Wittenberg History Journal: N P G, F o

Wittenberg History Journal
Spring 2015
New Perspectives on Gender,

Faith and the Other
Wittenberg History Journal Contents
Spring 2015 | Volume XLIV
Hartje Award Winner
New Perspectives on Gender, Faith and the Other 1 Never Mind the Romans, Here’s Attila: The Brief and
Wittenberg University Bloody Reign of the Great Hunnic Leader
Springfield, Ohio
Scott Neall
2015 Editorial Board
Senior Editors I. Religion and the Other
Ashleigh Pierce ‘15 5 The Christianization of the Germanic Tribes
Hannah Sanders ‘15
Hannah Sanders
Junior Editors
Keri Heath ‘16 13 Monstrous Races on the Central Tympanum at Vézelay:
Kaitlyn Vazquez ‘16 Constructing “the Other” in Medieval Society
Faculty Advisor
Caitlin Green
Joshua Paddison 23 The Formation of Al Qaeda
The Hartje Paper Nicole Waers
The Martha and Robert G. Hartje Award is presented annually to a senior in the spring semester.The
History Department determines the three or four finalists who then write a 600 to 800 word narrative II. Premodern Femininities
essay on an historical event or figure.The finalists must have at least a 2.7 grade point average and 33 Inanna-Ishtar: Recognizing the Personality and
have completed at least six history courses.The winner is awarded $500 at a spring semester History
Department colloquium and the winner paper is included in the History Journal. This year’s Hartje Purpose of a Goddess
Award was presented to Scott Neall. Ashleigh Pierce
On the Cover 49 Influential Women of the Mongol Empire

Burney Relief, ca. 1750 BCE, British Museum, London Terri Paulsen
Address Correspondence to:

III. Review Essay
Editor
The Wittenberg History Journal 59 The Evolution of Childhood’s History
Department of History Keri Heath
Wittenberg University
P. O. Box 720
Springfield, OH 45501-0720
Dedication
Never Mind the Romans, Here’s Attila: The Brief and
The staff of the History Journal dedicates Bloody Reign of the Great Hunnic Leader
this issue to Dr. Amy Livingstone, whose Scott Neall
dedication to Wittenberg’s history students
and passion for education has inspired us Despite his reputation for being a merciless killer and the Roman forces in the east and march as far as Thermopylae.2
credit many give him for truly starting the demise of the He eventually withdrew and engaged in peace negotiations
to push our limits of though, research, and Roman Empire, it can be hard to take Attila seriously. One with Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II, but
scholarship.Through her tireless work and can scarcely imagine him as anything other than a screaming Theodosius died before they were completed. Rather than
barbarian wreaking havoc on a scale of Hollywood take advantage of that death or retaliate when Theodosius’s
caring advising, she encourages students to proportions. His tenure as sole ruler of the Huns, which son, Marcian, ceased paying tribute to the Huns, Attila
meet their fullest potential. involved his famous, devastating attack into Italy that may
have garnered approval from Michael Bay or Mel Gibson,
decided to engage with the western Romans after this
campaign.3
was predicated on political maneuvering that was in fact The events that sparked Attila’s eventual invasion of the
more deft than brutish. Like many good stories, the tale of Western Roman Empire defy the commonly held view of
this invasion starts with a death. him as the mindless, bloodthirsty destroyer of civilization.
According to Roman historians such as Marcellinus, After his return from the invasion in the east Attila received
who had spent time in Attila’s court, Attila assassinated his an envoy from the Honoria, the sister of Western Roman
elder brother and co-ruler Bleda on or around 445 CE.1 Emperor Valentinian III.Valentinian had arranged her
The Huns had for many years enjoyed success against engagement with a man but she was against the marriage
a variety of sedentary empires under their combined so she asked Attila for assistance in the matter. She had sent
leadership. Nevertheless, Attila appears to have desired for with the envoy treasure and promises of more and, most
more power and autonomy over the Hunnic empire and the importantly, a ring.4 Attila took this as an invitation to
removal of his brother would have been a straightforward marriage and responded that he would help Honoria if she
method of accomplishing this.The intrigue involved with would become his wife.5 This was a savvy political move,
an assassination is a far cry from the mounted invasions for as it gave Attila a position to bargain with the Romans
which Attila is famous; one might expect pitched combat for and justification for war. He did just that, and demanded
control of the forces rather than a quiet death about which Valentinian give to him Honoria and half of the Western
little is known.Without firsthand accounts of Bleda’s death Roman Empire.6 With neither of these forthcoming, Attila
there has been some debate over its exact nature, but it is launched an attack.
certain that after he gained control over the entirety of the Attila first attacked into Gaul, rather than Italy, and was
Hunnic forces his focus was on Rome. met there by Roman general Aetius. Aetius had been a
Attila’s invasion of the Eastern Roman Empire in 447 captor of the Huns earlier in his life and was familiar with
took advantage of the lack of cohesion among the Romans. their tactics, and so when they met in battle on June 20, 451,
At this point in its history the Roman empire was not wholly at the Catalaunian Fields, both sides received heavy losses
united but instead had relatively autonomous emperors and Attila was forced to withdraw.7 In 452 Attila finally
ruling from Constantinople in the east and Ravenna in the began the invasion that made him the most famous and
west.This arrangement would have worked better in the mid crossed the Alps into Italy. In northern Italy he sacked cities
to late fifth century if not for a variety of nomadic groups, such as Aquileia, Pavia, and Milan.8 When he finally reached
notably the Huns at this point, occupying the space between Rome, however, he was famously persuaded to spare the
the two.When Attila invaded he was able to defeat the city and cease his offensive by Pope Leo.Whether because of
Vol. XLIV, Spring 2015 •1

fear of divine retribution, lack of supplies stemming from a
drought in Italy, or a plague that had ravaged his soldiers, or
any combination thereof, Attila was persuaded and withdrew
from Italy.9 Just a year later, in 253, eight years after he
assumed total control of the Huns, Attila died of a blood
hemorrhage on his wedding night with a new bride.
Attila is infamous in western history as the man that
brought about the end of the Roman Empire through a
Section I.
bloody invasion of Italy. In some ways, this is exactly what
he did: in a few short years he attacked several parts of the
Roman Empire, destabilizing an already declining civilization.
Religion and The Other
However, this was only possible because of successful
statecraft both internally and externally, in addition to his
military success. Attila may have been an uncommon leader,
but the conditions that lead to Rome’s downfall were already
in place when Attila decided to take Honoria as his wife
and threaten the heart of the Roman Empire. Rather than
a crazed lunatic who plunged Europe into the Dark Ages,
Attila is perhaps better remembered as a savvy leader who
dominated his neighbors through negotiation as well as
military force.
Endnotes
1
Christopher Kelly, The End of Empire: Attila the Hun and the Fall
of Rome (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2009), 129.
2
Christopher Beckwith, Empires of the Silk Road: A History
of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present (Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press, 2009), 97.
3
Beckwith, Empires of the Silk Road, 97.
4
E. A. Thompson, The Huns (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing,
1999), 145.
5
Kelly, The End of Empire, 225-26.
6
Ibid., 236.
7
Beckwith, Empires of the Silk Road, 98.
8
Kelly, The End of Empire, 259.
9
Ibid., 262.
Bibliography
Kelly, Christopher. The End of Empire: Attila the Hun and the Fall
of Rome. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2009. Vézelay Abbey, northern Burgundy, France.
Beckwith, Christopher. Empires of the Silk Road: A History of
Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. Princeton,
NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009.
Thompson, E. A. The Huns. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 1999.
2 • The Wittenberg History Journal

The Christianization of the Germanic Tribes
Hannah Sanders
Whether Rome fell due to the barbarian invasions or the in this essay: Glory of the Confessors and History of the Franks.
spirit of Rome was transformed into the new Germanic Glory is a collection of stories on Christian miracles and
kingdoms, the role of Christianity was instrumental in the the people, confessors, responsible for them. History is a
progression of European civilization. Christianity has a chronological account of the Franks, from creation to
turbulent history; from its very beginnings, followers of this Gregory’s own time. It is mostly used here for its sections
obscure religion faced persecution from the Roman Empire on Clovis and the Frankish kingdom. Another primary
under almost every emperor for a few hundred years.Things source is The Origins and Deeds of the Goths, or Getica, by
changed in the fourth century, however, with Constantine Jordanes.This chronological account of the Gothic people
issuing edicts of toleration towards Christians and Theodosius is used here mainly as a reference for their spiritual customs.
I proclaiming Christianity the official religion of the empire. Ammianus Marecellinus’ work, Res Gestae, a history of the
In the meantime, the Germanic tribes on the borders of late Roman Empire, is used in the paper for information on
the Roman Empire were encountering Christianity and the Germanic tribes with relation to Rome.This paper also
eventually converting.This did not mean that the barbarian utilizes the works of Martin of Braga and Maximus of Turin,
invaders felt more solidarity with the Romans; indeed, bishops of the west, for references regarding the conversion
Rome itself fell to the Christian Ostrogoths in 476 CE. If to Christianity among the Germanic peoples.
not for the Christianized Germanic tribes, Christianity may It is important to understand that Germanic paganism
have fallen into obscurity, at least in the West, after the fall was not a single entity; the various tribes naturally held
of the Western Roman Empire.The intent of this essay is various beliefs and carried out differing rituals. “Paganism” is
to chronicle the pre-Christian customs of the Germanic not an adequate term either, as the Christians used this word
tribes as related to their susceptibility to Christianity, their for any of the vastly differing groups of non-Christians.1
preliminary conversions to Arian Christianity as encouraged Paganism is not a religion; it is the absence of Christian belief.
by the Goths, the eventual role of Catholic Christianity and As such, it is more fitting to refer to this particular belief
the Franks, and the effects of Christianity on the fledgling system as pre-Christian or “traditional” Germanic spirituality.
Christian Germanic kingdoms. All of this supports the theory Additionally, it was possible, even normal, for people to retain
that the Christianization of the Germanic tribes allowed their ancestral beliefs while incorporating worship of the
for the continuation and spread of Christianity in Western Christian god at the same time.2 The modern understanding
Europe in the following centuries, up until the present day. of religion tends to focus on belief in a particular god;
Several primary sources are utilized in this paper.The traditional Germanic spirituality, however, cannot be
first that will be encountered is Germania by Tacitus, an understood this way. It was characterized more by a system of
ethnography of the Germanic people by a Roman senator rituals, social conventions, and customs.3 Religious practices
and historian.This work deals with the origins, land, and in reality were quite complicated, and Germanic traditional
customs of the Germanic tribes, some of which are described beliefs can be hard to reconstruct.The only written records
in detail. Material regarding their spiritual customs has been of pre-Christian practices among the Germanic tribes were
used in this paper. Another primary source used is the Bible, written by strong Christian believers; the Germanic peoples
the collection of sacred Christian texts.This paper utilizes themselves did not write down their traditional beliefs in
sections of the Bible regarding Christian doctrine, beliefs, their own, undoubtedly more sympathetic, words.4 Though
and customs.Two works by Gregory of Tours are referenced Christian writers protested this, there are many parallels
Vol. XLIV, Spring 2015 •5

between characteristics of traditional Germanic spirituality It would not be unfair to characterize the pre-Christian his beloved Spouse, the Church, a memorial of his death himself seven times in Jordan, according to the saying of the
and those of Christianity.This certainly facilitated the later beliefs and practices of the Germanic tribes as violent and and resurrection.”21 They believed that the bread and wine man of God: and his flesh came again like unto the flesh of
conversions of the Germanic tribes. literally bloodthirsty.The violence associated with animal they consumed was transformed and that they were literally a little child, and he was clean.”28 There is also the obvious
One of the most important aspects of Germanic sacrifice is a given, but traditional Germanic spirituality eating Jesus’s flesh and blood. As such, the Eucharist carries association between bodies of water and baptism. Baptism
spirituality, and indeed many belief systems in Europe and prescribed a fixation and veneration of blood. Blood was an interesting association with cannibalism. As Jesus was is the Christian sacrament of admittance to the faith by a
around the world, was sacrifice of both animate beings and used as a kind of holy water, thought to have strengthening part man and part god, his crucifixion seems like human ritual bath in water; this action sanctifies the recipient, and
inanimate objects.5 Animal sacrifice provided a thrilling event and cleansing properties; our word “bless” comes from sacrifice.These Christian establishments, as well as the Jesus himself stated that it was necessary for Christians: “Jesus
that would serve as an outlet for aggression as well as unite the word bloedsian, which means to sprinkle with blood. bloody language used in the New Testament regarding Jesus’s answered,Verily, verily, I say unto thee, Except a man be born
the group of sacrificers.The group was further united by The northern Germanic groups collected the blood after sacrifice, in some ways parallel the blood-stained rituals and of water and of the Spirit, he cannot enter into the kingdom
the feast of the sacrificial animal that inevitably followed.6 a sacrifice in a container for this purpose.13 The Scordisci customs of the Germanic tribes.The sacrifice of a great of God.”29 Though Christians did not make offerings to
Sacrifice was not confined to animals, either. Certain tribe of Illyria was known to drink blood from skulls, and king and the drinking of his blood made instinctual sense to bodies of water, it is clear that they had much in common
Germanic tribes in the north, after defeating an army, would the northern Germanic tribes drank the blood from meat them, and therefore increased their receptiveness to Christian with the Germanic tribes when it came to their sanctity.
sacrifice their weapons and booty to fire and then water. during feasts.14 Another violent practice is difficult to conversion. Trees and stones were likewise centers of traditional
The impracticality of this action suggests that it was a ritual, talk about with certainty.Writers have dictated stories of Another central characteristic of Germanic spirituality Germanic spirituality.Trees outlive humans by a considerable
perhaps an offering to the gods.7 The fact that these practices human sacrifice and cannibalism among various “barbarian” was communal outdoor worship; nature provided the sacred amount; indeed, some are hundreds of years old.The
were performed in public reinforced the community and peoples for as long as people have been writing. Did the fixtures, making temples and buildings largely unnecessary. pre-Christian Germanic peoples respected their age and
public ownership of the ritual; private sacrifice was much less Germanic tribes practice human sacrifice before conversion As Tacitus relates in his ethnography, “For the rest, from steadfastness, and venerated them with prayer and offering.
common.8 Private sacrifice took the form of tossing tokens, to Christianity, or were Christian writers sensationalizing the grandeur and majesty of beings celestial, they judge it Trees also represent fertility, as they bear fruit or nuts and
such as ceramic pots filled with food or hair, brooches, their culture for shock value? Whatever the answer, records of altogether unsuitable to hold the Gods enclosed within therefore provide sustenance.30 People would sacrifice
precious metals, or swords into springs, bogs, or rivers as an human sacrifice among the Germanic tribes remain. It was walls.”22 Springs were highly venerated; the pagan Germanic at trees, anoint them with oil, and light candles in their
offering to the gods.9 Shrines to the gods exist today with said that they would use criminals or other social undesirables tribes worshiped at springs and other bodies of water so vicinity.31 The Goths, according to Jordanes, hung arms
names that suggest a private owner.These cases, however, for this purpose, as well as the ill and wounded.15 According much that Christian writers thought that there were devils in of their slain foes from trees as an offering to their god of
were few and far between compared to the regular public to the Gutasaga, the old population of Gotland sacrificed the water.23 Spring water was very pure, and the traditional war.32 Stones, too, captured the imagination and respect of
ceremonies. Sacrifices can also be considered as a gift to the their children to the gods.16 Tacitus claims that they reserve Germanic belief system valued its cleansing and healing the pagan Germanic peoples.They were large, heavy, and
gods, appeasements so that they would look favorably upon human sacrifice for their highest god, Mercury/Woden.17 properties. Prayers would be held at springs, and people immovable; like trees, they represented permanence. Stones
the offering population.10 Whether this was a gift or payment There exists records of “sacrificial kings” in Anglo-Saxon would wash themselves of impurities, almost like a baptism.24 were anointed with oil and were often believed to have
is up for debate. England; it seemed that warriors and kings found honor The people made periodic pilgrimages to certain springs healing properties.33
Themes of sacrifice run though Christianity as well. and glorified their gods by sacrificing themselves in battle.18 due to the water being more pure at certain times of year.25 Sacred trees were considered a threat to Christian
Christians gave up animal sacrifice upon the crucifixion Whether these stories were the ancient version of yellow As previously mentioned, people would also toss items into missionaries to the Germanic peoples. St. Boniface, a
of Jesus, as they believe him to be the ultimate sacrifice, journalism or factual accounts, the subject of human sacrifice springs and other bodies of water as offerings to the gods.26 Christian missionary to Anglo-Saxon England, led the
rendering all other sacrifice unnecessary. In the Epistle to the among the Germanic peoples is worth noting. Gregory of Tours considered veneration of bodies of cutting down of an important tree called the Oak of Donar
Hebrews, the author asserts, “Neither by the blood of goats Although the consumption of blood is actually forbidden water to be foolish and ridiculous. In his works he relates (Thor).The natives had been worshiping this tree, so
and calves, but by his own blood, [Jesus] entered in once in the Bible, members of the early Christian church practiced an interesting account of a Gabali festival held at the lake Boniface and his colleagues decided that it had to go, and
into the holy place, having obtained eternal redemption for the sacrament of the Eucharist.19 During the Last Supper, of St Andeol: the people would travel to the lake to throw they used the timber to build a church nearby dedicated
us. For if the blood of bulls and of goats, and the ashes of a the night before Jesus was crucified, he offered his disciples in their offerings, sacrifice animals, and then feast for three to Saint Peter.34 Though Christians did not worship trees
heifer sprinkling the unclean, sanctifieth to the purifying of bread and wine: “And he took bread, and gave thanks, and days.The local Christian leaders were disturbed by this, but or rocks as holy, St. Boniface’s reaction seems excessive
the flesh: How much more shall the blood of Christ, who brake it, and gave unto them, saying,This is my body which upon their building of a basilica nearby and their assertions considering the language of reverence used in the Bible itself
through the eternal Spirit offered himself without spot to is given for you: this do in remembrance of me. Likewise also that lakes have no religious power, the “rustics” converted to for trees and rocks.Trees are used as similes for steadfastness
God, purge your conscience from dead works to serve the the cup after supper, saying,This cup is the new testament in Christianity: “They left the lake and brought everything they and fertility: “And he [the blessed man] shall be like a tree
living God?”11 Here the author of the letter to the Hebrews my blood, which is shed for you.”20 Instead of interpreting usually threw into it to the holy church. So they were freed planted by the rivers of water, that bringeth forth his fruit in
is dismissing animal sacrifice, saying that animal sacrifice it as a metaphor, Christian leadership took these verses from the mistake that had bound them.”27 It is interesting his season; his leaf also shall not wither; and whatsoever he
had nothing to do with and is in fact inferior in function to literally and established the sacrament of the Eucharist to that Gregory dismissed the spirituality of bodies of river so doeth shall prosper.”35 Here, the reader is advised to emulate
Jesus’s sacrifice.Though Christians looked down on animal partake in Jesus’s flesh as a tribute to his sacrifice. As Pope readily considering the holy association that Christianity also the tree and its positive qualities, the same ones invoked
sacrifice, Jesus ultimately serves the same function: an offering John Paul II explains in the Catholic Catechism, “At the Last has with bodies of water.The Jordan River in particular was by Germanic spirituality. Rocks too are used to invoke
of death to the god(s) to the improvement of the human Supper, on the night he was betrayed, our Savior instituted the site of many miracles in the Old Testament; its waters permanence and stability: “Therefore whosoever heareth
condition.The difference is that Jesus represented the sole the Eucharistic sacrifice of his Body and Blood.This he did were considered to have healing and cleansing properties. these sayings of mine, and doeth them, I will liken him unto
and final sacrifice, whereas animal sacrifice was carried out in order to perpetuate the sacrifice of the cross throughout Elisha, the prophet of Israel, guided a sick man to the Jordan a wise man, which built his house upon a rock: And the rain
continuously.12 the ages until he should come again, and so to entrust to for healing by God: “Then went he down, and dipped descended, and the floods came, and the winds blew, and beat
6 • The Wittenberg History Journal Vol. XLIV, Spring 2015 •7

