Culture,

Communication,
and Society

Unit 2.3
What is Culture?

Culture is a concept that is a little difficult to explain and comprehend but is essential when we
are studying human behavior, society, and the world we live in. Culture can mean different as
we use the term to suggest different concepts. One popular usage of the term culture is how
we describe a refined and sophisticated man well versed in the world of literature, art, drama,
or music. But this is not how we define culture in sociology and in other disciplines that study
human behavior. We have to give more emphasis on learning about culture through the
different lenses of the different studies and disciplines.

Definitions of Culture

The following are definitions given by experts in different fields:

That complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, art, law, morals, customs and other
capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.

 Edward B. Taylor (1971), Anthropologist

Culture is all the socially learned behaviors, beliefs, feelings and values the members of a group
or society experience.

 Persell (1984)

Is an elaborate system of standard expected ways of feeling and acting which the members of
society generally acknowledge and generally follow.

 Horton and Hunt (1984)

The total way of life shared by members of a society. It includes material products as well as
patterned, repetitive ways of thinking, feeling and acting.

 Brinkershoff (198
Functions of Culture

Culture plays vital functions for the members of a society.

1. Culture gives us the knowledge and know-how to survive and cope with the problems of
life through the knowledge and patterns of behavior learned from the many generations
of human experience.

2. Culture dictates directions on the biological continuity of a specific cultural group

through the reproduction of their members.

3. Culture provides a range of activities that let people control the forces of nature for
them to satisfy their own human needs and desires.

4. Culture ensures peace and order by setting up standards of behaviors that have to be
followed by the members of the society.
5. Culture is a strategy utilized by man to survive in any given environment by using his
material culture, specifically his tools and technology.
6. Culture plays a big role in the development of the personality of members of society.
From the moments he is born, he is socialized to conform to the norms and ideals of the
group. The individual incorporates the habits, values, attitudes, aspirations,
idiosyncrasies, and other orientations of his society.

Eight Attributes of Culture

1. Language

 Simply put, there is certain language used in a country, province, area that
makes one culture unique or different from other cultures.

 Filipino (Standardized National Language), Tagalog (Austronesian language of

the Tagalog)

 Bisaya, Pangasinan, Kapampangan, Waray, Ilocano are all considered as

languages. Dialects are forms of a language which is peculiar to a specific
region or social group (Example: Ilocano of the Ilocos Provinces are different
to the ones in La Union and Pangasinan).

 Language and culture have a complex, homologous relationship. Language is

complexly intertwined with culture (they have evolved together, influencing
one another in the process, ultimately shaping what it means to be human). In
this context, A.L. Krober (1923) said, “culture, then, began when speech was
present, and from then on, the enrichment of either means the further
development of the other”. We also have to remember that culture is passed
 on from generation to generation through language and communication,
specifically by verbal communication.

2. Laws and Politics

 Laws and Politics may differ from country to country, depending on what kind of
political and legal landscape they have in each of these countries.

 Politics
- The Philippines is a Republic with a presidential form of government
with a multi- party-political system.
- The USA is a federal constitutional republic with a two-party system
dominated by the Democratic Party and the Republican Party (bipartisan
political system). 

 Laws
 Constitution (basic principles and laws of a nation, state, or social group)
 National Law is often referred to as domestic law, are those laws that
exist “within” a particular nation 
 Statute is a formal written enactment of a legislative authority that
governs the legal entities of a city, state, or country by way of consent.
Statutes command or prohibit something, or declare policy.
 Code is a collection of written laws gathered together, usually covering
specific subject matter.
 Ordinances is a piece of legislation enacted by a municipal authority.

3. Technology and Material Culture

 Material culture refers to the physical objects, resources, and spaces that

people use to define their culture.
 Examples: tools, weapons, utensils, machines, ornaments, art, buildings,
monuments, written records, religious images, clothing, and any other
ponderable objects produced or used by humans.
 In today’s world of technology, material culture became more advanced
with the use of modern machines and computers that continuously
innovates according to the need of people.

