURAL LAG:
Within this century, life has been transformed by invention of the radio, TV, automobiles, airplanes,
rockets, transistors, and computers and so on. While this has been happening in material culture,
change in government, economic system, family life, education, and religion seems to have been much
slower. This difference in rates of cultural change led Ogburn to formulate the concept of culture lag.
Cultural lag is a term to describe what happens in a social system when the cultural ideas used to
regulate social life do not keep pace with other social changes.
Cultural lag is not only a concept, as it also relates to a theory and explanation in sociology.
It helps identify and explain social problems and also predict future problems.
According to Ogburn, cultural lag is a common societal phenomenon due to the tendency
of material culture to evolve and change rapidly and voluminously while non-material culture tends to
resist change and remain fixed for a far longer period of time.
Due to the opposing nature of these two aspects of culture, adaptation of new technology becomes
rather difficult.
EXAMPLES:
 Medical technology is being used to keep people’s bodies functioning long after they would
otherwise have been considered dead. This raises cultural questions about when life ends, who
has the right to end artificial life support, etc.
 Technological advancements or changes in society occur faster than the changes in the rules
and norms of the culture that go along with those advancements or changes. This can lead to
moral and ethical dilemmas for individuals as the new social norms are developed.
CULTURAL LAGS TODAY
 Cancer Vaccine - A new vaccine became available against cervical cancer. Many aspects of
society were not ready to approve the vaccine for their teenage children since they felt it
condoned sexual activity by young adults.
 Stem Cells -Research has shown that stem cells can be very effective in the treatment and cure
of several diseases. However, society often still sees the use of stem cells, particularly those
from an unborn fetus, to be an ethical issue.
 Virtual Medical Appointment - Another case of cultural lag in the medical community
involves situations in which technology is used as a means of checking up on a patient. For
instance, in one situation, a child had surgery far away from his home. After returning home,
his parents sent pictures of his healing wound to his surgeon to ensure that he was healing as he
should be. While, on the one hand, this can be a valuable tool, on the other hand the
consequences of using technology in that way have not been determined:
5. HIGH CULTURE
Understood as the culture of an educated elite. Hollywood cinema, Most television, Popular music,
Romantic fiction, French cinema, Opera on television, Classical music, Poetry etc.
Sociologists use the term high culture to describe the pattern of cultural experiences and attitudes that
exist in the highest class segments of a society. People often associate high culture with
intellectualism, political power, and prestige.
In America, high culture also tends to be associated with wealth. Events considered high culture can
be expensive and formal – attending a ballet, seeing a play, or listening to a live symphony
performance.
6. POPULAR CULTURE:
The term popular culture refers to the pattern of cultural experiences and attitudes that exist in
mainstream society.
Popular culture events might include a parade, a baseball game, or the season finale of a TV show.
Rock and pop music – “pop” short for “popular” – are part of popular culture.
In modern times, popular culture is often expressed and spread via commercial media such as radio,
television, movies, the music industry, publishers, and corporate-run websites. Unlike high culture,
popular culture is known and accessible to most people. You can share a discussion of favorite football
teams with a new coworker, or comment on “American Idol” when making small talk in line at the
grocery store. But if you tried to launch into a deep discussion on the classical Greek play Antigone,
few members of American society today would be familiar with it.
7. MULTICULTURALISM:
In sociology, multiculturalism is the view that cultural differences should be respected or even
encouraged. Sociologists use the concept of multiculturalism to describe one way of approaching
cultural diversity within a society. Underlying multiculturalism is the belief that members of different
cultures can live peacefully alongside each other; assimilation is not necessary, nor perhaps even
desirable.
Contrasted with multiculturalism is the "melting pot" perspective, according to which cultural
differences — such as differences in religion, language, and other customs — blend into another to
form a new whole. Proponents of multiculturalism favor people keeping at least some features of their
traditional culture.
The United States has often been described as a multicultural nation. Critics claim that
multiculturalism threatens social unity and the dominant culture.
Multiculturalism is a system of beliefs and behaviors that recognizes and respects the presence of all
diverse groups in an organization or society, acknowledges and values their socio-cultural
differences, and encourages and enables their continued contribution within an inclusive cultural
context which empowers all within the organization or society.
"Multiculturalism" is the co-existence of diverse cultures, where culture includes racial, religious, or
cultural groups and is manifested in customary behaviours, cultural assumptions and values, patterns
of thinking, and communicative styles.
8. ASSIMILATION
The term 'assimilation' again is in general use, being applied most often to the process whereby large
numbers of migrants from Europe were absorbed into the American population during the 19th and the
early part of the 20th century. The assimilation of immigrants was a dramatic and highly visible set of
events and illustrates the process well.
According to Young and Mack, Assimilation is the fusion or blending of two previously distinct
groups into one. For Bogardus Assimilation is the social process whereby attitudes of many persons
are united and thus develop into a united group.
The term 'assimilation' again is in general use, being applied most often to the process whereby large
numbers of migrants from Europe were absorbed into the American population during the 19th and the
early part of the 20th century. The assimilation of immigrants was a dramatic and highly visible set of
events and illustrates the process well.
9. ACCULTURATION
Acculturation: the convergence and acceptance of one culture into another.
Culture A Culture B (English language from USA to Chinese masses)
Acculturation refers to the processes that occur when different individuals or groups of people meet
and exchange aspects of their culture. Due to advances in transportation, communication,
and technology, there has been a significant increase in the interactions among different cultures. As a
result, understanding acculturation, and learning how to accomplish it effectively, has become vital to
the future of the world.
ANTICIPATED AND PAST QUESTIONS ON CULTURE:-
1) What is the role of culture in socialization of an individual to become a useful member
of society? Discuss with examples.
2) Short note – Ethnocentrism and Xenocentrism
3) Discuss the role of culture and social group in the formation of personality.
4) Ethnocentrism leads to sectarianism. Is it so? How both are number one problems of
Pakistan? What are the remedies?
5) Define and corroborate – Culture and sub-culture
6) Short note – Ethnocentrism
7) Short note – Value and norm
8) Define culture. Use this definition as a framework and discuss the salient features of
Pakistani culture.
9) Prove that “individual is a social produce”. Highlight the contribution of culture and
society in this process.
10) Culture is everything which is socially learned and shared by the members of a society.
Discuss by giving examples from Pakistan society.
11) “The cultural deception of the West and the cultural diffusion of the East lead to
anomic.” Elucidate.
12) Often social change results in social disorganization. What cultural prerequisite can
avoid such situation?
13) Why is culture indispensable to human society and what part do norms and values play
in social life.”
14) It has been said that a person raised in one culture may learn to act like people in an
adopted culture, but will never be able to think and feel like a person of adopted culture.
Do you agree?
15) Discuss the role of media in social and cultural change in Pakistan. What type of social
planning/policy is needed to direct this change in the context of our own social and
cultural values? Discuss with examples.

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Fayaz A.

Soomro, Faculty Member, National Officer's Academy-Chapter-2 (Culture)

Components of culture: A culture is a abstract nature of phenomenon, therefore, components of

MEANING AND CHARACTERISTICS:

PAKISTANI CULTURE IS AN ISLAMIC CULTURE

i. INTEGRITY: Integrity stretches to all aspects of an employee's job. An employee with

SOME EXAMPLES OF ETHNOCENTRISM:

HOW TO REDUCE XENOCENTRISM IN PAKISTAN:

FORMAL AND NON FORMAL SOCIALIZATION

 First, we imagine how we must appear to others.

Freud’s Model of Personality

The three parts of personality- operating within human mind

2. COUNTER CULTURE: A counterculture (also written counter-culture) is a subculture

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