upon that house; and it fell not: for it was founded upon a their festivals and special days.While Christians observe the sermons claiming biblical figures, like the three wise men, concept of the trinity in Catholicism, with holds that God
rock.”36 This shows that Christians and the Germanic tribes Sabbath on Sunday as a day of rest and reflection on God, were of Gothic ancestry.52 These presumably Catholic the Father, Jesus Christ, and the Holy Ghost are all the same,
held a similar reverence for trees and rocks. Such language the Germanic pagan people seem to have observed a day of Goths were quite in the minority, however; the Christianity equal being is more complex and therefore harder to accept.
used in the Bible must have appealed to the Germanic rest from work on Thursday, as it was the day of Donner/ preached by Ulfila and adhered to by the (non-urban) Goths As Gothic society followed a strongly paternalistic hierarchy,
peoples, making Christianity a bit less alien to them. Thor.43 Other days of the week in English and other Indo- was not orthodox Catholicism, but Arianism. the preeminence of God the Father over Christ the Son
As in many ancient belief systems, one aspect of European languages betray a pagan origin: Monday comes In the early fourth century, an Alexandrian priest named in Arianism was more intuitive and appealing to the new
traditional Germanic spirituality was polytheism, the belief in from Moenan and means Moon’s Day,Tuesday comes from Arius had been struggling with the nature of Jesus Christ as converts.58 Maintaining their Arian beliefs was also a way for
a plurality of gods. Unlike the modern “high” religions, like Tyr/Tiu and means Tyr’s Day,Wednesday comes from Woden related to God the Father. Eventually he prevailed against the Goths to separate themselves from and stay independent
Christianity and Islam, with which most people are currently and means Woden’s Day,Thursday comes from Donner/ these challenging concepts and published his beliefs in a of the Roman Empire, whose citizens were intended to be
familiar, much less emphasis was placed on gods by the Thor and means Thor’s Day, and Friday comes from Freyr/ work called Thalia; though this work does not survive in its fully Catholic.59
pagan Germanic people.37 The multitude of gods represented Frija and means Freyr’s Day. Excluding the moon, which entirety, Arius’s views are known from the plentiful writings The Visigoths were strong believers in Arian Christianity;
different aspects of human experience, so the Germanic was important to the timing of traditional Germanic rituals, of his opponents, like Athanasius. Arianism has three basic so much so, that they converted other Germanic tribes to
peoples would pray or sacrifice to the god corresponding these days correspond to Germanic gods. Other Germanic concepts: Jesus Christ and God the Father are not of the Arianism as well.They were not wholly responsible for the
to their concern. For example, the god known as Tyr/Tiw languages have similar names, due to the words being of same essence, Jesus Christ was created, and there was a time conversion of other groups, but their missionary efforts
represented war, the god Donner/Thor represented war and the same root.44 The Germanic pagans held festivals and when Jesus Christ did not exist.53 Essentially, Jesus Christ was certainly helped increase the amount of Arians. Excluding
fertility, the god Freyr represented virility and wealth, and the rituals based on the equinoxes as well; the Yule celebration in considered first among creatures, but not divine like God. Of the Anglo-Saxons and the Franks, the other Germanic
god Woden/Odin represented war and wisdom.38 Germanic particular was important to them. Sacrifices and feasts were course, this position had many opponents and sparked a great peoples were gradually converted to Arian Christianity in the
peoples in the first half of the first millennium also venerated held during midwinter, during the Gothic month known as controversy, which ultimately resulted in the calling of the years following the conversion of the Visigoths in the fourth
several mother goddesses, praying to them for health, fertility, giuli or yule, to honor dead ancestors and invoke fertility.45 Council of Nicaea in 325 CE.With Constantine presiding, century. 60 This included the Sueves in northwest Spain, the
and good fortune.39 In contrast to certain monotheistic This celebration, as well as modraniht (night of mothers), Arianism was officially declared to be heresy; this enabled Burgundians in Gaul, the Ostrogoths in Italy, and the Vandals
religions like Judaism and Islam, the Germanic peoples had which occurred at the same time of year, of course coincided the destruction of Arian materials and persecution of not in North Africa.61 Arianism ruled among the Germanic
no qualms about fashioning idols of their gods for worship. with the Christian celebration of Christ’s birth, Christmas.46 only Arians, but any who were not staunch anti-Arians.54 tribes until the defeat of the Visigoths at the Battle of Vouillé
These took the form of wooden figures, branches, wooden This doubtless made transition to Christianity easier. However, Arianism clearly did not disappear after the edicts in 507 by the Franks.62 The Franks were unique among the
poles, and carvings.40 Clearly, the Germanic peoples were The Germanic tribes did not live in a vacuum, oblivious from the Nicene Council. In the Roman establishment Germanic peoples because they converted directly from
used to the idea of several gods and did not see them as vying to alternate belief systems; many had come into contact with itself, several later emperors such as Constantius II were paganism to Catholicism, without the “middle man” of
for the top position. God veneration in traditional Germanic Roman Christians by the first couple centuries CE. In 251 Arian sympathizers and the controversy continued after the Arianism as was usually the case. As the Visigoths lost their
custom was much more flexible and relaxed. CE, the Goths defeated the Roman forces at the Battle of Council of Constantinople in 381 codified the orthodox influence, Arianism lost its preeminence to Catholicism
This perhaps presents the biggest problem for Christians: Abritus and made their first contact with Christianity in views of the Catholic Church.55 Most importantly, some of among the Germanic societies.The Burgundians converted
monotheism is probably the most important aspect of the form of Roman Christian prisoners of war.47 As the the Romanized ethnic Goths, like Ulfila, picked up Arianism less than a decade later, and the Visigoths themselves
Christianity. Paul states it clearly in his address to the Angles and Saxons invaded and settled Britain after the fifth and brought it back to their home tribe, leading to the abandoned Arianism for Catholicism after the Council of
Corinthians: “As concerning therefore the eating of those century, they encountered the previously converted Christian adoption of Arian Christianity by the Gothic peoples. Toledo in 589.63
things that are offered in sacrifice unto idols, we know that Romano-Britons.48 Though these first encounters did not Clearly, Christianity and Arianism in particular appealed The measure of independence and separation from
an idol is nothing in the world, and that there is none other produce mass new converts for the Christian faith, it is likely to the Germanic peoples. As demonstrated in the first few Roman culture that Arianism gave to the Goths ultimately
God but one. For though there be that are called gods, that some Germanic people became Christians not long pages of this paper, many aspects of traditional Germanic helped bring about their fall from power.The dichotomy
whether in heaven or in earth, (as there be gods many, and after the first contact.When Ulfila, the famed missionary and rituals matched up with some Christian practices.The between the Arian Germanic rulers and Catholic Roman
lords many); But to us there is but one God, the Father, of bishop to the Goths, was sent on a mission to the Visigoths cleansing properties of bodies of water, the reverence for subjects created great religious tension and this divide
whom are all things, and we in him; and one Lord Jesus by Emperor Constantius II, an Arian sympathizer, in the trees and rocks, the holiness of blood, and the importance of prevented feelings of unity and patriotism, inhibiting the
Christ, by whom are all things, and we by him.”41 Here he is fourth century, he did not encounter a fully heathen tribe; sacrifice are all points of similarity between the two belief society’s growth.64 The Franks, on the other hand, recognized
rejecting all other gods as idols and venerating the Christian some were already Christians.49 This is not to say, however, systems. Further, Christianity represented the way to a new, that assimilation with their Catholic subjects would only
God above all.The Germanic tribes, with their worship of that these Christians were representative of the beliefs of better life; one could have their sins forgiven and be able to strengthen their power base.To this end, the Frankish
a multitude of gods and their fashioning of wooden idols the Germanic tribes; most were pagan upon entering the start afresh.56 The Church also provided protection against king Clovis converted to Catholicism, which enabled the
or veneration of swords, represent a fundamentally different Roman Empire.50 The Goths were the first Germanic demons, a serious concern for people of late antiquity; conversion of the rest of the Franks.65 As the Visigoths, the
worldview. Christian missionaries, in their efforts to convert tribe to convert to Christianity, in part due to Ulfila’s efforts. members of the church could assist those possessed by main proponents of Arianism among the Germanic tribes,
the Germanic peoples, found it relatively easy to get the This likely occurred after 376 CE among the Goths that demons, for example.57 Arianism especially appealed to the declined in power and influence with their defeat by Clovis
pagans to worship the Christian God.The difficult part was crossed the Danube River.51 John Chrysostom felt a degree Germanic peoples due to their spiritual backgrounds. Since and the Franks, Catholicism took hold of more and more
inducing them to give up all other gods.42 of responsibility for the Goths under his jurisdiction in traditional Germanic spirituality was polytheistic, it was barbarian societies. During the sixth century, most of the
Far from being unaware brutes, the pre-Christian Constantinople, furnishing them with a completely Gothic more intuitive to think of God the Father as the highest god, previously Arian Germanic peoples accepted conversion
Germanic tribes had an acute sense of time that dictated church hierarchy in the late fourth century. He even gave with Jesus Christ and the Holy Ghost being inferior.The to Catholicism: the Ostrogoths were decimated by Roman
8 • The Wittenberg History Journal Vol. XLIV, Spring 2015 •9

forces, the Vandals surrendered to the Empire, and the maintaining the rules of the faith and punishing dissenters.75 of Christianity in Western Europe was made possible after 38
Simek, “Germanic Religion and the Conversion to
Burgundians converted after the defeat and death of their Christianity acted as a consolidating and unifying agent, the fall of the Western Roman Empire due to the Germanic Christianity,” 88-89.
39
Ibid., 81-82.
king Gundobad.66 The most noteworthy was the conversion giving birth to a kind of Christian-related nationalism in the “barbarians” and their enforcement of Christianity in their 40
Ibid., 78-79.
of King Recared of the Visigoths, which occurred around new Germanic kingdoms.The new convert to Catholicism, new kingdoms.The rest is history. 41
1 Corinthians 8:4-6 (King James Version).
587, and that of his people afterwards.67 This shift of power King Recared of the Visigoths, affirmed the unity of the 42
Martin of Braga, On the Castigation of Rustics, ed. C. W.
from the Visigoths to the Franks and from Arianism to Goths under Catholicism in his celebratory conversion Endnotes Barlow (New Haven:Yale University Press, 1950), 183-203.
Catholicism set the stage for the next phase of European speech.76 Likewise, the prologue to the Salic Law, a collection
43
Dowden, European Paganism, 164.
1
Ken Dowden, European Paganism (New York: Routledge, 44
Ibid., 196.
history, that of the Christian Germanic societies. of many Frankish laws from the eighth century, celebrates the 2000), 3. 45
The Franks were unique among the Germanic peoples Franks as a most Christian race, strong under their “founder,”
2
Edward James, Europe’s Barbarians AD 200-600 (London: Christianity,” 87.
Pearson Education Limited, 2009), 216.
in that their process of Christianization skipped the phase of God.77 Clearly, both the Goths and the Franks found a sense 46
Dowden, European Paganism, 204-5.
3
Rudolph Simek, “Germanic Religion and the Conversion 47
Ibid., 94.
Arianism and went directly to Catholicism.The future king of pride with their new strong Catholic faith.This unity to Christianity,” in Early Germanic Literature and Culture, ed. Brian
of the Franks, Clovis, recognized this as more beneficial to
48
Ibid., 95.
was clearly a positive thing for the new kingdoms and their Murdoch (Rochester: Camden House, 2004), 74. 49
his power base. In the late fifth century, the Roman state leaders, but it did not come easily. 4
James, Europe’s Barbarians, 216. 50
James, Europe’s Barbarians, 222.
was essentially dead in the west, leaving only the Church to Church leadership, with the cooperation of the
5
Tacitus, Germania, trans. Harold Mattingly (London: Penguin 51
Ibid.
Books Ltd, 2010), 9. J. C. Robertson, Sketches of Church History (New York:
treat with the Germanic kings. At this time, Clovis was just monarchy, legislated against any who were not Orthodox 6
52
one of several kings in northwest Europe vying for power, Christians. King Childebert I, Clovis’s successor, legislated Edwin S. Gorham, 1904), XX.II.
7
Simek, “Germanic Religion and the Conversion to 53
Alister McGrath, Heresy (New York: HarperCollins
and he began accomplishing this by annexing formerly strongly against pagan practices: “Whoever shall dare to Christianity,” 76. Publishers, 2009), 143.
Roman provinces into his realm. He was acutely aware of perpetrate these sacrileges,We order he shall receive a
8
Dowden, European Paganism, 31-32. 54
Ibid., 149.
the religious situation and tensions present in these areas; he hundred blows.”78 In Spain, the Visigoths forbid pagan
9
Christianity,” 79. Christianity,” 155.
kept correspondence with Catholic Church leaders as well “magical” practices such as tempest invocation and sacrifice 10
as Arian Germanic kings.68 Though both “sides” wanted to devils and would punish them with lashes, scalping, and
56
J. N. Hilgarth, Christianity and Paganism, 350-750
11
Hebrews 9:12-14 (King James Version). (Philadelphia: Prentice Hall Inc., 1986), 11.
him, Clovis ultimately decided to convert to Catholicism.69 public humiliation.79 The Visigoths also legislated the forced 12
Dowden, European Paganism, 170. 57
Adalbert De Vogue, ed., Life of the Jura Fathers (Collegeville:
There are several reasons for this. Orthodox Christianity baptism of non-Christians.80 Such legislation was difficult to
13
Ibid., 168. Cistercian Publications, 1999), 158-9.
14
Ibid.
was associated with the prestige and power of the former enforce, however.The rural areas of the Germanic kingdoms 15
Ibid., 180-181.
58
Roman Empire as opposed to the “barbaric” Germanic remained largely out of the church’s reach for centuries Christianity,” 154.
16
Peter Tunstal, trans., The History of the Gotlanders. 59
Hillgarth, Christianity and Paganism, 45.
kingdoms, which increased its appeal.The Germanic peoples after Constantine converted to Christianity.Though it was 17
Tacitus, Germania, 9. 60
were fascinated with and admired Roman culture, and hard to penetrate the countryside, some of the resistance 18
William Chaney, The Cult of Kingship in Anglo-Saxon Christianity,” 94.
Catholicism was part of that.70 Additionally, the Germanic apparently also came about due to negligent officials. England (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970), 119. 61
Hillgarth, Christianity and Paganism, 72-73.
19
Leviticus, 17:14 (King James Version). 62
rulers represented about 5 percent of the population of Maximus of Turin condemned those officials who neglected 20
Luke 22:19-20 (King James Version).
the new kingdoms; the rest were Romans, and therefore their duties to enforce Christian worship: “You, therefore, Christianity,” 155.
21
Catechism of the Catholic Church (Vatican City: Libreria 63
Ibid.
Catholic.71 Accommodation of Catholic beliefs was a much brother, when you observe your peasant sacrificing and do Editrice Vaticana, 1997): 1323. 64
better idea politically because it prevented divides between not forbid the offering, sin, because even if you did not assist
22
Tacitus, Germania, 9. 65
Gregory of Tours, History of the Franks, trans. Lewis Thorpe
23
the rulers and the subjects and encouraged a spirit of the sacrifice yourself you gave permission for it.”81 Martin of (London: Penguin Books Ltd, 1974), II.29-31.
24
Ibid., 45-47. 66
James, Europe’s Barbarians, 224.
religious unity.The religious dichotomy between the Arian Braga greatly simplified Christian beliefs and history for the 25
Ibid., 49.
Germanic rulers and the Catholic Roman subjects under
67
Gregory of Tours, History of the Franks, IX.15.
peasants so that they could understand better and therefore 26
Ostrogoth and Vandal leadership was one of the reasons for practice in the correct way.82 This legislation and attitude Christianity,” 79. 69
Gregory of Tours, History of the Franks, II.20-2.
those societies’ ultimate failures.72 of accommodation eased any remaining pagans’ conversion
27
Gregory of Tours, Glory of the Confessors, trans. Raymond 70
Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, trans. Walter Hamilton
Van Dam (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1988), 2. (London: Penguin Books Ltd, 1986), 18.2.17.
The policy of religious accommodation utilized by to Christianity and the new Germanic kingdoms became 28
2 Kings 5:14 (King James Version).
Clovis represented a turning point in Christian history: a shift mostly, if not fully, Christianized.
71
29
John 3:5 (King James Version). 72
Ibid.
of the center of Christianity from the south in Rome to the Because of the Germanic conversions to Christianity, 30
Dowden, European Paganism, 75. 73
northwest in North Gaul and Germany.73 The administration the history of Western Europe and Christianity became
31
Ibid., 66-73. 74
Ibid.
of the religious bodies was different, however.The new inseparable.The pre-Christian customs and beliefs of
32
Jordanes, The Origins and Deeds of the Goths, trans. Charles 75
Mierow (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1950), 41. 76
Ibid., 90-92.
western religious power base had a simpler organization, the Germanic tribes had similar themes to Christianity, 33
Ibid., 58-65.
was less well-funded, and was not considered as venerable or facilitating an easier conversion.The “middle man” of
77
K. A. Eckhardt, ed., Lex Salica, 100 Titel-Text (Weimar:
34
Willibald, Life of St Boniface the Archbishop, trans. George 1953), 82-84.
prestigious.74 The Western Church’s power largely depended Arianism was also instrumental to the full conversion of the Robinson (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1916), 63-64. 78
on the king’s power, and vice versa. Additionally, the roles Germanic tribes to Catholicism.This version of Christianity
35
Psalms 1:3 (King James Version). 79
S. P. Scott, trans., The Visigothic Code (Ithaca: Cornell
36
Matthew 7:24 (King James Version).
of the king and church official were largely fused together. was enforced in the new German kingdoms and eventually 37
Dowden, European Paganism, 213-16.
University Library, 2009),VI.2.6.
In Spain, the king acted as supreme Judge of the Church, became Catholicism as it is known today.The entrenchment
80
Ibid., XXII.2.6.
10 • The Wittenberg History Journal Vol. XLIV, Spring 2015 • 11