4. Values and Attitudes

 A person's cultural beliefs and his or her society's beliefs influence socio-

cultural attitudes.
 Values are basic and fundamental beliefs that guide or motivate attitudes
or actions. They help us to determine what is important to us. 
  Examples of values are dependability, reliability, loyalty, commitment,
open-mindedness, consistency, honesty, efficiency, innovation, creativity,
good humor, compassion, spirit of adventure, motivation, positivity,
optimism, passion, respect, fitness, courage, education, perseverance,
patriotism, service to others, environmentalism, money.
 Culture is significant in shaping individual and cultural values,
preferences, beliefs and attitudes of the members of the society.

5. Education

 Education plays a very important role in the development of culture; both

inter connected with each other. Education not only teaches about the
social and cultural values of a specific culture but also knowledge of
ethics, norms, and traditions.
 Education helps in the establishment of schools, colleges, and
universities. Education prepares the students in dealing with cultural
ethics and norms that they will need in their social interactions and
behavior.

6. Social Organization

 Social organization is nonrandom pattern within human populations that

comprise society by sharing the main aspects of a common existence
over time as well as nonrandom patterning, the human and interhuman
activities through which patterns are formed, retained, altered, or
replaced.
 Examples: Colleges, businesses, political parties, the military, universities,
and hospitals are all examples of formal organizations, which are
secondary groups that have goal‐directed agendas and activities. In
contrast to official organizations, the informal relations among workers
comprise informal organizations.

7. Religion
 Religion and culture are inseparable, as beliefs and practices are uniquely
cultural. For example, religious rituals (one type of practice) unite
believers in a religion and separate nonbelievers.
 Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, Folk Religions, Sikhism

8. Aesthetics

 Aesthetics are a philosophy of beauty, one that defines how

a culture understands beauty in art. Every culture has its own set
of aesthetic values, so we can say that the standards of beauty may vary
from culture to culture.
Seven Major Characteristics of Culture

1. Culture is shared

Every culture is shared by a group of people, usually inhabiting the same part of the world. The
region they live in, the geographical conditions around them, their country’s past, the belief
system and values of its people, and the heritage they are proud of, constitute their culture.
Being common to a group, these aspects develop a sense of unity and belonging among the
people of that group. People of the same community share the same values, beliefs, and
traditions. Their literature and history are the same. Their language and mannerisms, and the
way they communicate is similar. Built by their belief system, their personalities share certain
traits. Their roles in the family and society are defined by their culture. Their occupations and
lifestyles may be influenced by their culture. Culture gives the people a collective identity. It
belongs to a community and not to any single human being. It is shared.

2. Culture is learned.

Culture is not biologically passed from older generations to the newer ones. It is learned
through experience. The members of a culture share certain ideals which shape their lives. The
future generations learn to follow the same ideals. Culture propagates through generations,
which adopt their old customs and traditions as a part of their culture. The ideals they base
their lives on, is a part of their culture. Cultural values are imparted from one generation to
another, which is the reason why they continue. The language, the literature, and the art forms
pass down from generation to generation. Culture is learned, understood, and adopted from
what is taught by society and assimilated from the environment. No individual is born with a
sense of culture. In the course of life, he learns it.

3. Culture changes.

Cultures undergo a gradual change. With passing time, some beliefs change, certain traditions
or rituals are eliminated, language and mannerisms of people change, and thus their culture.
Migration and globalization lead to a mixing of cultures. When people from different parts of
the world come together, they influence each other and effectively, each other’s cultures.
These factors contribute to the formation of a multicultural society and sometimes, even new
cultures develop.

Over time, some traditions are dropped out of a culture because they are dangerous or due to
their arduous nature. Due to education and increased awareness, newer generations become
flexible to change and look at concepts like religion and culture with a broader perspective and
have a liberal view about them. So some rituals or customs become less rigid, some are
replaced by simpler ones and some are discontinued.