81
Maximus of Turin, Sermons of St. Maximus of Turin, trans.
Boniface Ramsey (Long Prairie, MN: Neumann Press, 1989), 107.
82
Martin of Braga, On the Castigation of Rustics, 183-203.
Bibliography
Primary Sources
Ammianus Marcellinus. Res Gestae, trans. Walter Hamilton.
London: Penguin Books Ltd, 1986. Monstrous Races on the Central Tympanum at
De Vogue, Adalbert, ed. Life of the Jura Fathers. Collegeville:
Cistercian Publications, 1999. Vézelay: Constructing “the Other” in Medieval Society
Eckhardt, K.A., ed. Lex Salica, 100 Titel-Text. Weimar: 1953.
Gregory of Tours. Glory of the Confessors, trans. Raymond Van Caitlin Green
Dam. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1988.
Gregory of Tours. The History of the Franks, trans. Lewis Thorpe. Beginning in 1095, the Crusaders made it their mission to
London: Penguin Books Ltd, 1974.
Jordanes. The Origins and Deeds of the Goths, trans. Charles reach the “monstrous” groups of people and restore Christian
Mierow. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1950. faith to holy places in and near Jerusalem.The notion of
Martin of Braga. On the Castigation of Rustics, ed. C. W. Barlow. “the other,” a barbaric, deformed, un-Christian group of
New Haven:Yale University Press, 1950. people, swept across Europe. Pope Urban II initiated the first
Maximus of Turin. Sermons of St. Maximus of Turin, trans. Boniface
Ramsey. Long Prairie, MN: Neumann Press, 1989.
Crusade at the council of Clermont in 1095 with a powerful
Scott, S.P., trans. The Visigothic Code. Ithaca: Cornell University speech urging all to go forth and recover Palestine from the
Library, 2009. hands of the Muslims. In an account provided by Robert
Tacitus. Germania, trans. Harold Mattingly. London: Penguin the monk, Urban vehemently stated that “a race from the Figure 1: Central tympanum. Vézelay Abbey, Burgundy, France, 1130.
Books Ltd, 2010. kingdom of the Persians, an accursed race, a race utterly
Tunstall, Peter, trans. The History of the Gotlanders. 2004.
Willibald. The Life of St. Boniface the Archbishop, trans. George alienated from God, a generation forsooth which has not
Robinson. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1916 directed its heart and has not entrusted its spirit to God, has
invaded the lands of those Christians and has depopulated
Secondary Sources them by the sword, pillage and fire.”1 This retelling from
Catechism of the Catholic Church: Revised in Accordance with the Robert the Monk reveals that there was a considerable
Official Latin Text Promulgated by Pope John Paul II. Vatican degree of animosity toward the Muslims.They were not
City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1997.
Chaney, William. The Cult of Kingship in Anglo-Saxon England.
Christian, so were therefore “the other.”
Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970. A popular pilgrimage church en route for crusader
Dowden, Ken. European Paganism. New York: Routledge, 2000. missions was Vézelay Abbey in northern Burgundy, France.
Hillgarth, J. N. Christianity and Paganism, 350-750. Philadelphia: Vézelay’s intricate iconographic program on the tympanum Figure 2: Tympanum, Autun, France, 1130.
Prentice Hall Inc., 1986. and lintel sets it apart as one of the great masterpieces of
James, Edward. Europe’s Barbarians, AD 200-600. London: Romanesque art and architecture (Figure 1). In comparison years 1120-1132. Scholars have often compared the Vézelay
Pearson Education Limited, 2009. tympanum to other contemporary tympana to exemplify
McGrath, Alister. Heresy. New York: HarperCollins Publishers,
to other tympana erected at the time of the Vézelay
tympanum, it is clear that there is a unique depiction at the advancement in skill present on the Vézelay tympanum.3
2009.
Simek, Rudolph. “Germanic Religion and the Conversion to Vézelay not to be found elsewhere — the Pentecost. Even In comparison to other tympana erected at the same time
Christianity.” In Early Germanic Literature and Culture, edited more fascinating are the depictions of the “monstrous races” as the Vézelay tympanum, there is a unique depiction, a
by Brian Murdoch. Rochester: Camden House, 2004. encompassing the central scene of the Pentecost that Pope scene depicting the Pentecost, also known as the Descent of
Robertson, J. C. Sketches of Church History. New York: Edwin S. Urban II and other medieval figures outcast as “the other.” the Holy Ghost. Many tympana scenes present the Day of
Gorham, 1904. By studying the iconography of the Vézelay tympanum, Judgment, such as the tympanum contemporary with Vézelay
an understanding of the monstrous races, or “the other,” in at Autun, France (Figure 2). Not only is the subject at Vézelay
medieval society can be constructed. distinct from its contemporary at Autun, but the artistic
In eleventh century France, there was a revival of quality is as well.Whereas the neighboring Autun tympanum
monumental sculpture that had been neglected since is static and rigid, the Vézelay tympanum seems to move and
the end of the classical period.2 The central tympanum breathe. At Autun, Christ’s knees point in opposite directions
at Vézelay is an early example of the reemergence of to keep him frontal; however, at Vézelay, the sculptor
monumental sculpture in France constructed between the has twisted Christ’s body into an eloquent contrapposto
Vol. XLIV, Spring 2015 • 13

position, keeping him frontal, but even more dynamic. Each Perceptions of “the other” are deeply rooted in the Thus I wish to describe them to you.
individual scene in the Autun tympanum stays contained earliest accounts of history beginning with Pliny the Elder A vile, low people they are
within its designated space. However, the figures at Vézelay (23-79 CE). Pliny’s Natural History, dating to the first century And vile and evil their law and customs,
are not restricted to a confined space; the figures move and of the Roman Empire, is one of the earliest encyclopedic For there is no accord between them,
interact with the entire scene. Even the smaller figures in accounts on race. Scholars have credited Pliny as one of the And there are battles between them every day
the arc compartments interact with the central scene, as if central motivations for the exploration of race in medieval And thus one kills the other
no compartment barrier blocks them from interaction with society. John Block Friedman dedicated an entire chapter Without one crying to the other “merci”!6
the rest of the program.The sculptor behind the Vézelay in his book The Monstrous Races in Medieval Art and Thought
tympanum produced a masterpiece in monumental sculpture to the vast knowledge of the races Pliny compiled in his Not only does the Clerk of Enghien inspire fear of the
that would have demanded attention from anyone who Natural History.When studying the iconography of the monstrous races, but also clearly dehumanizes them as a
passed through the portal. Vézelay tympanum, scholars including Véronique Rouchon- group of uncivilized people, and cast them to the role of “the
Scholars who study Vézelay have related the church Mouilleron ascribe the depictions of monstrous races on other.” He does this by exposing their physical differences
closely with events associated with the Crusades.The the tympanum to Pliny’s encyclopedic accounts of race.The to scare the reader, creating a false idea of what the race
Vézelay church was an important pilgrimage site in northern “Plinian” races are a fundamental resource in understanding looks like. He projects the races as evil and disregards their
Burgundy and housed the relics of Mary Magdalene. Because the iconography of the monstrous races on the Vézelay humanity by describing them as merciless and showing no
it was en route for crusader missions, the church had an tympanum. remorse for killing their own kind. Although the audience
important role in the Crusades. In brief, Pope Urban II Another important figure is the early Christian would have read this as entertainment, the tone is still fearful
intended to launch the First Crusade at Vézelay before doing theologian and philosopher, Augustine of Hippo (354-430 and interpreted as unwelcoming toward the monstrous races.
it instead at Clermont in 1095, St. Bernard of Clairvaux CE) who explored the wonder and amazement of the These three authors offered three distinct interpretations
launched the Second Crusade at Vézelay in 1146, and King monstrous races.Whereas Pliny’s encyclopedic account of toward monstrous races.The interpretations of monstrous
Louis VII of France took up the cross there. Finally, in 1190, the races concentrates on the physical and cultural oddities races ranged from encyclopedic by Pliny, to religious inquiry
King Richard the Lionheart of England and King Philip observed of people from distant lands, Augustine of Hippo by Augustine, and finally fearsome exploitation by the Clerk
Augustus of France launched the Third Crusade at Vézelay. begins to question them in light of God’s creation. Augustine of Enghien. All of the interpretations circulated in medieval
The church has a rich history with these early crusades and dedicated a chapter to this question in his book City of God Europe, contributing to the ongoing debate of whether
has become inextricably linked with the missions. entitled, “Whether Certain Monstrous Races of Men are these races are deserving of God’s salvation as proposed by
Vézelay’s intricate program of imagery sets it apart Derived from the Stock of Adam or Noah’s Sons.” He wrote, Augustine.
Figure 3: Page from Wonders of the East, ca. 1000.
as one of the great masterpieces of Romanesque art and Not only do textual sources reveal the interest in
architecture. Constructed after the First Crusade, but just But supposing they are men of whom these marvels monstrous races, but also visual sources. In tenth-century
before the Second, the tympanum encapsulates a medieval are described is not of human likeness.Then again, he poses England, imagery of the monstrous races appeared in the
are recorded, what if God has seen fit to create some
attitude toward “the other.”The proximity of these the question that if these races are indeed human, do they book Wonders of the East for people to observe in awe the
races in this way, that we might not suppose that the
monstrous races to the Pentecost scene suggests that these descend from Adam? He is essentially questioning whether deformities of outsider regions (Figure 3). Because the
monstrous births which appear among ourselves are
outsider races have the potential to be saved.The central these races are worthy of God’s salvation.This is a question monstrous races were often depicted or described in this
the failures of that wisdom whereby He fashions
image of Christ and the Apostles rest on a lintel depicting that will continue to be pondered by those who encounter book harming and even eating people, it demonstrates
the human nature, as we speak of the failure of a
a hierarchy of medieval peoples with the soldiers, priests, the races, those who write and depict the races, and those that there was a certain degree of distrust between men
less perfect workman? Accordingly, it ought not to
and Greeks most near Christ at the center, followed by the who interpret the information secondhand, such as visitors to and the monstrous. Another from a psalter dating to about
seem absurd to us, that as in individual races there
lower orders and monstrous races.The four compartments of the Vézelay tympanum. 1260 in England contains a detailed map of the world with
are monstrous births, so in the whole race there are
eight scenes surround Christ and represent scenes of moral Others are not so gentle concerning the monstrous monstrous race imagery encompassing the outer most edge,
monstrous races.Wherefore, to conclude this question
or spiritual imperfection through monstrous race imagery. races, but rather exploit them, inspiring great fear and even farthest away from the central image of Jerusalem (Figure
cautiously and guardedly, either these things which
It is clear that the tympanum is a form of propaganda. It loathing.The Clerk of Enghien’s poem “De Monstruosis 4). On this map, the monstrous are positioned as far away
have been told of some races have no existence at
exploits the monstrous races and sends a message for the Hominibus,” written in about 1290, is believed to have as possible from the central placement of Jerusalem in an
all; or if they do exist, they are not human races; or if
crusaders and those who visit the church that these people been written for a secular and aristocratic audience given effort to distance the non-Christian race from those who are
they are human, they are descended from Adam.4
who they see on the tympanum are indeed monsters to be its publication in a manuscript and its elaborate moralizing Christian.There is a hierarchy insinuated that also appears
seized. At the same time, pilgrims would see these monstrous nature.5 This fearsome tone can be found in the following on the lintel at Vézelay.The monstrous are pushed away from
Here, Augustine raises important questions regarding
races on the tympanum. Out of fear, they would regard lines from the poem: Christ, just as the monstrous are pushed to the outer most
the monstrous races. His concluding remarks suggest his
them as enemies because they are not Christian.The central disbelief in the existence of the monstrous races. Perhaps edges of the world on this map, away from Jerusalem. It is
tympanum at Vézelay contributes to the ongoing concern There are yet other men here… clear that there was a curiosity concerning races from distant
these accounts are just part of man’s wild imagination and
of monstrous races, or “the other,” being explored in many Who have the soles of the feet transposed, lands beginning in the first century of the Roman Empire
are exaggerations of the differences encountered. But then,
levels of medieval society. Who are terrifyingly ugly to see and through the Middle Ages that formed distrust and even
Augustine proposes that, yet, if they do exist, the way they
As you can imagine.

suppression of the monstrous races to a lower rank in the On the right are the barefoot archers, either the Scythians Immediately to the left of the central axis at the top of
social hierarchy. or the Parthians who are known to be archers.Then, on the the arc is a representation of Pliny’s dog-headed people, who
A close examination of the iconographical program opposite side to the far right are depictions of what seem to live in Cynocephalia, a region in India.The dog-headed
on the central tympanum at Vézelay reveals representations be dwarfs, or mythical beings with elephant sized ears from figures are mutes who only bark.21 In the same grouping of
of the monstrous races encompassing the scene of the India.13 According to Pliny, these are the Panotti, which he figures are also representations of the deaf and the blind who
Pentecost, or otherwise known as the Descent of the Holy describes in Natural History: “there are others called the All- will also be cured by the teachings from the gospel.To the
Ghost.This scene is when the Apostles return to Jerusalem ears Islands in which the natives have very large ears covering immediate right of the central axis at the top of the arc are
after witnessing the Ascension of Christ.Ten days later, on the whole of their bodies, which are otherwise left naked.”14 the bent-over hunchbacks and men depicted with pig snouts
the day of Pentecost, the Apostles sit together in the upper With their animal-like characteristics and near nudity, the for noses.The characterization of pig-snouted men comes
room.7 According to the Acts of the Apostles, “suddenly tympanum presents them as savages and even questions their from the ancient thought that the Ethiopians had flat noses,
there came a sound from heaven, as of a rushing mighty humanity by casting them as “the other.” which here has been represented in the extreme version
wind, and it filled the whole house where they were sitting. Next to the Panotti, there is a grouping of figures on of the pig snout.22 The next scene to the right features
Then there appeared to them divided tongues, as of fire, and horseback; however, one is so small that he must use a ladder deformed men suffering from the loss of limbs. Rouchon-
one sat upon each of them. And they were all filled with to mount his horse.The figures represented here are African Mouilleron has suggested that these figures represent people
the Holy Spirit and began to speak with other tongues, and Pygmies from Pliny’s Natural History.15 Pliny describes this from Hellinic Asia due to their Phrygian cap and the crutch
the Spirit gave them utterance.”8 There has been dissention race, stating, “Beyond these in the most outlying mountain held by one of the figures.23 The physical deformities that the
between scholars on the central scene of the tympanum region we are told of the Three-span men and Pygmies, monstrous experience are all symptoms that could be cured
because Christ does not usually appear in the iconographic who do not exceed three spans, i.e. twenty-seven inches, by the salvation of God.Their deformities are a visual tool to
representations of the Pentecost.Whereas Emile Mâle is in height.”16 Next to the Pygmies are thought to be the suggest that those who have not yet heard the word of God
certain that the scene depicts the Descent of Christ on the Macrobians from India.17 will all suffer from these physical pains.
day of Pentecost, others such as Fabre disagree because the Still on the lintel, but moving closer to the center where In addition to the physical ills previously mentioned,
presence of Christ is not part of Pentecost iconography. Fabre Christ is located, the processional depicts people of higher mental ills are also represented in the arc of the tympanum.
Figure 4: Psalter world map, ca. 1260, British Library, London.
attributes the scene to the Mission of the Apostles found status than the monstrous from the outer edges.These are the Below the scene with dog-headed people is a scene featuring
in Matthew 28:16-20 and Mark 16:14-18, when Christ “civilized” people of the earth from antiquity and are placed two figures on the right who are Siamese twins from
gave each of these apostles their mission. Other scholars of the world to be conquered by the crusaders.11 In another near Christ to place them higher in the social hierarchy. On Cappadocia, from medieval accounts representing people
have created a hybrid of these two theories. Fred S. Kleiner study, John Block Freidman concludes that the iconography the right side are a grouping of soldiers who stand at the feet from Asia Minor.24 A demon is also depicted in the scene and
explains, “The Vézelay tympanum depicts the Pentecost and lends itself to being interpreted as a representation of the of St. Peter and St. Paul making offerings. On the left side is characterized by hair standing straight up from his head
the Mission of the Apostles.”9 Another source explains that monstrous races waiting on the edges of the world to receive near Christ is a sacrificial procession of Greeks and Romans. while his grasps his leg tormented by pain. Once this group
when grouped as a whole image, the monstrous races are the word of God. However, Freidman notes that the scene The men bring with them a variety of offerings including, of people with physical and mental ills are transformed by
actually “the converted races” and represents “the preaching of the Pentecost on this tympanum “is profoundly different a bull, a fish, bread, and fruits.18 “Thus, gathered upon the the conversion of Christianity, through the teachings from
of the Apostles to the various races.”10 Given the historical in intention and attitude…. For one thing, the monstrous lintel are representations of every continent, every degree the gospel, their defects will be cured.These four upper
circumstances at the time the tympanum was erected, any races are outside, enclosing the Apostles rather than enclosed of civilization, and every level of ancient society,” notes scenes in the upper two compartments depict the pain and
of the theories would support the medieval mentality of by them, and for another, the Dog-Head of the Pentecosts Véronique Rouchon-Mouilleron.19 madness people thought to be “the other” suffer from in the
spreading Christianity to the distant lands represented by is not but one of several unusual beings who receive the The arc that surrounds the Pentecost scene provides eight distant lands that the apostles were to confront and convert.
the monstrous on the lintel and outer compartments of the Word, presenting a far more embracing view of the cosmos scenes broken up into four compartments.Within these The two lower compartments on the arc provide four
tympanum. For the purpose of this paper, the central image for the edification of the pilgrim.”12 Freidman has expanded compartments are scenes that display physical and mental ills scenes of moral and spiritual behaviors. On the right side at
in the tympanum will be referred to the Pentecost and beyond Katzenbogellen’s discovery; his notion that there was in the upper four scenes and moral and spiritual behaviors the bottom of the arc presents two men dressed in platform
Mission of the Apostles. an “embracing view” toward the monstrous is important to in the lower four scenes. For a medieval viewer, the numbers boots, characteristic of the Assyrians, as described by Greek
Scholars have opened discussion on the meaning of the consider because, as previously mentioned in Augustine’s four and eight would have significant meaning tying back to geographer, Strabo.The pagan Assyrian men are trying to
tympanum in relation to monstrous races. One study, Adolf inquiry of the monstrous races, not all of society was severe the theme of the Pentecost and mission of the Apostles.The convert two men, but the men have already been won over
Katzenellenbogen’s groundbreaking article on the influence in the treatment of those from distant lands. number four refers to the four points of the compass and the by the Holy Spirit.25 This is shown by the figure to the left
of the Crusades on the tympanum, seeks to analyze the Surrounding the central scene of the Pentecost are number eight refers to regeneration and baptism.20 Given the of the scene who leans toward the image of Christ, as if
program and relate it to historical events at the time it was representations of monstrous races that the Apostles will content within the scenes, these numbers provide meaning aware of the presence of Christ beyond the compartment
constructed. Katzenellenbogen is aware that the tympanum preach the Gospel to in order to convert these groups to that symbolizes the distant lands in the four directions and dividing them. Above this scene is a confrontation between
was erected at a critical moment in church history and relates Christians. Beginning with the lintel, a processional of the mission to baptize those who are not yet Christian. a Byzantine soldier and another man who is attempting
the subject of the Pentecost to the mission of the crusaders. people makes up the space below the feet of Christ and the The monks present at Vézelay would have understood the to bribe the soldier.26 The soldier, like the Assyrian below,
He notes that the inclusion of the monstrous races forms Apostles. On the outer most edges, farthest away from the significance of these numbers contributing to the meaning of gazes toward Christ with his eyes wide and head held high.
“an encyclopedia in themselves” and represents the lost parts central figure of Christ, are the barbaric and mythical people. the tympanum. He pays no attention to the bribe, as if led by God’s divine

will, not betray by forfeiting his military secrets. Both of and, according to Debra Higgs Strickland, “This means that violence committed by the crusaders who fought in the In this statement from St. Bernard, there is a glimpse
these scenes are important to consider in light of Friedman’s the tympanum would have been viewed by many whose Holy war.To carry out the mission of restoring Christianity at the prospect that some believed these monstrous races
research that discusses the more embracing view of the minds were turned toward the Holy Land, whether for spoils, in the Holy Land, crusaders had to take means of violent not even worth time contemplating. Scholar Thomas E. A.
monstrous on this tympanum. Because these monstrous violence, spreading the word of God, or some combination action. Chroniclers of the First Crusade make this violence Dale insists that even though St. Bernard deplores the use of
beings are not cut off from the central scene of the Pentecost, of these.Therefore, there is good reason to believe that, clear, all for the purpose of God’s will. monsters on decorative elements on the church, “it remains
but actually are aware and interact with it, shows that the line gazing at these images of the Monstrous Races, crusaders Educated as a clerk in the monastery of Vézelay, to be understood what purpose monstrous images served for
drawn between Christians and the monstrous is still there, yet may have interpreted these as the contemporary Muslims Raymond D’Aguilers was one of the chroniclers of the First the iconophile Benedictine monks….The monstrous capitals
can be penetrated if willing to seek salvation. they would encounter in the East.”29 This tympanum had a Crusade. In his account of the Frankish victory, D’Aguilers served both moralizing and cathartic functions.”34
The two lower scenes on the left side correspond with profound role in determining the visitor’s mentality toward makes it known that the victory of the crusaders also fulfilled Regardless of how St. Bernard thought about church
each other.The lower of the two depicts two scribes, which “the other.”The pilgrim, on a religious journey, would see the mission of the church, to restore Christian faith in decoration, the message was still communicated to monks
suggests they are apostles writing the Gospel that will be these monstrous races as people who have yet to receive the Holy Land.When describing the battle at the Temple and anyone else who looked up to contemplate the monsters.
read to the monstrous races encompassing Christ in the the word of God. For the crusaders, these images might be of Solomon, he states, “Indeed, it was a just and splendid St. Bernard was an advocate for taking action and, like the
tympanum. Above the scribes is thought to be a scene of interpreted as the Muslims they would soon encounter in judgment of God that this place should be filled with the apostles on the lintel, spreading the word of God to those
Jeroboam, who worshiped idols, and is punished by God.The the east in an act of violence to reclaim the Holy Land and blood of the unbelievers, since it had suffered so long from who have not been saved. Even if St. Bernard did not support
Jewish prophet to the right of Jeroboam invites him to follow the infidels they were fighting against. For each of these their blasphemies.”31 He makes it clear that because these the decoration of Vézelay, his message when preaching the
the path of Christ, and Jeroboam falsely repents and invites types of visitors, the common theme is that no matter their people whom the crusaders defeated were not Christian Second Crusade could not be any more fitting with the
the Jewish prophet to eat and drink. However, the prophet intentions, they were once again reminded of the Holy Land and deserved to be slaughtered. He concludes this account tympanum program finished just fourteen years prior to the
rejects the offer. Rouchon-Mouilleron makes note that the and that there was a need to protect it against the infidel for with the statement, “This day, I say, will be famous in all speech. As suggested by the iconographical interpretation of
scene mirrors the biblical story; however, its presence on the the sake of Christianity. future ages, for it turned our labors and sorrows into joy the tympanum and lintel, the monumental sculpture provides
tympanum has a new meaning. According to Rouchon- It is clear that the artist looked to the past for accounts and exultation; this day, I say, marks the justification of all an image of the Pentecost, which carries a strong message of
Mouilleron, “The prophet points his finger toward the figure of monstrous races, but it is also important to consider Christianity, the humiliation of paganism, and the renewal spreading the word of God. St. Bernard calls for the Second
of Christ, and with his other hand turns away. Jeroboam, contemporary events, notably the Crusades, that affected of our faith.”32 According to this account, Christianity Crusade exclaiming, “Behold, brethren, now is the accepted
meanwhile, seems to be taking a step back and turning the the interpretation of the tympanum on a day-to-day basis. triumphed over the monstrous races and their pagan beliefs. time, now is the day of salvation.” Just like the apostles who
opposite direction. Interpreted in respect to the mission of Multiple crusades were launched at this site. St. Bernard’s “The other” was simply eliminated to assert that Christians are about to go forth to the distant lands and teach the
the apostles, a choice is being offered to the Jewish people: speech and the Third Crusade launched in 1190 were clearly are right and anyone who is pagan is therefore wrong.This Gospel in all languages in the Pentecost scene, the message
retreat into idolatry or follow Christ.”27 For these scenes, the tools of propaganda for the purpose of converting outsider mentality, of the “vile” races in which Urban speaks of was of St. Bernard was to gather crusaders who would terminate
people within them are pushed to the outer edges with the societies to Christianity. carried over into the following Crusades and was expressed pagan beliefs and restore Christianity to the distant lands.
monstrous not because of any physical deformity, but because In 1095, Pope Urban II delivered a speech at the Council in visual terms on monumental sculpture. Unlike the First Crusade speech given by Pope Urban
they are Jews, and in a Christian’s mind, monstrous. Jews of Clermont — originally intended to be delivered at With the First Crusade ending in 1099, there was a brief II and the violent accounts from Raymond D’Aguilers, St.
were monstrous not only because they were non-Christian, Vézelay — that launched the First Crusade.There are five hiatus until 1145, when St. Bernard of Clairvaux launched Bernard rejects violence in this crusade speech and instead
but also because they deliberately rejected Christianity. In an accounts of the speech given.The following is an excerpt the Second Crusade at the Vézelay Abbey. At this point, the urges the crusaders to convert the Jews, not slaughter them.
effort to discredit the Jewish religion, Christians depicted the from an account provided by Fulcher of Chartes who was Vézelay tympanum and lintel were fully constructed. In fact, The Jews would have been considered “the other” to St.
Jews as part of the monstrous races as shown on the Vézelay present and heard the speech: St. Bernard disapproved of the richness of church sculptural Bernard. His feelings toward “the other” are still derogatory,
tympanum. programs, and that at Vézelay Abbey was no exception. He though much less violent and like the Vézelay tympanum
With this iconographical examination of the tympanum, On this account I, or rather the Lord, beseech you wrote a complaint in a letter to William, Abbot of Saint- suggests, perhaps even embracing toward these non-Christian
it can be affirmed that the sculptor who designed and as Christ’s heralds to publish this everywhere and to Thierry, on the decoration of Romanesque churches, stating, races in an effort to spread the word of God like the apostles
executed this program was familiar with medieval accounts persuade all people of whatever rank, foot-soldiers in the tympanum. In a letter to Eastern France and Bavaria in
of monstrous races and presents them as “the other” on this and knights, poor and rich, to carry aid promptly to …in the cloisters, before the eyes of the brothers 1146, St. Bernard promotes a non-violent Second Crusade,
tympanum.There were many ways to view the monstrous: those Christians and to destroy that vile race from while they read — what … are the filthy apes doing stating,
cataloging them, questioning their humanity for God’s the lands of our friends. I say this to those who there? The fierce lions? The monstrous centaurs? The
salvation, and subjecting them to harsh ridicule. But as noted are present, it meant also for those who are absent. creatures part man and part beast?... Everywhere so Let not your former warlike skill cease, but only that
by Friedman, this particular depiction of the monstrous Moreover, Christ commands it.30 plentiful and astonishing a variety of contradictory spirit of hatred in which you are accustomed to strike
follows a more embracing view than what has been forms is seem that one would rather read in the down and kill one another and in turn be overcome
previously established for their races.28 The audience of this There is a violent tone toward the un-Christian groups marble than in books, and spend the whole day yourselves. How dire a madness goads those
tympanum would have consisted of monks, merchants, town when Pope Urban II prompts the Crusaders to “destroy that wondering at every single one of them than in wretched men, when kinsmen strike each other’s
people, crusaders, and pilgrims who would stand below this vile race from the lands of our friends.” Here, “the other” meditating the law of God. Good God!33 bodies with the sword, perchance causing the soul
monumental sculpture and an impression of the monstrous is treated as an inferior group who must be destroyed.The also to perish! But he does not escape who triumphs;
would be constructed.There was a vast intended audience violent tone of Urban’s speech was carried out into acts of the sword shall go through his own soul also, when

he thinks to have slain his enemy only.To enter such 2
Emile Mâle, Religious Art in France, The Twelfth Century: A 33
Bernard of Clairvaux, Apologia 12.28-29, trans. Conrad Katzenellenbogen, Adolf. “The Central Tympanum at Vèzelay:
a combat is madness, not valor: it is not to be ascribed Study of the Origins of Medieval Iconography (Princeton: Princeton Rudolph, in The “Things of Greater Importance”: Bernard of Its Encyclopedic Meaning and Its Relation to the First
University Press, 1978), 3. Clairvaux’s Apologia and the Medieval Attitude toward Art Crusade.” Art Bulletin, 26, no. 3 (September 1944): 141-51.
to bravery, but rather to foolishness.35 3
Fred S. Kleiner, Gardner’s Art Through the Ages: The Western (Philadelphia: University of Philadelphia Press, 1990), 279, 283. Kleiner, Fred S., Gardner’s Art Through the Ages: The Western
Perspective (Boston: Wadsworth, 2010), 319. 34
Thomas E. A. Dale, “The Monstrous,” in A Companion Perspective. Boston: Wadsworth, 2010.
And here, St. Bernard more specifically states that the 4
Augustine of Hippo, “The City of God and Christian to Medieval Art: Romanesque and Gothic in Northern Europe, ed. Rouchon-Mouilleron,Véronique. Vézelay: The Great Romanesque
Jews should not be taken with violence, Doctrine: Whether Certain Monstrous Races of Men are Conrad Rudolph (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2010), Church. Translated by Laurel Hirsch. New York: Harry N.
Derived from the Stock of Adam or Noah’s Sons,” trans. Philip 267. Abrams, 1999.
Schaff, The Medieval Bestiary, accessed December 2, 2014, http:// 35
St. Bernard of Clairvaux, “Letter to Eastern France and Strickland, Debra Higgs. Saracens, Demons, and Jews: Making
The Jews must not be persecuted, slaughtered, nor bestiary.ca/prisources/pstexts1757.htm. Bavaria Promoting the Second Crusade, 1146,” trans. Bruno Monsters in Medieval Art. Princeton: Princeton University
even driven out. Inquire of the pages of Holy Writ. 5
John Block Friedman, The Monstrous Races in Medieval Art Scott James, accessed December 2, 2014, http://www.ccjr.us/ Press, 2003.
I know what is written in the Psalms as prophecy and Thought (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981), 127. dialogika-resources/primary-texts-from-the-history-of-the-
about the Jews. “God hath commanded me,” says the
6
Ibid. relationship/258-bernard-of-clairvaux.
Church, “Slay them not, lest my people forget.”36
7
James Hall, Dictionary of Subjects and Symbols in Art 36
Ibid.
(Philadelphia: Westview Press, 2008), 104.
8
Acts 2:1-4. Bibliography
The setting of Vézelay enhanced the message given by 9
Kleiner, Gardner’s Art Through the Ages, 320.
St. Bernard.The scene of the Pentecost served as a form of 10
Hugues Delautre and Jacqueline Greal, La Madeleine de Primary Sources
propaganda that reinforced the message given by St. Bernard Vézelay: Guide Book and Plans (Lyon: Lescuyer for Editions Augustine of Hippo. “The City of God and Christian Doctrine:
Franciscaines, 1985), 10. Whether Certain Monstrous Races of Men are Derived
and his call for the Second Crusade. Just as the apostles 11
Adolf Katzenellenbogen, “The Central Tymanum at Vézelay: from the Stock of Adam or Noah’s Sons.” Translated by
disperse to the monstrous races, or “the other,” portrayed Its Encyclopedic Meaning and Its Relation to the First Crusade,” Philip Schaff. The Medieval Bestiary. Accessed December 2,
in the arcs of the tympanum, the crusaders follow a similar The Art Bulletin, 26, no. 3 (1944): 146-47. 2014. http://bestiary.ca/prisources/pstexts1757.htm.
mission given by St. Bernard to conquer the Holy Land. 12
Freidman, The Monstrous Races in Medieval Art and Thought, Bernard of Clairvaux. Apologia 12.28-29. Translated by Conrad
Like the observation given by Freidman suggests, there 79. Rudolph. In The “Things of Greater Importance”: Bernard of
13
Véronique Rouchon-Mouilleron, Vézelay: The Great Clairvaux’s Apologia and the Medieval Attitude toward Art.
was an embracing view toward the monstrous races in the Romanesque Church, trans. Laurel Hirsch (New York: Harry N. Philadelphia: University of Philadelphia Press, 1990.
tympanum. Similarly, there was also a more embracing view Abrams, 1999), 62-63. St. Bernard of Clairvaux. “Letter to Eastern France and Bavaria
in the speech provided by St. Bernard. 14
Pliny, Natural History, trans. H. Rackham, W. H. S. Jones, Promoting the Second Crusade, 1146.” Translated by Bruno
Whereas there have been a variety of interpretations of and D. E. Eichholz, accessed December 2, 2014, http://www. Scott James. Accessed December 2, 2014. http://www.ccjr.
masseiana.org/pliny.htm#BOOK%20VII. us/dialogika-resources/primary-texts-from-the-history-of-
the monstrous races throughout antiquity and the middle 15
Rouchon-Mouilleron, Vézelay, 62-63. the-relationship/258-bernard-of-clairvaux.
ages, most of these accounts say more about Christians than 16
Pliny, Natural History. Fulcher of Chartres. “Urban II (1088-1099): Speech at Council
the monstrous races they try to dehumanize. Christian men 17
Rouchon-Mouilleron, Vézelay, 62-63. of Clermont, 1095.” Fordham University: Medieval Sourcebook.
in medieval society with wild imaginations have over- 18
Ibid., 68-69. Accessed November 28, 2014. http://www.fordham.edu/
exaggerated monstrous race imagery.The main reason for this
19
Ibid., 14. halsall/source/urban2-5vers.asp.
20
Ibid. Pliny. Natural History. Translated by H. Rackham, W. H. S. Jones,
was fear; the monstrous races were different in appearance 21
Ibid., 44-45. and D.E. Eichholz. Accessed December 2, 2014. http://
and not Christian, and therefore a threat.With its long- 22
Ibid. www.masseiana.org/pliny.htm#BOOK%20VII.
standing record of the monstrous races in medieval history, 23
Ibid. Robert the Monk. “Urban II (1088-1099): Speech at Council
the central tympanum at Vézelay constructs an important
24
Ibid., 46-47. of Clermont, 1095.” Fordham University: Medieval Sourcebook.
interpretation of “the other.”With the scene of the Pentecost,
25
Ibid., 52-53. Accessed December 2, 2014. http://www.fordham.edu/
26
Ibid. Halsall/source/urban2a.asp.
pilgrims, monks, townspeople, and crusaders could witness a 27
Ibid., 58-59.
scene that encouraged the spread of God’s word, even to the 28
Freidman, The Monstrous Races in Medieval Art and Secondary Sources
monstrous who encompass the central scene.The monstrous Thought, 79. D’Aguilers, Raymond. “The Frankish Victory.” Fordham
were still pushed farthest away from Christ, but because they
29
Debra Higgs Strickland, Saracens, Demons, and Jews: Making University: Medieval Sourcebook. Accessed December 2, 2014.
Monsters in Medieval Art (Princeton: Princeton University Press, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/cde-jlem.asp.
interact with the Pentecost scene, the message suggests that 2003), 159.
these races are indeed worthy of salvation. Dale,Thomas E. A. “The Monstrous.” In A Companion to Medieval
30
Fulcher of Chartres, “Urban II (1088-1099): Speech Art: Romanesque and Gothic in Northern Europe, ed. Conrad
at Council of Clermont, 1095,” Fordham University: Medieval Rudolph. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2010.
Endnotes Sourcebook, accessed November 28, 2014, http://www.fordham. Hugues, Delautre and Jacqueline Greal, La Madeleine de
edu/halsall/source/urban2-5vers.asp. Vezelay: Guide Book and Plans. Lyon: Lescuyer for Editions
1
Robert the Monk, “Urban II (1088-1099): Speech at 31
Raymond D’Aguilers, “The Frankish Victory,” Fordham
Council of Clermont, 1095,” Fordham University: Medieval Franciscaines, 1985, 10.
University: Medieval Sourcebook, accessed December 2, 2014, Friedman, John Block. The Monstrous Races in Medieval Art and
Sourcebook, accessed December 2, 2014, http://www.fordham. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/cde-jlem.asp.
edu/Halsall/source/urban2a.asp. Thought. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981.
32
Ibid. Hall, James, Dictionary of Subjects and Symbols in Art. Philadelphia:
Westview Press, 2008.