4. Culture takes years to form.

It is true that culture influences us, but it is also true that we influence culture. In fact, culture
evolves over time and takes years to develop. 

The geographical location and climatic conditions of a region have a direct effect on the living
conditions of the inhabitants. The climate, for instance, may influence the traditional clothing
and food habits of the people living there. The geography of a region has an impact on the
occupations of its inhabitants, and thus their lifestyle. It influences the art forms, sports, and
other activities the people engage in, thus defining their culture.

A country’s history has a major role in the formation of its culture. Even the political changes in
the country’s history influence its culture. In case of monarchies, each ruler has an influence on
the culture of his people. The forms of government also influence a country’s culture. Other
countries ruling a nation impact the culture of its people. Even after attaining independence
from foreign powers, the people are not freed from their cultural influences.

5. Culture cannot be isolated.

Studies have brought out the fact that no culture can remain in isolation. There is hardly any
social community that is completely isolated from the rest of the world. Every culture is mostly
influenced by cultures of the surrounding regions. Years ago, there were tribal societies that
stayed in seclusion, unaware of the world outside. Today, most of these once-secluded groups
are connected to the rest of the world. And there is hardly any community, and thereby any
culture which is totally isolated.

The cultural values of people in a particular country are affected by those of the people from
neighboring countries. When people from different geographical locations come together, they
influence each other’s cultures. Trade between two countries, migration of people to different
parts of the world, and travel for educational or recreational purposes are some examples of
how cultures cannot stay separated. Cultures that evolve around the same time show
similarities because they have developed together. Some blend to create shared cultures. No
culture can make itself immune to external influences.

6. Culture is essential.

Culture gives us an identity. The art and history that we are proud of, the literature we learn
from, our education, and our upbringing shapes our personalities. What we observe around us,
what our folk tales teach us, and what our culture says, is deeply ingrained in our minds. Our
cultural values, and our system of beliefs dictates our thinking and behavior. Rituals and
traditions are a part of our daily living. The way we carry ourselves in society and who we are as
human beings, is highly influenced by the culture we belong to. To make us feel a part of the
group and to give us the guiding principles of life, culture is essential.

7. Culture is transmitted across generations.

Cultural values are transferred across generations in the form of symbols and stories that make
them easier to understand. The beliefs that a culture holds, take the form of customs and
rituals that people are supposed to follow. The languages which are a part of culture, are
integrated into the education system. Sometimes, values and religious beliefs are also made a
part of it. The art, music, and dance forms that are representative of a culture are also
transmitted across generations.

Components of Culture

The elements of culture are norms, folkways, mores, values, and material culture. They all
contribute to the culture and life of people.

1. Norms
 There are rules or standards of behavior expected of us to be followed in
certain situations.

An idea in the minds of the members of a group, an idea that can be put in the form of a
statement specifying what the other members or men should do, ought to do, and are expected
to do under certain circumstances.

 Homans (1950)

 What is important in a norm is that any departure from it is followed by

some punishment or sanctions.

 Norms are the groups or society‘s standard or morality, propriety, ethics

and legality. They are important for the formation and existence of
groups. They define the tasks and group expectations to make group
activity and cooperation possible.

 Norms vary from society or from group to another in societies. These

differ according to the age, sex, religions, or race of the group. What
maybe appropriate behavior in one culture maybe disrespectful or
inappropriate in another culture?

2. Folkways and Mores

  Folkways maybe defined as customary ways of behaving, usually have no
particular moral significance.

 As part of human culture, man has developed and organized habits and
customs. There are many folkways centering on activities such as eating,
fighting, dressing, marriage, birth, death, art, etc.

 When the folkways of the groups take an added importance and become
compulsive and essential to the well-being of the groups, the term mores
is used.

 Perhaps stricter than folkways are mores because they can lead to a
violation of what we view as moral and ethical behavior. Mores are
norms of morality, or right and wrong, and if you break one it is often
considered offensive to most people of a culture.