The Formation of Al Qaeda
Nicole Waers
If hindsight is 20/20, then history must be where the subsequent growth of Al Qaeda as a terrorist organization.
answers lie. In the struggle to comprehend the ubiquitous Thus, the question can be answered in one word: disparities.
question of logica behind the formation of complex terrorist Disparities most often result in one thing: conflict. A
organizations, and more specifically, why the formation of Al decade of conflict in the region east of the Persian Gulf —
Qaeda occurred, it is necessary to examine the motivations more specifically, Iran and Afghanistan, as well as Pakistan
behind one of its most conspicuous public actions, the attacks — managed to accentuate the religiopolitical differences
on America — 9/11.The overall logic of Osama bin Laden, of the ideologies of the hemispheric West and East that
founder and leader of Al Qaeda, as well as the network as a created an ideal atmosphere in which to cultivate extremism.
whole, can only be traced back through, and derived from, Moreover, it is partially due to previously unseen levels
the many declarations and provocations stated and evident of anti-communist sentiment of the Cold War era that an
in the decades both immediately preceding and immediately Islamic extremist network such as Al Qaeda ever came to
following September 11th, 2001. Because, as Fyodor be.This ideological opposition served as the catalyst behind
Mikhailovich Dostoevsky said, “While nothing is easier than various political shifts and military actions that occurred in
to denounce the evildoer, nothing is more difficult than to the decade from 1979-1989 that led to a never before seen
understand him.”1 (or perhaps never before recognized) increased loyalty to the
From approximately 1979 until today, those desiring ways of Islamic fundamentalism.
to “understand the evildoer” are provided with 35 years A principally stirring event in the shift away from the
of relevant evidence in the attempt to understand why Al West was the 1979 revolution in Iran that “ousted the
Qaeda was created initially, as well as why it flourished in pro-American dictator, the last Shah.”2 The ousting of the
its movement to perpetrate one of the most memorable pro-American Shah effectively cut the ties of any U.S.-
and staggering terrorist attacks ever carried out against the Iran alliance, and at the same time, conveniently paved the
United States. Moreover, it is both useful and necessary to way for an immediate Iranian launch into a revolutionary
consider the “after” just as thoroughly as the “during” and the society characterized by the theology of Islamism. A
“before.” fundamentalist Islamic government had taken power in Iran,
Primarily, Middle Eastern regional conditions fostered and it had inherited a vehement anti-American sentiment,
an atmosphere prone to the development of terrorism, even though Islamic fundamentalism did align (perhaps for
while expressed goals of Al Qaeda consistently reflected the last time) with the desires of the West, in the form of
its founding ideology, and subsequent expressions serve as Iranian anti-communist sentiment. As this new Iran pushed
another round of even more explicit explanations.Through farther and farther from the U.S., it did just the same to
translating and deciphering declarations, recruitment tools, communism.The newly revolutionized country began to
and handbooks, as well as understanding the overall context ally with more similar neighboring countries — Pakistan and
of Al Qaeda’s formation, there are various indications in Afghanistan — in order to prevent the spread of yet another,
support of two very important overarching factors that seemingly imminently threatening, competing ideology
contributed to the formation of Al Qaeda. Differing religious of communism.3 This occurred around the same time that
beliefs, culminating in the form of Islamic extremism, as well Saudi Arabian government officials and private donors began
as incongruences of political and social ideologies between pouring money into both countries for the purpose of
“the West” and “the East,” ultimately led to the creation and utilizing jihad against communism.4 These were only some

of the actions that led to the cementing of Afghanistan’s role Despite previous wartime attentiveness and support, Qaeda are founded upon one, overarching aim, this singular shari’a (Islamic holy law) strictly.15 Because Al Qaeda’s driving
as most valuable player among the many locales that played a the flow of U.S. dollars to the efforts in Afghanistan was goal for Al Qaeda was (and likely still is) the achievement system of beliefs is so strict, the extremist nature of Islamism
part in allowing for Al Qaeda to be formed. staunched, and the fanatical Taliban regime took advantage of an ideal Islamic society. Over an indeterminable number is perpetuated by the wide opposition to it. A common
In 1979, when the threat of communism reared its of the nation’s vulnerability, quickly coming to power in the of years, this ideal Islamic society has been interpreted saying suggests that if one is prevented from doing or having
head (quite explicitly) in the form of the Soviet invasion nation. Promoting — or perhaps more accurately, instating and strategized by Bin Laden and various groups of something, it only makes one want to do it, or have it,
of Afghanistan, there were various countries and groups and enforcing — an Islamic fundamentalist way of life was fundamentalists, including Salafists (“purists”).11 This term more. In this way, fundamentalist ideology blossomed into
prepared to confront and oppose the enemy ideology and its their first priority. Along with this came the allowance of for devoted Islamic purists, Salafists, is derived from salafiyya, the formation of Al Qaeda — a group that would unite in
accompanying military forces.The invasion of Afghanistan Al Qaeda’s occupation of land in Afghanistan.The new meaning the imitation of the precursors.Therefore, it is conviction to combat secularist opposition.This opposition
by the Soviets is said to have led to “thousands of Islamic government was providing a haven for the various gestating said that “the faithful should model their actions on the to the ideology was the kindling. Calls for political change
fundamentalists from different countries in the region” to pockets of Al Qaeda.9 With ambitious extremists being Prophet and his Companions who founded the ideal Islamic and reversal of beliefs were the gasoline and the spark; and,
mobilize and band together in order to “help fight the Soviet sheltered in various regions of their newfound jurisdiction, community” of an age long since passed.12 According to years and years of attempts to suppress a “pure” version of
‘infidels.’”5 Moreover, the Afghan forces received support the Taliban’s role in the growth of the Al Qaeda organization Fathali M. Moghaddam’s book From the Terrorists’ Point of View, Islam has only fueled the fire that much more.
(most often in the form of arms) from bordering Pakistan was essentially indispensable. these fundamentalist individuals “have evolved identities that Another important purpose behind the founding of Al
and a very recently post-revolution Iran. A full decade of Finally, another domino fell: Pakistan. Clearly not wanting find fulfillment and meaning through a morality that depicts Qaeda was the intention to overthrow regimes with large
training and fighting led to increased camaraderie among the to be left off the Islamic bandwagon, after Soviet forces were only one goal as worth living for, and justifies killing civilians Muslim populations that do not install shari’a as the official
ranks of those fighting on behalf of Islam, which included removed from Afghanistan in 1989, religious zeal in Pakistan to get to that one goal.”13 Most frankly, this means that Al law. In much of the Western world, the past several decades
a young Osama bin Laden.This would be the same fighter increased. Fundamentalism, as an ideology and a system of Qaeda was founded upon a kind of “we will stop at nothing” have pointed toward democracy as the only possible and
who, in the early 1980s, returned home to fund, recruit, government, in Pakistan strengthened. Its overall amount approach. logical progression on the way to societal progress; however,
transport, and train a volunteer force of Arab nationals, called of “training grounds on which to prepare ‘Islamic freedom However, it is not solely the responsibility of the for Islam, “democracy itself is forbidden because only divine
the Islamic Salvation Front (ISF), to fight alongside the fighters’ to fight against communism and secularism” vastly Salafists to conscribe Islamic extremists to a commitment to power can decree law.”16 Therefore, the so-called “democratic
existing Afghan Mujahedeen — the name given to Afghan increased.10 Yet another fundamentalist Islamic government fundamentalism, or subsequently to the ranks of Al Qaeda. solution” intended to stop the spread of Islam, and especially
fighters confronting the Soviets.6 Although the ISF was later had sprouted up and flourished healthily in the region of the Throughout Islamic history, ulema (elite Islamic scholars and Islamism, is exactly the movement that most perpetuates
disbanded, these formidable years undoubtedly served as Middle East.Thus, Afghanistan was surrounded on both sides religious leaders) have unanimously agreed that the jihad it. Fundamentalist Islam has been given reason to take on a
priceless experience for Bin Laden’s later activities to initiate — Iran on the west and Pakistan on the east — by countries (religious “struggle”) is “an individual duty if the enemy more offensive stance in order to defend against their system
the Al Qaeda organization, which acted as a home base with aligning commitments to Islamic fundamentalism. destroys the Muslim countries”; or perhaps, taken more of beliefs, as well as the “unbelief” of the Western, democratic
and financier for a global network of participating Islamic Afghanistan became the springboard nation with an ideal literally, if an enemy body threatens to destroy the Muslim/ world. In the Encyclopedia of the Afghan Jihad, translated into
groups.7 The ISF can be considered a virtual prototype for location in which to cultivate the grassroots of the network Islamic purist ideological contagion, it is the expectation English and subtitled The Al Qaeda Manual, the following
the not coincidentally similar organizational description of Al that would quickly develop into the Al Qaeda terrorist that that individual will fight in favor of the one and only supporting excerpt is found,
Qaeda. organization. cause.14 The goal is one of conversion of person and/or
Nonetheless, in 1989 the Mujahedeen succeeded in The stage was set. Revolutionaries, fighters, and transformation of society. Supporting this same idea, within It is the same unbelief that drove Sadat, Hosni
driving Soviet forces out of Afghanistan.With the help politicians had (some, intentionally and others, haphazardly) the Holy Quran, Surah Nine, Surat at-Tawbah, is the most Mubarak, Gadhafi, Hafez Assad, Saleh, Fahed —
of military and monetary U.S. aid to the anti-communist opened the door to a unification movement — one that frequently cited: Allah’s curse be upon the non-believing leaders
opposition, as well as a globalized network of support moved swiftly as far away from both communism and — and all the apostate Arab rulers to torture, kill,
from several surrounding Middle Eastern countries, Westernization as possible, and one that did not hesitate to Then when have passed the sacred months, the imprison, and torment Moslems.These young men
Islamic groups and followers, the Soviet invasion and jump into the open and welcoming arms of Islam (in the sacred months, then kill the polytheists wherever realized that an Islamic government would never
mission failed. However, too busy basking in what was form of Islamism). An emerging trend of commitment to the you find them and seize them and besiege them be established except by the bomb and rifle. Islam
considered an enormous victory over the Soviet Union creation of a wholly fundamentalist Middle East laid much and sit (in wait) for them (at) every place of ambush. does not coincide or make a truce with unbelief,
and communism as a whole, the United States promptly groundwork; and opposition to democracy and secularism, But if they repent and establish the prayer and give but rather confronts it.The confrontation that Islam
stopped paying any attention to the enormous numbers of or more pointedly, continuation of advocacy for “purist” the zakahthen leave their way. Indeed, All (is) Oft- calls for with these godless and apostate regimes,
Islamic fundamentalists that it had directly nurtured in the Islam, sustained an early wave of the Islamic fundamentalist Forgiving, Most Merciful. And if anyone of the does not know Socratic debates, Platonic ideals nor
region.8 The United States failed to take notice of this rapidly movement being nurtured in the region — most essentially, polytheists seek your protection then grant him Aristotelian diplomacy. But it knows the dialogue
expanding “global village,” which had been, and was still, in Afghanistan. protection until he hears the words of Allah, the word of bullets, the ideals of assassination, bombing, and
uniting in a shared and prodigious religious commitment to It is absolutely essential to examine the brand of Islam of Allah. destruction, and the diplomacy of the cannon and
fundamentalist Islam.This is the cause to which the United to which Osama bin Laden and his subsequent followers machine-gun.The young came to prepare themselves
States had somewhat unknowingly or unrecognizably subscribed in order to truly understand the logic behind a Calls such as this are the impetus driving the Al Qaeda for Jihad, commanded by the majestic Allah’s order in
directly provided money and weaponry to during the group like Al Qaeda, as well as the reasons behind their many network — and, more broadly, Islamic extremists as a whole. the holy Koran. [Koranic verse:] “Against them make
invasion. original intentions and later actions. As it has, more often In addition to learning from Salafists, Al Qaeda very ready your strength to the utmost of your power,
than not, been concluded that terrorist groups similar to Al clearly drew on the Wahhabi strain of Islam, which interprets including steeds of war, to strike terror into (the

hearts of) the enemies of Allah and your enemies, and quell Islam, in ways similar to those which communism was turning its bases in the Peninsula into a spearhead through the formation of Al Qaeda, Zawahiri spells out his invocating
others besides whom ye may not know, but whom subjected to just a few years prior. which to fight the neighboring Muslim peoples.”23 (Iraq objectives.The first was to overthrow “corrupt regimes” in
Allah doth know.”17 While much blame can be directed toward ideological — a Soviet ally, ironically enough — was later occupied in the Muslim world.These would include the likes of Iran,
reasoning and opposition to Islam as a whole, in somewhat efforts to combat ideology that directly opposed democracy.) as mentioned earlier.The second, was the establishment of
They could hardly be more explicit in their reasoning. more weighted and specific ways, the United States has Moghaddam argues that Al Qaeda and other terrorist groups shari’a in these lands — the goal to implement pure Islam
Islamism had refused to even consider compromise in a played an integral role in prompting the formation of Al were determined to gain control of territory and other as a universal rule. Finally, he looked to put an “end to U.S.
democratic way, and so many orthodox extremists felt Qaeda. Many actions taken by our nation in the pursuit of material resources, as reflected for example by their efforts support for, and manipulation of, corrupt puppet regimes in
compelled by direct calls from both Allah and their founding cultivating democracy and protecting alliances has enraged to expel Westerners from Islamic lands (such as Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia and other dictatorships of the Near East, Middle
superiors to physically combat those that will in the future extremists and brought cause for both defensive and offensive and Iraq).The purpose behind their formation was, perhaps East, and North Africa.”The goal was to inflict significant
work to oppose their ideals in order to implement their own, activity in the form of horrendous terror. It is due to these most importantly, to “drive both overt and covert U.S. forces casualties on those working for the causes of the west and to
westernized ones. devout feelings of hatred and defensiveness that Islamic out of Muslim lands in the Near and Middle East (covert “get crusaders out of the lands of Islam especially from Iraq,
Islamic fundamentalism rejects legislation, diplomacy, extremism was “forced” or “called” to resort to unification as American forces have not left Saudi Arabia, the country that Afghanistan, and Palestine.”27 And while there had to have
and civil debate in favor of intimidation, violence, and one very unfortunate root of the terrorist network, Al Qaeda. houses the most important Islamic holy places, including been some disagreement or variation of intended focuses and
aggression.While Al Qaeda derives its objectives and purpose The concept of territory was, and is, yet another Mecca, the prime destination for millions of Muslim pilgrims goals within the ranks of potential Al Qaeda jihadists, these
from the Sunni,Wahhabi branch of Islam, as well as lifestyle important point of contention between the Western and from around the world each year).”24 Just two years prior, in were the things most commonly presented as motivators and
suggestions of Salafists, it is also structured according to many Eastern world. In Islam, it is said that once Islam takes Osama bin Laden’s Declaration of Jihad Against Americans, he desires for the movement upon which Al Qaeda was based.
ideas of Sayyid Qutb, the principle ideologue of Egypt’s control of lands, they should retain sovereignty over them had declared the condemnation of the U.S. occupation of Recalling above the mention of American occupation
Muslim Brotherhood.Those that chose to work within the until the end of time. The conspicuous global actions of the Saudi Arabia, as well as Saudi Arabian arms trade with the of Palestine, this presence and topic of debate is perhaps one
Al Qaeda network were likely educated about the teachings United States posed what Al Qaeda viewed as a very explicit United States. Looking here, and tracing the logic backward of the most often noted areas of discontent for Al Qaeda
of this similar organization, by which many fundamentalist threat to their Muslim way of life and to the lands of which just a few more years, Osama bin Laden makes it clear fighters, and especially Osama bin Laden himself.The
Sunni movements are inspired.18 they occupied.Within the Encyclopedia of the Afghan Jihad, that Al Qaeda originally banded together as a response to longstanding U.S. alliance with Israel currently stands as a
Moreover, Qutb had been strongly influenced by the mentioned above, and discovered in a known member of the assumed and anticipated threat that a U.S. presence in source of contention, and also acted as a clear motivating
writings of Abu al-Ala al-Mawdudi, who was educated Al Qaeda’s home, it is expressed that those devoted to jihad these lands meant to an Islamic way of life, and to believers factor for members of Al Qaeda.The jihadist movement
in an ultraconservative deobandi school, which led him to for the sake of a pure Islam firmly believed that, just prior to themselves. did not approve of the unqualified U.S. military and
the development of five key Islamic principles that Qutb the turn of the century, all Westerners aimed at a generation Moving forward through the Middle East’s historical political support for Israel.28 In fact, in his declaration of
would later claim as his own.19 Perhaps most notably, of progress. However, this progress was to come by way of chronology, it is important to recognize the United States’ jihad, Osama bin Laden directly called for expanded jihad
falling under his second principle, anti-Westernism, Sayyid producing a neo-generation of ambitious, individualistic, role in the 1990 Iraqi invasion of Kuwait as a pivotal moment against the United States because of the occupation of
Qutb adamantly rejects democracy because he believes and secular citizens.The document translation recalls that, on the timeline of Al Qaeda’s formation. Prompted by the Palestine (in support of Israel and Judeo-Christianity) and
in adherence to “Islamism’s first principle — hakimiyyat “They aimed at producing a wasted generation that pursued accusation that Kuwait was stealing petroleum from Iraq, alleged murders of Muslims there.29 Perhaps a reiteration
Allah, God-Government.”20 Commitment to this principle everything that is western and produced rulers, ministers, leader Saddam Hussein’s extremist forces moved to invade of previous ideological testimonies, the U.S. presence in
meant embracing the belief that religion and politics are, leaders, physicians, engineers, businessmen, politicians, Kuwait. However, when Bin Laden offered up his band of what (according to many who considered themselves a part
and always should be, organized together, as a singular body. journalists, and information specialists. [Koranic verse:] “And jihadists (not quite yet a fully structured Al Qaeda) to protect of the fundamentalist movement) should be a region safe
Because democracy stems from a basis of individuality, free Allah’s enemies plotted and planned, and Allah too planned, the nation and turn back the Iraqi forces who threatened for Muslims and conducive to the practice and support of
speech, and self-determination, it is not in accordance with and the best of planners is Allah.”22 Thus, the responsibility Saudi Arabia, the Saudi government turned instead to the Islam, again prompted actions of terror in the pursuit of their
fundamentalist Islam, a religion under which individual to reverse this way of thinking fell into the willing hands of U.S. military forces, who then formed their own coalition of eradication. According to Jonathan Schnazer, author of the
liberty, frankly, does not exist. For fundamentalist Islam, those aligning with the words of Allah and the objectives of hundreds of thousands that defeated the invading Iraqi forces book Al-Qaeda’s Armies, the group from which Al Qaeda’s
sovereignty belongs to God alone.This anti-Westernism Al Qaeda. in about a month.25 Seth Jones, author of In the Graveyard ranks would have been chosen rejected Israel’s existence.
is all encompassing due to its humanism. For example, By the same token, years and years — which at that time, of Empires, refers to this as a “clarion call for [Bin Laden’s] He states that, for them, “the very concept of peace with
the aforementioned democratic ideals suggest “worship of was said to have been about seven — of U.S. occupation of movement.” For the Americans to lead the Saudi military Israel is an anathema.”To be sure, the absence of peace
Man,” which for Mawdudi and Qutb is the same as shirk the Islamic holy lands in the Arabian Peninsula was offensive efforts in an assault against Iraq as a result of its occupation of and the intifada (with its images of Palestinian youngsters
or “attributing partners to God” — always considered to Muslims, especially as many worried about the potentially Kuwait was considered a “grievous transgression.”26 Thus, this taking on Israeli tanks) soured the climate for moderation
a supreme sin.21 As universalism is the last of these five detrimental effects of the U.S. role behind the spread of a event was one of the final catalysts propelling the unification in the area and created a more fertile breeding ground for
important principles, this closing rule means that everything type of “Western contagion” of individual ambition.This of Al Qaeda. anger and resentment — the stock in trade of Osama bin
in Islam is valid for all human beings. Secularism, and any is a key component of the first facet listed by Osama bin Ayman al-Zawahiri, another one of the most important Laden and the terrorist networks.”30 Al Qaeda jihadists
activity not in direct accordance to this sense of Islam, is most Laden in his 1998 fatwa. He reasons, “the United States has men thrust to a position of leadership in Al Qaeda during shared the perspective that Israel, and Israel’s perpetual
literally blasphemy.Therefore, Al Qaeda’s formation is a direct been occupying the lands of Islam in the holiest of places, this time, prepared the jihadists for the struggle to pursue a alliance with the United States, explained the unrest in the
response to the conquest of democratic nations to religiously the Arabian Peninsula, plundering its riches, dictating to its three-pronged plan. Aligning almost exactly with the outline region and the persecution of Palestinians in the ongoing
“colonize” Muslim nations, as well as any and all attempts to rulers, humiliating its people, terrorizing its neighbors, and of the reasons listed herein that allowed for and motivated territorial, religious, and political conflict. For Al Qaeda, these

unresolved tensions, and U.S. contributions to it, stood as one components of the initiating logic of Al Qaeda. All of these 13
Moghaddam, From the Terrorists’ Point of View, 97. Secondary Sources
large and legitimate cause for the formation of a terrorist activities were viewed as an interconnected, giant affront to 14
Osama bin Laden, “Osama bin Laden’s 1998 Fatwa,“ Demant, Peter R. Islam vs. Islamism: The Dilemma of the Muslim
organization. Eventually, Al Qaeda would be essentially Islam as a whole. So, those interested in standing up for what 1998, accessed March 13, 2015, http://www.911memorial. World. Westport, Conn.: Praeger Publishers, 2006.
Jones, Seth G. In the Graveyard of Empires: America’s War in
fighting fire with fire, performing acts of terror and violence they believed in — Islamism — as what was best for their org/sites/all/files/Osama%20bin%20Laden%27s%20 Afghanistan. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2010.
as retribution for Israeli/Palestinian violence and tension people ended up being the ones first in line to contribute 1998%20Fatwa%20declaring%20war%20against%20the%20 Moghaddam, Fathali M. What They Experience and What They
in the Middle Eastern region, and American contributions to the foundation and ultimately decide to form such an West%20and%20Israel.pdf. Come to Destroy. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing,
toward it. organization as Al Qaeda in the first place. 15
Aaron Mannes, Profiles in Terror:The Guide to Middle East 2006.
The answer to the question of why extremist Muslims, It was not one person’s fault. It was not one nation’s fault. Terror Organizations (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Mannes, Aaron. Profiles in Terror: The Guide to Middle East
Terror Organizations. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield
Islamic jihadists, Osama bin Laden, Ayman al-Zawahiri, and The “fault” was, most simply, in any and all opposition and Publishers, 2004), 17. Publishers, 2004.
the thousands of others worldwide originally came together, continuation of violations of the extremist Islamic ideology. 16 Ibid., 3. Schnazer, Jonathan. Al-Qaeda’s Armies: Middle East Affiliate Groups
structured Al Qaeda as an organization, and took up arms The fault was in our differences and in their discrimination. 17
Al Qaeda. Encyclopedia of the Afghan Jihad, 1993, accessed and the Next Generation of Terror. New York: Specialist Press
to perform acts terror is not entirely conclusive, confusingly Al Qaeda is not the effect of one event.The Al Qaeda March 13, 2015, http://www.justice.gov/ag/manualpart1_1. International, 2005.
tangled up in the events of the last several decades, and organization is the effect of thousands of actions and events pdf.
contains seemingly innumerable reasons. But, from many in our fairly recent history that culminated in the form of 18
Demant, Islam vs. Islamism, 100.
large pools of information, it can be gathered and studied, extremist terror. Ultimately, it can be concluded that differing 19
Ibid.
many logical conclusions can be drawn, and many in search religious beliefs and incongruences of political and social 20
Ibid.
of answers can be provided with some degree of explanation, ideologies between “the West” and “the East,” both prompted, 21
Ibid., 101.
or even closure.The creation of Al Qaeda as a terrorist and have allowed for, the progress and growth of Al Qaeda 22
Al Qaeda, Encyclopedia.
organization was due to various events and conditions, in the past three decades.Without any one of the events or 23
Bin Laden, 1998 Fatwa.
culminating in three collective causes. developments listed herein, the timeline of formation and 24
Moghaddam, From the Terrorists’ Point of View, 58.
First, the decade of 1979-1989 and its major events, subsequent acts of terror might well have been completely 25
Hudson, Who Becomes a Terrorist and Why, 8.
as well as their results, led down the road to Al Qaeda. altered. Nonetheless, this is the history that our world has 26
Jones, In the Graveyard of Empires, 70.
Most importantly, events such as the Iranian Revolution created, and the formation of Al Qaeda as an Islamic terrorist 27
Moghaddam, From the Terrorists’ Point of View, 24.
and the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan fostered a kind of organization was the unfortunate result we’ve been forced to 28
Ibid., 4.
heightened Islamic unity, in the face of opposing outside reason, and to live with. 29
Osama bin Laden, “Osama bin Laden’s Declaration of
ideologies. Revolutionary changes in power and culture, Jihad Against Americans,” 1996, accessed March 13, 2015,
as well as recruitment and unification for the purpose of Endnotes http://www.911memorial.org/sites/all/files/Osama%20
military action, increased external funding and weaponry, and 1
Rex A. Hudson, Who Becomes a Terrorist and Why:The bin%20Laden%27s%201996%20Fatwa%20against%20
legitimate reason for training masses, led to never-before-seen 1999 Government Report on Profiling Terrorists (Guilford, Conn.: United%20States.pdf.
levels of Islamic, Muslim, and Middle Eastern camaraderie on Lyons Press, 1999).
30
Jonathan Schnazer, Al-Qaeda’s Armies: Middle East
the Persian Gulf. 2
Fathali M. Moghaddam, From the Terrorists’ Point of Affiliate Groups and the Next Generation of Terror (New York:
After the development of this coincidentally ideal View:What They Experience and What They Come to Destroy Specialist Press International, 2005), 6.
climate in countries like Pakistan and Afghanistan came the (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing, 2006), 3.
heightened popularity and devotion to the religion and 3
Ibid., 3. Bibliography
culture of Islamism. Advocacy for an extreme sect of Islam, 4
Seth G. Jones, In the Graveyard of Empires: America’s War in Primary Sources
one whose perfect society is a most pure Islamic one, became Afghanistan (New York:W.W. Norton & Company, 2010), 69 Al Qaeda. Encyclopedia of the Afghan Jihad. 1993. Accessed March
perhaps the most logical catalyst propelling the Islamist 5
Moghaddam, From the Terrorists’ Point of View, 5. 13, 2015. http://www.justice.gov/ag/manualpart1_1.pdf.
movement and resulting in the formation of an Al Qaeda, 6
Hudson, Who Becomes a Terrorist and Why, 171. Bin Laden, Osama. “Osama bin Laden’s Declaration of Jihad
clearly intending to perform its bidding.With renewed Against Americans.” 1996. Accessed March 13, 2015. http://
7
Ibid., 171. www.911memorial.org/sites/all/files/Osama%20bin%20
devotion to such an extreme ideology, jihadists (with the 8
Moghaddam, From the Terrorists’ Point of View, 34. Laden%27s%201996%20Fatwa%20against%20United%20
help of experienced leaders like Osama bin Laden) began 9
Ibid., 34. States.pdf.
to connect the dots and listen attentively to their grievances 10
Ibid., 34. Bin Laden, Osama. “Osama bin Laden’s 1998 Fatwa.” 1998.
with the West, as well as to the calls of Allah to address these Accessed March 13, 2015. http://www.911memorial.org/
11
Ibid., 79. sites/all/files/Osama%20bin%20Laden%27s%201998%20
discrepancies. 12
Peter R. Demant, Islam vs. Islamism:The Dilemma of the Fatwa%20declaring%20war%20against%20the%20West%20
Together with this, the modern, progressive, democratic Muslim World (Westport, Conn.: Praeger Publishers, 2006), and%20Israel.pdf.
and westernization movement, as well as actions of the 161. Hudson, Rex A. Who Becomes a Terrorist and Why: The 1999
United States such as occupation of Islamic lands and Government Report on Profiling Terrorists. Guilford, Conn.:
continuation of an alliance with Israel, were also important Lyons Press, 1999.

Section II.
Premodern Femininities
Rashid al-Din, portrait of Buluqhan Khatun feeding her child Ghazan, from Compendium of Chronicles, early 14th century.
Inanna-Ishtar: Recognizing the Personality and
Purpose of a Goddess
Ashleigh Pierce
The mythology of ancient Mesopotamia is far less familiar research is the source of these discoveries. By working to
to the average American than that of many other ancient uncover ancient artifacts, both artistic and textual, modern
religions.To scholars, though, it is a subject of utmost scholars are provided with the evidence necessary to learn
importance in understanding the culture of many early about the ancient world. For the study of Inanna-Ishtar
Mesopotamian societies: the Sumerians, Akkadians, Assyrians, the textual sources found on clay tablets, cylinder seals and
Babylonians, etc. By studying the ancient cults and myths other inscriptions are especially vital; by transliterating and
surrounding their deities, it is possible to uncover some of the translating these sources, cuneiform scholars have vastly
beliefs and values held in this region’s fount of civilization. expanded the available knowledge about her.To understand
From why the Tigris and Euphrates flood erratically, to the historiography about Inanna-Ishtar, then, it is necessary to
examples of how heirs should behave toward their fathers, discuss the scholarly debate about her and the main sources
the stories about the gods provide explanations about the used: literary documents, artifacts, and images.
world. Among the frequently named gods stands a powerful One particularly significant scholar was Samuel Noah
and dynamic goddess whose name is invoked by priests, Kramer, who spent his career in the careful study of
kings, and commoners throughout the region and over the Sumer and cuneiform texts and was highly respected by
course of time: Inanna-Ishtar. his colleagues in the field.2 Not only was he asked to be a
Inanna-Ishtar was the goddess of both love and war. guest professor at many universities, but he was also invited
Her two names represent differences in place and time, to help catalogue and decipher literary tablets in different
with Inanna being the name the Sumerians and Akkadians collections.3 In addition to his many popular books, though,
assigned to her, and Ishtar being the name she was known by it was perhaps his building of a sense of cooperation among
to the Assyrians. Despite the vast number of sources referring the Sumerologist community that made the greatest impact
to her, and the numerous sources that include or describe her and progress for this field of study.4 Rather than attempting
in detail, it can be difficult to comprehend her personality to retain sources for his own private study and success, he
and characteristics; as Rivkah Harris labels her, she is a made them available to many other scholars around the
paradox.1 The available sources about her reveal a deity who world; not only could more sources be deciphered this way,
is both orderly and chaotic, a goddess capable of bringing but it also made scholarly discussion and debate about the
both great prosperity and destruction. By being such an documents possible.
anomaly, Inanna-Ishtar was unlike many goddesses of the One area of difference in this discussion is between Near
ancient world and broke with the gender norms of the time. Eastern specialists and more general scholars.To some groups,
Consequently, she is unrepresentative of how Mesopotamian such as classicists, there is a desire to compare Mesopotamian
women were expected to behave. cultural aspects — like Inanna-Ishtar — to other regions
and time periods. An example of this is Miroslav Marcovich’s
The Archaeological History work, which argues that the Greek deity Aphrodite was
Before critiquing the goddess’s character, and trying to sort descended from and extremely similar to Ishtar.5 Historically,
through what is known about her, it is important to consider part of the drive for this has been to prove that ancient
how scholars have uncovered this knowledge. Archaeological Mesopotamia served as a birthplace for Western cultures
and values. Unfortunately, while comparisons can be made

between the two cultures and their goddesses, they frequently to him.11 Kramer’s list is not all inclusive, however. It does Jacobsen (1963) and A. Sjoberg (1966).They argue that “In. Assante also warns that scholars need to be aware of a
depict too broad an image of Inanna-Ishtar and lose sight not account for the numerous post-Sumerian documents, or nin also appears with other goddesses and must be explained pre-conceived notion about the idea of sacred marriage
of many of her detailed characteristics. As Rivkah Harris more recently discovered sources. Examples of more recent as an honorific epthet. Jacobsen suggest[ed] cautiously it and sacred prostitution being related to Inanna-Ishtar.These
puts it, “much has been written about Inanna-Ishtar by sources that will be discussed are the poems and hymns from might mean something like ‘conqueress.’”These ambiguities concepts date back to Herodotus — who is a notoriously
people outside of the field of ancient Near Eastern studies. Enheduanna, en-priestess to Nanna under Sargon, king of in translations are one source of the uncertainty in studying questionable source among scholars — and were expanded
The tendency in these writings is to flatten and level the Akkad.Translated by Betty De Shong Meador, the source is Inanna-Ishtar. Like the artistic depictions of the goddess, upon by later scholars such as James Frazer. Despite how
distinctively Mesopotamian features of the goddess.”6 useful to an analysis of Inanna-Ishtar not only because of its scholars must carefully analyze all the details available to commonly accepted and referenced these ideas have become,
Notably, scholars focus on her role as the goddess of love discussion of the goddess, but also because it provides insight uncover the most probable truth.16 there is a notable lack of primary evidence to support the
and queen of heaven while deemphasizing her values as the to the author, a human woman.12 This uncertainty has been present at sites other than existence of this practice. Indeed, Assante claims that in the
goddess of war.This tunnel vision can partly be attributed In order to compare Inanna-Ishtar to the gender norms Nippur as well. In her article “The Ishtar Temple at Alalakh,” thousands of literary texts recovered from various Inanna-
to modern ideas of patriarchy and a hesitancy to associate a of the time, sources must be used that establish what they Nadav Na’aman works to clarify the identity of a series of Ishtar temples, none even suggest such a practice existed.
female deity with what are perceived as masculine virtues.7 were, specifically what the female gender role was. One of temples found during Woolley’s excavations at Alalakh.While Furthermore, she believes the patriarchal norms of the era
The study of Inanna-Ishtar therefore requires consciousness the most useful in this aspect are the law codes of ancient Woolley vaguely stated they were “presumably dedicated discredit the idea that fathers and husbands would allow
of these subjective perceptions of her and a comfort with civilizations. Analyzing the laws about women — how they to the city goddess invoked by Idri-mi,” Na’aman seeks to women to engage in this type of behavior.22
acknowledging her distinctiveness. Furthermore, like all were penalized or protected — provides one account of how demonstrate from level VII archives that this goddess was in The other great difficulty in identifying Inanna-Ishtar is
historical discourse this study requires a careful analysis of the they were expected to behave. It also provides insight into fact Ishtar. She supports her argument using textual sources that some sources indicate that there were multiple “Ishtars”
primary sources relevant to the topic. the different social castes women could fall into, and provides from the city: Ishtar and Hadad were the two main deities simultaneously. Not only do her characteristics change over
In order to gain access to many literary sources, it is the understanding that not all women were expected to mentioned, the kings records invoked Ishtar as one of the time, as she transitioned from the Sumerian Inanna to the
necessary to decipher what is written in cuneiform — a behave in the same way.Therefore, it is important to consider deities giving him military might, and they refer to the Akkadian Ishtar, but she was also distinct to each individual
script that was used for many languages, some unrelated, in Inanna-Ishtar in comparison to multiple societal roles and see assinnum, cultic devotees of Ishtar.17 city.This is demonstrated by Barbara Nevling Porter in
Mesopotamia.The expansion of this field of study further if there are some that she reflects more than others. Other The nature of Inanna-Ishtar’s cultic worshippers is her explanation of a hymn written for Assurbanipal.The
enables archaeologists to make sense of many of the artifacts textual sources that can be used are marriage contracts, another issue faced by scholars in the field. It is not only their hymn discusses the existence of both Ishtar of Ninevah and
they find at excavation sites.The excavations at Nippur which according to M. Stol, “reflect the social positions of job within the cult that is hard to understand, but also their Ishtar of Arbela as the king’s patrons, and it claims that they
provide one excellent example of this. At this site, a temple both parties,”13 and letters, both of which can be found in very sexuality. Most scholars find their gender so ambiguous collaborated to help him during his reign.23 It makes clear
to Inanna was uncovered toward the southwest of a ziggurat family archives across Mesopotamia. they believe but cannot agree on whether groups like the that they are two very distinct individuals, who had separate
dedicated to Enlil.8 The documents and building inscriptions A somewhat more challenging source scholars have kurgarru, assinnu, and kulu’u were eunuchs, homosexuals, roles in his upbringing and provided him with different gifts.
found there allowed scholars to learn more about the daily available to them is the visual depiction of women and hermaphrodites, or transsexuals.18 Na’aman suggests that What adds to this confusion is that in other texts the same
life and functions within the temple. G. van Driel found that Inanna-Ishtar. Unlike many textual sources, visual depictions there might have been “some popular legend or belief where king invokes Ishtar as a single goddess, without differentiating
economically the temple was independent but had many do not always state specifically what is being represented. An Ishtar played the role of a castrating goddess.”19 Whether between individuals. Porter sites one source which
economic links to the other temples in the city.9 Another example of this can be found in Dominique Collon’s The this was true in the literal sense cannot be proven; however, utilizes a single “Ishtar” in one line, just a few lines before
scholar, Albrecht Goetze, also studied the Nippur temple Queen of the Night; Collon describes in detail the ambiguity it is clear she and her cult provided confusion about the distinguishing between the Ishtars of Nineveh and Arbela:
by looking at “the astonishing numbers [of] treasures that, around the identity of the women in the relief sculpture traditional concepts of gender in the Mesopotamian world. “In the introduction to Prism A, for example, Assurbanipal
as is the custom in Mesopotamia, had carefully been buried and suggests that it could be one of three different females, “She [Inanna-Ishtar] breaks the boundaries between the announces that Shamash, Adad, and Ishtar — just Ishtar
in parts of the building and underneath its very floors.”10 Ishtar being among her list.14 Despite this dilemma, there are sexes by embodying both femaleness and maleness,”20 and — have ordered him to exercise kingship, a comment that
Analysis of the numerous vases, bowls, statuettes, and other common features to Inanna-Ishtar’s visual portrayals: the lion her cultic participants appear to have done the same. appears just twelve lines after a carefully specified Ishtar of
objects of value found showed that they had inscriptions and her weapons.15 It is therefore possible to identify her in According to Julia Assante, they may have done so Nineveh and Ishtar of Arbela.”24 This type of situation makes
dedicating them to Inanna. Not only were these objects very images recovered from ancient Mesopotamia, but oftentimes in a way very different from what most scholars believe. evident the existence of distinct Ishtars, but also clarifies that
valuable, showing how sincerely individuals desired her favor, controversially. Traditionally, many of Inanna-Ishtar’s male cultic worshippers there was one prevailing deity. Having discussed the various
but most were also given by women, suggesting who her The problem in identifying Inanna-Ishtar stems from were believed to be demasculinized in some way. As already ways scholars have uncovered knowledge — and confusion
main worshippers were. several reasons. One is that, as shown above, it is not always mentioned, this manifested itself in scholarship by describing — about Inanna-Ishtar, I will move to the next step. An
Sources about Inanna were not limited to this excavation, clearly stated that she is the subject being depicted. In them as eunuchs, homosexuals, transsexuals, and so on. In her analysis of how she broke with female gender norms of the
however. One of the most important classifications of his analysis of the findings at Nippur, Goetze discusses essay “Bad Girls and Kinky Boys?:The Modern Prostituting time period and supported the kings of Mesopotamia is
documents that have been uncovered are the myths and disagreement about the goddess’s identity.The scholar I. J. of Ishtar, Her Clergy, and Her Cults,” Assante argues that necessary to establish her characteristics.
hymns to Inanna and Ishtar. Kramer’s 1963 history about Gelb (1960) contests the excavation’s identification of the there is no tangible evidence to support this. She even
the Sumerians states that — to that point — five myths that temple as being dedicated to Inanna; rather he suggests the suggests that some of the positions traditionally thought to be Identifying Inanna-Ishtar’s Personality
featured Inanna as the major actor had been recovered and name on the artifact inscriptions was the goddess Ninni. held by males could have also been held by women. It is her As can be surmised from that already discussed, Inanna-
translated; in addition, two more myths focusing on Dumuzi, Goetze defends his identification of the goddess as Inanna belief that these views of the past were subjective and became Ishtar demonstrated a great variety of behaviors both as she
her husband, were also available to analyze her relationship with the support of scholars E. Sollberger (1962),Th. normalized in scholarship as a result of Victorian-era norms.21 changed over time and within time periods as a result of her