 Some important mores involve respect for authority, sex and marriage
behavior, and private ownership of property, division of labor and anti-
slavery. One will not openly practice polygamy today because society will
not tolerate behavior that is not in accordance with the accepted mores.
Society punishes violation of the mores by ostracism.

 Other examples of mores are abuse of drugs such as heroin and cocaine,
driving without a license, stealing, murder, and child abuse.

 Laws are formalized norms. Some of the mores are enacted into laws and
enforced by political and legal authorities. These laws based on the
mores are those that deal with the basic processes of human life like
birth, death, marriage, distribution of property and other similar aspects
of life.

3. Taboos

 A taboo is a social or cultural banning of an act. Although the act might

not be illegal or punished, it is strongly derided. People raised within the
culture are highly unlikely to do the act and highly likely to judge people
who violate the taboo.

 In many Jewish and Muslim communities, people are

forbidden from eating pork.
 In Western cultures which value youth, asking a woman’s
age is often discouraged.
  In some Polynesian communities, people are forbidden to
touch the shadow of a chief

 However, some anthropologists have argued that a few behaviors are
universally taboo. These may include incest, cannibalism, and killing
one’s parents. The psychiatrist Sigmund Freud argued these were likely
universal taboos.

4. Sanction
 In order to let the members of society conform or behave in ways
prescribed for them, there are ways and means to make them do so.
Conformity is attained through the use of sanction or a system of reward
and punishment. Rewards are positive sanction for those who behave
improperly.

5. Values - * The same discussion with the attributes of culture.

6. Material Culture - * The same discussion with the attributes of culture.

Other Cultural Concepts

1. Cultural Universal

 A comparison of culture all over the world will show similarities in the
broad areas of culture.

 When the same pattern of culture is found among people as different as

the mountain tribes and the modern group which we call ―civilized
people‖, we call these phenomenon cultural universals.

 Fundamental areas of social living found in all societies such as speech

and language, material traits, art, mythology, social systems, religious
practices, property, government etc.
 Whisler (1923)

2. Cultural Diversity
 Despite uniformities in culture all over the world, there is a wide range of
differences in the various aspects of culture and social organization.
Chinese and Japanese use chopsticks in eating, the Japanese and Thais
bow very low in greeting, the Indians do not eat beef, the Muslims do not
eat pork, the Christian scientist are vegetarians.
  Differences in geographical characteristics like climate, topography, soil
conditions and natural resources account for social and cultural
difference.

 Culture plays an important role in shaping and modeling one‘s way of life.
Eating habits, attitudes towards food, even taste, are culturally defined.
Definitions of appropriate behaviors are culturally prescribed and these
differ from one group to another.

3. Cultural Relativism

 Christian Filipinos believe in monogamy, and for most Christian divorce is

not acceptable. The Muslim Filipinos and some cultural minorities on the
other hand practice polygamy.

 When the anthropologist began to study the culture of other societies by

living with the people- the so called ―savages‖ – they found out that the
latter were really ―people‖ just like them. So they started to study
people on their (the people‘s) own terms. They asked questions as to
whether the culture satisfied the needs and expectations of these people.
Anthropologists now hold that there is no single universal standard to be
used to judge any culture‘s way of life.

 The principle of cultural relatively is that every culture must be judged by

its own standards, and a culture pattern or trait must be viewed in terms
of its meaning, function or significance in the culture of which it is a part.
So, before considering as something ridiculous, improper or wrong, we
have to consider its meaning in the culture to which it belongs. In such a
way, we develop understanding and tolerance for the people in other
cultures.

4. Ethnocentrism

 Literally, it means, ―our group is the center. Some societies believe that
their culture is superior to other cultures. This belief is ideally not true
because every group of people have a culture on their own.

 Example: People develop culture by adaptation to their environment, it

means that mountain people like the Negritoes develop behavior and
ways of life adapted to their mountain environment. It does not mean
that their culture is inferior to the urban and more complicated culture of
industrialized societies.
  Ethnocentrism has its value to the group. It enhances the conviction that
one‘s beliefs and behaviors reinforce the tendency to confirm and defend
one‘s society. It leads to nationalism and love of country.

5. Xenocentrism

 Is a culturally-based tendency to value other cultures more highly than

one’s own, which can materialize in a variety of different ways. In the
United States, for instance, it is often assumed that European products
such as wine and cheese are superior to those produced locally.

 In a more extreme sense, some cultures may idolize other cultures, such
as the Japanese anime genre idolizing American beauty in its art, wherein
it emphasizes such features as large eyes, angular jaws, and light skin.

 Xenocentrism relies instead on a fascination with others' culture and a

contempt for one's own, often spurred by gross injustice of government,
antiquated ideologies, or oppressive religious majorities.

6. Xenophobia

 Xenophobia or fear of strangers, is a broad term that may be applied to

any fear of someone who is different from us. Hostility towards outsiders
is often a reaction to fear.

 Xenophobia often overlaps with forms of prejudice including racism and

homophobia, but there are important distinctions. Where racism,
homophobia, and other forms of discrimination are based on specific
characteristics, xenophobia is usually rooted in the perception that
members of the outgroup are foreign to the ingroup community.

Roles of Communication in Society

1. Political Role - Communication has the role of providing information upon which
political decisions of leaders and the general public are based.

A. Disseminating Information – It is the role of the communication

practitioners especially the ones in the media to inform the public on
what is happening in the society. With the technology we have now,
information about politics, economics, war, or even natural disasters can
be disseminated in real time all over the world.
 B. Creating Public Opinion – One of the roles of communicators is to bring in
all kinds of information and all shades of opinion to the market so that
the public may choose.

C. Reflecting Public Opinion - Reflecting public opinion is the other side of

the coin. What the people think about the government – its programs,
policies, administration – and other vital issues concerning them are
effectively brought to the attention of the rulers through communication
practitioners – in editorials, columns, commentaries, letters to the editor,
even in the patronage or non-patronage of certain newspapers,
magazines or other media.

D. Watchdog on Government - In the classical libertarian tradition, the

press was looked upon as a ―fourth estate independent of the other
centers of power (the monarchy, church and parliament) and existing as
a power to challenge the power centers when they became abusive and
corrupt. The mass media are the conscience of government and the
champions of the people.

2. Economic Role
 Communication in highly developed countries like United States and
Japan boosts the economy through the power of advertising.
Manufacturers engage in mass production of goods, whether essential,
consumer or luxury goods, and then use the power of mass
communication (advertising) to sell them to the public. Advertising
makes people aware of their needs and then aware of products to
satisfy their needs. Advertising moves the mass – produced goods from
the factories to the supermarkets and eventually to the homes of the
consumers.

3. Social Role
 Communication contribute to the dissemination of information and
popularization of practice that all add up to the cultural heritage of a
nation.

 Popular Culture can be defined as the various strands that are woven
into this social fabric include customs, fads, fashions, folk songs, pop
tunes, folk art, lingo, technology, norms, beliefs, personalities and even
superstitions.

 Nation Building
- This task of building a common culture is an important role for
communication, both, in developed and developing countries. In
developed countries the nation is already built and that social
fabric is woven to add to an already existing culture. But in
developing countries, like the Philippines, the building of a
common culture is more like building a nation.

- In an analysis of the problems plugging Philippines society, one

sociologist has said the cause can be traced to our lack of unity.
- We are a fragmented society. He said, ―We are split into the rich
and the poor; the elite and the masses; the English-speaking and
the dialect-speaking; the Catholics and the Muslims; the
―stateside and the native, the Ilocanos and the Bicolanos. We are
divided into clans and barangays, with only a seeming sense of
attachment to national values
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