personality. She was vital to the growth and prosperity of lovers over her long life, but the way in which she left them Her actions in this myth display two of her most
cities and their kingdoms and equally capable of destroying could be very shocking. noticeable behavioral traits: severe irascibility and change-
entire empires on a whim. Her cult and worship was one Of the many lovers which Gilgamesh lists,Tammuz is the ability. Her influence on other deities is also noticeable,
of the most widespread in ancient Mesopotamia, and she best known. Known to the Mesopotamians as the shepherd however, and proves that despite being female, she is one of
is one of the deities whom archaeologists have recovered Dumuzi, he was Inanna-Ishtar’s first lover and husband.There the most powerful of the pantheon.
the most sources about. Ultimately her strength and mood were four different myths known about how these two
swings served as a mechanism for the ancient societies to became lovers and of these only one suggests that Dumuzi The Goddess of War
explain both natural and human calamities and occurrences. was not Inanna-Ishtar’s first choice.33 In the other myths, Her power as the goddess of war contributes to the
To understand her personality, it is important to look at Figure 1: Impression of a limestone cylinder-seal of the Uruk period (ca. she quickly submits to his seduction with varying levels of portrayal of her as an irascible individual prone to random,
multiple aspects of her powers as a goddess: bringing fertility 4,000-3350 BCE) depicting a priestess holding a reed bundle (symbolic approval from her parents. One of these myths, translated by wanton destruction. Fumi Karahashi, in her comparative
to agricultural fields and animal raising; acting as a lover and of Inanna) and a priest-king holding an ear of wheat; from Charles Kramer, states work “Fighting the Mountain: Some Observations on the
spouse, and strength as the goddess of war. It is also important Keith Maisels, The Near East: Archaeology in the “Cradle of Civilization” Sumerian Myths of Inanna and Ninurta,” looks at this aspect
(London: Routledge, 1993). of Inanna-Ishtar in greater detail. In contrast to Ninurta —
to analyze how her cult worshipped her in her temples, As I [Inanna] was shining bright, was dancing about,
myths, and hymns. As I was singing away while the bright light overcame who fights his opponent Asag in response to a rebellion —
and “forsook the shrine Agade,” the other powerful gods leave (?) the night, Inanna challenges Mount Ebih I: its “disrespectful behavior as
A Goddess of Fertility and take their blessings of wisdom and eloquence with them.29 He met me, he met me, well as its beauty … apparently enrages Inanna and invites its
The power to bring fertility to the land was normally This results in the cities’ fearfulness as they begin to lose battles The lord Kuli-Anna (Dumuzi) met me, total destruction.”37 The fact that she is angered because the
associated with Inanna rather than Ishtar. It was one of her and doubt the future of kingship in the city. Agade’s final The lord put his hand into my hand, mountain does not bow to her is reflective of other stories
earlier abilities, before becoming more militarized by the destruction does not come until later, after enraging Enlil, but Ushumgal-Anna (Dumuzi) embraced me.34 that show she becomes petulant whenever she feels slighted
Assyrian era. Figure 1 shows her symbolized by the read it begins with the loss of Inanna’s favor. or disrespected. Her condemnation of Dumuzi in the Nether
bundle as a fecundity goddess and being held by a priestess In comparison to these documents, it is interesting that After this affair they agree to marry, but their relationship World myth and her anger toward Gilgamesh in his epic
next to “two large containers (baskets?) probably holding — despite being the goddess of love — Inanna-Ishtar is not does not stay so romantic. both show this.
grain.”25 As well as the imagery, this role was reinforced by equally associated with the fertility of humans. At least, that A well-preserved myth known as “Inanna’s Descent to However, she is not only aggravated by her lovers. In
several literary documents that have been discovered and is the case according to Assante. She notes the significance the Nether World” tells scholars about Dumuzi’s demise “Enki and the World Order,” Inanna becomes bitter toward
translated. that “Ishtar’s celebrated sexual exploits never once led to at the hands of Inanna-Ishtar. Scholars recovered this Enki, one of the oldest and most powerful gods, because she
Her power as a goddess capable of bringing fertility to impregnation … but to an irresistible power and agency.”30 document in several different pieces, with the earlier parts believes he slighted her by giving all the special powers to
the land is attested in a Sumerian fertility song that describes This viewpoint is important because it changes the focus of the myth being translated first. Because of this and the other deities.38 He pacifies her, but is put on the defensive
her relationship with the Sumerian king Sulgi. Acting as an many scholars have placed on Inanna-Ishtar’s feminine combined knowledge that Dumuzi had died at some point in doing so. It is important in these sorts of myths to quickly
incarnation of her husband Dumuzi, Sulgi is one of many role in Mesopotamian culture, and instead emphasizes her in Mesopotamian mythology, it was frequently assumed satisfy the goddess since when people fail to do so, they risk
kings to claim marriage to the deity. It was believed that if “masculine” powers. She was indeed an active pursuer of love that Inanna-Ishtar went to the Nether World in order to the same fate as the unfortunate Mount Ebih: “she [Inanna]
the king could satisfy Inanna’s great lust, she would grant him in many myths, as well as a goddess sought after by many save him;35 the similarity between such a story and the leaves the sad destruction behind her: the stones forming the
all the necessary powers of kingship. In Sulgi’s case, Inanna kings, and the many lovers who served Inanna-Ishtar over the Greek legend of Orpheus is a reflection of how subjective body of Ebih clatter down its flanks.”39 In the comparison,
rewarded him “with victory in battle and acclaimed him as course of Mesopotamian history is one of her most clearly historians can be. As more of the text was translated however, Karahashi points out that, unlike Ninurta, Inanna “destroys
the king eligible for all the rights, prerogatives, and insignia defined traits. the extended story demonstrated that this could not be the for the sake of destruction” and builds nothing out of the
of kingship.”26 More relevant to the tablet, however, was her case. Inanna-Ishtar is killed by her sister Ereshkigal during wreckage.40 To the ancient Mesopotamians, her personality
The Goddess of Love
power to bring fertility to the land. After Inanna complains the journey and only resurrected with the help of Enki, would therefore be one way of explaining the chaos of the
of the lack of food, Sulgi asks her to accompany him one at Perhaps the most well-known testimony to the goddess’s world and natural disasters.
but in order to return to the living world she must find
a time into the fields, garden, and orchard.27 The surviving many lovers is the “Epic of Gilgamesh.”When Ishtar Her art also demonstrated her strength as a warrior. As
a replacement for herself. Of the several gods she meets
part of this tablet does not specify how, but by some means it “raised an eye at the beauty of Gilgamesh [and said] ‘Come, one oracle described her in a dream, they imagined her
while on this quest, it is her husband Dumuzi whom she
appears Inanna returns the areas to fruitfulness and prosperity Gilgamesh, be thou (my) lover,’”31 he scorns her foolishly. He equipped for battle: “The goddess Ishtar who dwells in
condemns. Angered to find him living prosperously without
to the earth. cites multiple instances where she has taken lovers, grown Arbela came in. Right and left quivers were suspended from
her,
Her power to bring prosperity to the land is again testified bored with them, and condemned them to some horrible her. She was holding a bow in her hand, and a sharp sword
in “The Curse of Agade.” In this explanation of the fall of punishment: “Which lover didst thou love forever?/Which was drawn to do battle…. Her face shone like fire.Then [she
She fastened the eye upon him, the eye of death,
Akkad and its great empire, the initial success is attributed of thy shepherds pleased [thee for all time]?”32 Though a went out in a frightening way] to defeat your enemies.”41
Spoke the word against him, the word of wrath,
to Inanna:“Inanna allowed herself no sleep” and therefore rash thing to say to a goddess — and a speech for which This type of description gives scholars an idea of what she
Uttered the cry against him, the cry of guilt:
the city was filled with gold and wisdom, and “their people Gilgamesh and his city received severe punishment — it does looked like in Mesopotamian art. One famous piece often
“As for him, carry him off.”36
witnessed (nothing but) happiness.”28 After she — seemingly reflect a true aspect of her character. It is not surprising that believed to represent her is “The Queen of the Night” relief
for no reason — refuses to accept further gifts from the people an immortal deity like Inanna-Ishtar would take multiple at the British Museum (Figure 2).The horned helmet makes

it clear the image depicts a Mesopotamian deity, but other Without the support of the goddess of war, Esarhaddon
icons like the lions, jewels and rod-and-ring — held in her could not have hoped to succeed in his campaigns against
hands — also suggest it may have been her. All of these were neighboring kingdoms.With her guidance and favoritism
icons associated with her image.The lion was a symbol of however, he — like Nabonidus and many of those before
power frequently associated with Inanna-Ishtar in art and and after them — was confident in his power to challenge
literature.The rod-and-ring symbols held in her hands were a the world around him.
symbol of divinity, and items she carried in her descent to the Kings were not the only individuals to trust in Inanna-
Nether World.42 Where the Queen of the Night falls short of Ishtar’s strength, however. As previously alluded to, three
being Inanna-Ishtar is the lack of her weapons; normally, she hymns written by the Sumerian High Priestess Enheduanna
carries a scimitar in one hand. It also contains two lions, even were discovered and later translated by Betty De Shong
though Ishtar is typically only depicted with one.43 Figure 3 Meador. All three exalt Inanna and even argue that she is the
provides a comparison to study this.While the second image greatest and most powerful of the gods: “queen of rare deeds/
also has two lions, which Ishtar sits above, like in Figure 2, it she gathers the me/from heaven and earth/surpassing great
differs by displaying multiple weapons — scimitars and maces An.”51 In these poems, Inanna’s strength as the goddess of war
— rising from her shoulders.44 This type of iconography is attested to both in literal descriptions and metaphorically.
was more common with Ishtar and displayed her skill as the The first of these can be shown in the hymn of her battle
goddess of war. against Mount Ebih: “Inanna/holding a pure lance/terror
The Gilgamesh epic also provides support for the folds in her robes/flood-storm-hurricane adorned/she
recognition of Inanna-Ishtar’s powers as the goddess of bolts out in battle/plants a standing shield on the ground/
war.When she goes to Anu in order to receive the Bull of Great Lady Inanna/battle planner/foe smasher.”52 Here, it
Heaven and take her vengeance on Gilgamesh, the god is at is clear that Inanna is physically strong, but “battle planner”
first unwilling. Consequently, she proceeds to threaten him: Figure 4: “Stela of Nabonidus” depicting Nabonidus beneath the also recognizes her intelligence and talent in planning
symbols of Sin (left), Ishtar (middle) and Shamash (right), ca. 555 BCE,
British Museum, London.
military strategies.When the goddess was being less rational
If thou [dost not make] me [the Bull of Heaven], during warfare however, she could be very animal-like in
I will smash [the doors of the Nether World], Figure 2: Burney Relief (image of unidentified Mesopotamian goddess, her actions: “mountain wildcat/prowling the roads/shows
The acknowledgement of Inanna-Ishtar as a leader and
I will […], known as the Queen of the Night), ca. 1750 BCE, British Museum, wet fangs/gnashes her teeth.”53 This sort of imagery evokes
London. guide in battle was a common theme in Mesopotamian
I will [raise up the dead eating (and) alive], the primal, instinctual aspects of the goddess described by
texts. By gaining her favor, opponents were forced to submit.
So that the dead shall outnumber the living!45 Harris as “wild and savage, excessive in her sexuality and
A stela about Nabonidus acknowledges this. Normally,
love of war.”54 Inanna-Ishtar is capable of being the rational,
this Babylonian king offered all his praise to Sin — the
After additionally assuring him that she can provide food methodical warrior, but also of frequently being aggressive
moon god — but in this artifact he also acknowledged the
for people and animals in the resulting famine, Anu concedes and instinctual.
deities Ishtar and Shamash, who can be seen above him
the Bull to her. As the goddess of war, her power is so
in their common symbolic forms (Figure 4).The text also
impressive that even one of the greatest of the gods does not A Collector of the Mes
contributes that “upon the command of Sin <<and>>
desire to provoke her wrath. Her power and aggression in A final feature of Inanna-Ishtar’s role in ancient
Ishtar, the Lady-of-Battle, without whom neither hostilities
this tale is fitting for the goddess who would later be invoked Mesopotamian society was as a collector of me. “The MEs are
nor reconciliation can occur in the country and no battle can
by many kings to support their reign as king. the social and cultural elements, both abstract and concrete,
be fought … all the hostile kings, were sending me messages
Inanna-Ishtar was beneficial to kings both as overseer of which Sumerians thought their world was made up.”55
Figure 3: Akkadian cylinder seal depicting Inanna-Ishtar on her throne of reconciliation and friendship.”48 Ishtar’s power was so
against treaty-breakers and a patron to the king’s military The main evidence archaeologists have uncovered about this
receiving libations from worshippers, with another goddess (right) great that the other kings’ expectations of Nabonidus were
strength while conquering new territory or suppressing so far is the tale of “Inanna and the God of Wisdom,” also
attending her; from Diane Wolkstein and Samuel Noah Kramer, Inanna unquestionably increased by his relation to her. An oracle’s
rebellion.The treaties written by ancient Mesopotamians Queen of Heaven and Earth: Her Stories and Hymns from Sumer (New known as “Inanna and Enki.” Inanna, desiring to gain the
earlier statement to the Assyrian king Esarhaddon also
contained severe consequences for any cities that broke with York: Harper & Row, 1983). power and respect conveyed by the me, decides to go to the
displayed Ishtar’s support for the ruling king:
the agreements. Inanna-Ishtar was frequently invoked “as a Abzu and meet the god of wisdom, Enki. By praising, sitting
war goddess who will break the bows of any treaty breakers feminine parts into his male parts.”47 This action would not and drinking with Enki, he quickly becomes compliant and
I am the goddess Ishtar of Arbela,49 she who (15) has
and make them crouch defeated.”46 This was a fitting action only defeat the king’s enemies, but also shame and humiliate gives her what she desires:
destroyed your enemies at your mere approach…I
for her as the goddess of war, but not the only consequence. them.The conquered enemy should not challenge the king’s shall lie in wait for your enemies, I shall give them to
In another curse, the king Idrimi states, “Whoever shall rule, since the goddess had already demonstrated who she They toasted each other; they challenged each other.
you. I, Ishtar of Arbela, will go before you and behind
change the settlement … may Ishtar deliver him into the favored. Enki, swaying with drink, toasted Inanna:
you…O king of Assyria, fear not! The enemy of the
hands of those who pursue him; may Ishtar … impress
king of Assyria I will deliver to slaughter.50

“In the name of my power! In the name of my holy antistructure, when reversals in categories of age, species, the broach/which pins a woman’s robe.”68 Through these wedding.”70 M. Stol summarizes the fundamental norms of
shrine! status and sex all came into play”;61 “the goddess, involves the actions, Inanna gives the woman masculine traits of strength marriage as
To my daughter Inanna I shall give arena of war, for her playground was the battleground”;62 and and intelligence, and she shames the man by demasculinizing
The high priesthood! Godship! her main cultic actors — like the kurgarru — performed a him. Enheduanna exalts the goddess for such action — (a) The fathers of the bride and groom come to an
The noble, enduring crown! The throne of kingship!” ritual sword dance that some scholars argue involved self- “these two SHE changed/renamed” — and it is possible agreement and the couple is to live in the husband’s
Inanna replied: mutilation.63 These festival traditions were a way the cities that the religious festivals did the same.69 If cultic members home; (b) The husband can take another wife if no
“I take them!”56 could embrace Inanna-Ishtar’s multi-faceted personality like the assinnu really did include manly woman, as Assante children are born; (c) A man has the right to take
and gender ambiguity.The fact that her worship involved suggests, then it would make sense that they would celebrate a concubine; (d) A man can degradate his wife and
Their conversation does not end there, though. Enki such gender confusion suggests that ancient Mesopotamians their goddess’s power to reverse genders and protect her promote his concubine; (e) The eldest son receives a
continues to toast Inanna, and in total she receives 80 mes.57 recognized that their most powerful goddess broke with the faithful worshippers. double share in the inheritance.
When Enki becomes sober again, he realizes what has expectations for both male and female. Understanding Inanna-Ishtar’s powers and personality
happened and sends his servant to retrieve the mes from The scholarly debate about Inanna-Ishtar’s main cultic is therefore difficult and confusing at times, but results in This summary covers the basic ideas behind the
Inanna. She refuses however and — despite Enki sending sea practitioners has already been discussed, but while her cult some clear lessons.The goddess embraced both feminine marriage, but it does not analyze the numerous variances in
monsters to stop her — returns home safely to her city of may be an enigma, there are primary sources that clearly and masculine components of her personality. As the goddess a women’s life once she was married, or before that. One
Uruk. Intriguingly, despite being the goddess of war, Inanna indicate Inanna-Ishtar did have the power to reverse human of fertility and love, she embraced her nature as a woman, thing to consider is unfaithfulness or divorce in marriage,
does not defeat the monsters herself, but instead relies upon gender. In the New Year’s Festival discussed, there is a but her military prowess and aggressiveness in the pursuit both of which occurred. Because the Mesopotamians were
her servant Ninshubur — the same servant who aided her in procession of individuals who enter “dressed as men on their of knowledge or sexual desires were both more masculine so concerned with being able to identify a child’s paternal
the “Descent to the Nether World” myth — to do so. She is right sides but as women on their left”64 and are followed by behaviors. Furthermore, her cultic worship demonstrates ancestry, adultery was a serious crime that received substantial
far more interested in watching the mes and returning them that not only was she gender ambiguous, but also possessed attention in Mesopotamian laws. Law 7 in “Laws of Ur-
to her temple to increase her renown.This myth therefore young men with hoops and young women with the power to change the gender of humans.To prove that Namma” demonstrates the common punishment for this
reinforces Inanna-Ishtar’s intelligence and cleverness as tools swords and double axes…priestesses carrying the Inanna-Ishtar was unrepresentative of how Mesopotamian crime. If the woman is found guilty she was killed, but in
she could use against others. gir (sword or dagger) and a ba-da-ra (a battle club, women were expected and allowed to behave, it is next order to be proven innocent she had to endure the “River
prod or knife).The festival climaxes with the kugarra necessary to identify what these women were allowed to do, Ordeal.”71 It was not easy for a woman to leave her husband,
Inanna-Ishtar’s Cult who take a weapon and do something that creates and what their gender role in society was. either.The “Laws of Hammurabi” did permit a woman to
Inanna-Ishtar’s temples had both similarities to and blood. Despite the utter obscurity of the lines, the leave her husband if he could be proven wayward and cruel
differences from the temples of other deities. As was the interpretation has been self-mutilation.65 Identifying the Gender Norm for Women — law 142 — but if she is found to have falsely accused
custom and belief, temples maintained statues of the goddess in Ancient Mesopotamia him, or is the one committing faults, she risks being sent
who was believed to reside within it. A. R. George discusses Taken by itself, this festival practice proves only that In order to study how Inanna-Ishtar broke with the female away with nothing, made a slave woman, or even killed.72
this in his analysis of “Inanna’s Descent,” arguing that the Inanna-Ishtar’s cult involved gender reversal. Comparing it to gender norms of ancient Mesopotamia, it is important to also Ultimately, she belonged to her husband and since her
lines of Ninsubur’s lament are not metaphorical, but a literal other sources, however, shows that it was a power of Inanna- conclude what the female gender norm was. In this regard, primary task was to bear children, she could not engage in
description of the desecration of her statue and dismantling Ishtar to change human genders. Na’aman cites multiple most scholars concur that a woman’s life revolved around extramarital relationships.
of the lapis lazuli, silver and other precious objects used to instances — such as in the Assyrian royal inscriptions and and was predominated by marriage and childbearing.This With elite and wealthy women, the analogy of a marriage
construct it.58 While caring for Inanna-Ishtar in the form Hittite military oaths — where Ishtar was shown changing remains true across the socio-economic divisions of the time: to a sale becomes even more appropriate, yet these women
of this statue was a temple’s (and its members’) primary men into women.66 Other sources also show where she elite women, free women, and slaves. Laws and marriage also exercised rights and influence poorer women and slaves
purpose, there is also evidence that they had to function as changes women into men. Indeed, Enheduanna’s hymns to texts focus the most attention on the marriage process and could not. “Rulers regularly gave and received ranking
an economically independent organization.This can be seen Inanna suggest that festivals may have involved these gender- whether or not a woman was able to bear children.They also women in diplomatic unions.”73 There is evidence that
from the numerous tablets accounting for ration lists and mixing ritual behaviors to pay homage to the goddess’ power show that one of the most important transitions in their lives kings would arrange marriages for princesses that could
trade. G. van Driel’s study of tablets found at the Nippur to reverse human gender as a protection for her followers was moving from being the dependent of a father or brother secure ties to other nations and ensure the success of the
temple indicate the employment or cultic involvement of and form of divine justice. to being the dependent of their husbands’ households. kingdom.The women were not just objects however; Amy
agricultural workers, house personnel, musicians, gardeners, In “Lady of Largest Heart,” Enheduanna describes how Once married, adultery was not permissible under any R. Gansell proposes that “in addition to their domestic and
etc.59 The temple’s records also provide evidence for her Inanna came across a maiden “evilly spurned” and aided circumstances due to the obsession with patrilineal familial reproductive functions … elite women contributed to the
main festival, when “payment of personnel belongings to the her.The goddess decides to make her a “manly/woman,” lines and divorce was seriously discouraged. Some women male-dominated spheres of the arts, economy, religion, and
Inanna temple by other institutions … in month XI exceeds and so “in sacred rite/she takes the broach/which pins a did not fall into this typical gender mold, however, and government.”74 The truth in this statement can be seen
the whole amount of the rations paid in the following woman’s robe/breaks the needle, silver thin/consecrates groups like the harimtu and naditu require separate discussion. from works like Enheduanna’s hymns or the stelae records
month.”60 According to Harris, learning about the nature of the maiden’s heart as male/gives to her a mace … splits the Scholars’ long accepted interpretation of ancient of Adad-guppi, mother of Babylon’s King Nabonidus, who
these festivals and how the cult prepared them is important, door/where cleverness resides/and there reveals/what lives Mesopotamian marriages is that they are “basically a sale” exercised considerable influence over her son’s religious and
because they are reflective of Inanna-Ishtar’s character: inside.”67 After assisting the young woman, she goes to the — “payment first, at the betrothal, and traditio later, at the political beliefs.75 Perhaps elite women and their dowries
“the festivals of the goddess were the time for disorder and man who scorned her and “breaks his mace/gives to him

were traded through marriage agreements, but the women also laws that protected them and mandated what kind of karkid as prostitute; the transliteration from cuneiform uses though they differed from the gender norm somewhat, they
were still able to influence their husbands and lives. treatment female workers should receive. “kar-kid-da,” “kar-kid-ba,” “kar-kid-dè,” and “kar-kid” in each were also expected to fulfill it in alternative ways.
To gain influence and a permanent position in the One of the most recorded female vocations was that respective clause of the law. If one reconsiders the law then While not all women fell under the same strict gender
household, women were expected to bear children after of the bar-wife or innkeeper. In ancient Mesopotamia it using Assante’s definition of karkid, they can see how it norm, most lived within the structure where marriage
marriage. According to Stol after marriage “she is now ‘the was traditional that single women owned all the taverns. demonstrates that the karkid/harimtu were free from the dominated a women’s life and childbearing was her ultimate
bride’ (kallatum) and she seems to keep this title until her According to Stol, these women not only provided beer to sexual limitations of women within the normal patriarchal purpose.Within this patriarchal family structure, she was the
first child is born.” If a woman failed to produce children she their customers, but also small loans.86 This is supported by status. Rather than being punished or left to a male relative’s subject and effectively property of her husband and his family.
risked her position as the only wife: “in theory monogamy law l of the “Laws of X”: “If a woman innkeeper gives one judgment for having a child outside of normal family Some individuals did step outside strict family ties though;
was the rule, but in practice what might be called ‘secondary of her vats (of beer on credit) to a man, [she shall receive] relations, the karkum is provided for after producing the elite women were able to use their influence and knowledge
wives,’ drawn from among the slaves, were also tolerated.”76 50 silas of grain at the harvest.”87 Despite having these childless man an heir. She is not considered an equal to to become involved in politics, religion and other aspects of
The “Laws of Lipit-Ishtar” indicate this in laws 24-31: in extra rights, however, the bar-wives also had additional the wife, a woman living respectfully within the traditional culture and lower class women had different types of work
order to produce more children a man may take a second responsibilities. If one was caught conducting illegal trades female gender role, but she is also not mistreated.This could available to them as a means to earn extra income.The most
wife. He may also adopt children he had by a slave or and convicted then the authorities “shall cast her into the perhaps be a result of the karkid/harimtu’s relation to Ishtar, distinct class of women though was the kakid/harimtu, who
karkid.77 Childbearing so that one’s husband would have an water.”88 Law 109 of Hammurabi’s laws also states “if there who was the patron goddess of these unmarried women. were not associated with a father or a husband.This gave
heir was so important Mesopotamians were willing to alter should be a woman innkeeper in whose house criminals This relationship is reinforced “in the Akkadian Erra Epic them the ability to pursue careers and sexual lives free from
the normal family structure. congregate, and she does not seize those criminals and lead (4,52-53)…where Uruk is said to be ‘the city of kezertu’s, the control of traditional patriarchal ties.
Some ancient Mesopotamian women were also involved them off to the palace authorities, that woman innkeeper samhatu’s and harimtu’s, whom Ishtar deprived of husbands
in work aside from that associated with their marriage. One shall be killed.”89 These were strict consequences for crimes and reckoned as her own.”94 By claiming them, Ishtar A Comparison of Inanna-Ishtar and Ancient
form of labor was slavery. One could become a slave in that may have only resulted in a man being fined. Despite allowed these women to live a life very distinct from the Mesopotamian Women
numerous ways, such as by birth, but one of the most notable being independent, bar-wives were still low on the social average female, and it is telling that she patronized women Having familiarized oneself with the historiography around
is that “a father of a family might be driven by destitution scale and had their own rules to be aware of. who failed to conform to normal female gender roles of Inanna-Ishtar, the personality and characteristics of the
to sell as slaves his wife or children”78 While most scholars Discussing the role of bar-wives and taverns leads to Mesopotamia. goddess, and the normal female gender roles of the time
might focus on the economic implications of this fact, the Assante’s analysis of the karkid and harimtu, who were The final distinct group of women who should be period, it becomes possible to examine how Inanna-Ishtar
power the husband exercises over his wife and her children is frequently associated with these institutions.90 Early scholars discussed individually is the naditu. As was mentioned compared to women of the time. Because the primary role
so extreme it can only reinforce the image of a woman being of ancient Mesopotamia consistently translated these two previously, naditu stood out from the average women because of women in ancient Mesopotamia was as a wife and a
owned and traded by her father or husband.This may have words as “prostitute,” but Assante reliably argues that these they were not permitted to bear children and had many mother, this forms the primary comparison between the two.
been only a last resort, but pledging wives, children and other words have nothing to do with prostitution.91 Instead, the privileges similar to men. Normally, naditu lived with a However Inanna-Ishtar’s traits as the goddess of war and a
slaves to a creditor as security on a debt “was not an unusual words roughly translate as “a woman who is neither ‘the group of women in the gagum,95 but they could also marry, collector of me are a vital part of her identity, and must also
step and having them released appears to be one of the main daughter of a man’ nor ‘the wife of a man.’ She was thus manage private estates, and tend to other private interests.96 be discussed because of the fact that they severely break the
problems.”79 Even though individuals given as security were a woman separated from the patriarchal household, as the Concerning marriage, a naditu was not allowed to have goddess apart from purely feminine behavior.
not supposed to be kept in slavery for more than four years, stem verb haramu, ‘to separate,’ indicates.”92 Understanding children, so she was expected to provide another means for Like most women in Mesopotamia, Inanna-Ishtar was
this did not guarantee that their owners would willingly give this correction allows a more accurate study of primary her husband to do so.The source explanations for this differ. married, but her role as a wife was remarkably different from
them up at the end of that term.80 sources in order to uncover their role in society. One matter In the “Laws of Hammurabi,” law 144 states that “if a man what women were normally expected to have.Whereas
There were types of work available to free women as of significance is that because they were separate from the marries a naditu, and that naditu gives a slave woman to her human women’s main purpose as a wife was to bear children
well. In addition to common domestic chores, some “wives patriarchal ties that regulated most women, karkid/harimtu husband, and thus she provides children, but that man then for their husbands, Inanna-Ishtar never provides a child for
of Old Assyrian merchants … were actively involved in their had sexual liberty unknown to other females. Consider law decides to marry a sugitu, they will not permit that man to her husband Dumuzi. Instead, her behavior was much more
husband’s business in the colonies”81 A small number of 27 of the “Laws of Lipit-Ishtar:” do so, he will not marry the sugitu.”97 primal as she sought and gave sexual love and pleasure.The
women were even able to manage their own landed estates.82 In this situation, by providing a slave woman as a second “Courtship of Inanna and Dumuzi” makes this relationship
While these jobs were associated with the more well-to- If a man’s wife does not bear him a child but a “wife,” the naditu fulfills both her obligation to provide explicit in a way human love is not described:
do, there were also occupations available to poorer classes. prostitute from the street does bear him a child, he children to her husband and her obligation to refrain from Inanna spoke:
Some women became employed by temples as agricultural shall provide grain, oil, and clothing rations for the bearing children herself. Stol suggests, however, that a naditu
workers,83 weavers, flour-grinders, and other kinds of prostitute, and the child whom the prostitute bore would bring “her sister with her as second wife (the sugetum); “…He laid his hands on my holy vulva,
laborers.84 The various types of jobs they completed can be him shall be his heir; as long as his wife is alive, the this woman was expected to give birth to the children. She He smoothed my black boat with cream,
found by the ration lists and laws written to protect them. prostitute will not reside in the house with his first- was the physical sister and marrying two sisters may have He quickened my narrow boat with milk,
On these it can be seen that a women’s labor was worth only ranking wife.93 been an ancient tradition.”98 These two sources provide very He caressed me on the bed.
half of what a man would receive for similar leveled work; different explanations for how a naditu provided children in
women received only half the rations men did.85 There were To understand the relevance of this law, it is first marriage, but it is possible the tradition varied across time Now I will caress my high priest on the bed,
important to recognize that Martha T. Roth has translated periods and in different cities.What is evident is that even I will caress the faithful shepherd Dumuzi,

I will caress his loins, the shepherdship of the land, These examples could have demonstrated either sincere And hurricane winds Endnotes
I will decree a sweet fate for him.”99 belief, or propaganda to legitimize Assurbanipal’s kingship Swift piercing, stinging 1
Rivkah Harris, “Inanna-Ishtar as Paradox and a Coincidence of
in a way similar to when other kings described themselves Fly with Inanna’s fury Opposites,” History of Religions 30, no. 3 (February 1991), 263.
2
The available sources neither prove nor deny whether as the husband of Inanna-Ishtar. Despite the example of this Suck loosened earth into sweet air.107 Samuel Noah Kramer was an Assyriologist who received
human women were expected to take the same pleasure one king, however, Inanna-Ishtar was still more frequently his Ph.D. from the University of Pennsylvania’s Oriental Studies
Department in 1930; see Ake W. Sjoberg, “Samuel Noah Kramer (28
in carnal relations with their husbands, but having a well- depicted as a lover and warrior than as a mother. Her life Perhaps this was why so many ancient Mesopotamian September 1897-26 November 1990),” Proceedings of the American
known and popular goddess who did so suggests they might did not revolve around the features of bearing children cities had temples to Inanna-Ishtar. As such a powerful Philosophical Society 138, no. 1 (March 1994): 171.
have. and raising them for her husband, unlike the women of goddess, it was important to at least attempt to appease 3
Samuel Noah Kramer, “‘Inanna’s Descent to the Nether World’
On the other hand, not everything Inanna-Ishtar did Mesopotamia. her and retain her favor at all times. She did not represent Continued,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 94, no.
4 (August 25, 1950): 361; Gertrud Farber, “‘Inanna and Enki’ in
as a lover would be allowed for human women.While of It is in her role as the goddess of war where Inanna- to them how a socially acceptable women should act and Geneva: A Sumerian Myth Revisited,” Journal of Near Eastern Studies
these concepts it is easiest to say that Inanna-Ishtar was Ishtar truly broke with feminine behavior and embraced behave, but was instead an intricate mix of both the feminine 54, no. 4 (October 1995): 287.
much freer with her love, this is not exactly true. She did a masculine side not acceptable to human women. Unlike and masculine.Through her multiple complex roles as a 4
Sjoberg,“Samuel Noah Kramer,” 172.
take multiple lovers over the thousands of years she was women, her iconography frequently displays her carrying goddess of fertility, love, war and collector of the me, Inanna- 5
Miroslav Marcovich, “From Ishtar to Aphrodite,” Journal of
worshipped, but she was generally faithful to them during weapons and other implements of war.The literature about Ishtar could bring both prosperity and calamity to this Aesthetic Education 30, no. 2 (1996): 46.
6
Harris, “Inanna-Ishtar as Paradox,” 263.
the time she was in love with them. Her “marriages” to her also places great influence on her military might. In ancient society. 7
Julia Assante, “Bad Girls and Kinky Boys?: The Modern
Mesopotamian kings were even described in terms of contrast, the only discovered evidence that Mesopotamian Prostituting of Ishtar, Her Clergy, and Her Cults,” in
those kings being incarnations of her husband Dumuzi.100 women might have engaged in any form of military show Conclusion Tempelprostitution im Altertum: Fakten und Fiktionen, ed. T. S. Scheer
Mesopotamian women were also allowed to remarry after is Assante’s suggestion that assinnu may have been women. (Berlin: Oikumene, 2009), 24.
Inanna-Ishtar was an enigma in her behaviors, and this 8
Albrecht Goetze, “Early Dynastic Dedication Inscriptions from
the death of their husbands, though they were legally less Even then, the possibility is confined to a small sub-sect of has caused scholars considerable discord and confusion Nippur,” Journal of Cuneiform Studies 23, no. 2 (1970): 39.
valued as widows than as first-time brides.101 In these ways individuals who are non-representative of the general female while studying her.To this day, new ideas, translations, and 9
G.Van Driel, “Nippur and the Inanna Temple during the Ur III
the women are at least similar to Inanna-Ishtar, but where the population. For most women, they were expected to work interpretations of the goddess and her cult are being argued Period,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 38, no.
goddess completely breaks with any plausible norm of the in the home of a male relation or engage in domestic work 3 (1995): 395.
in an academic setting.While her iconography is somewhat 10
Goetze, “Early Dynastic Dedication Inscriptions from
female gender role is in her murder of her husband.Whereas with low compensation values. It was only those women recognizable, the lack of definite labels on many images leads Nippur,” 39.
Mesopotamian women were never even allowed to serve as specifically “claimed” by Inanna-Ishtar or other deities who to the question of whether it was really her. Literature also 11
Samuel Noah Kramer, The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and
witness in a court case,102 Inanna-Ishtar serves as both judge were allowed to break with the Mesopotamia’s gender norm. leaves scholars with important questions such as how could Character (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963), 171.
and jury for Dumuzi when she says “As for him, carry him What then was Inanna-Ishtar’s purpose if not to provide there be multiple Ishtars at once, and what sex and gender
12
Betty De Shong Meador, Inanna lady of Largest Heart: Poems of
off.”103 This is a drastic reversal from the human women who a divine representation of how women should behave? Why the Sumerian High Priestess Enheduanna (Austin: University of Texas
did her cult worshippers actually possess? What has become Press, 2000), xi.
were so under their husbands’ control, they could give them would such a dedicated lover, fertile benefactress, and clever clear is that her main functions as a deity were as the goddess 13
M. Stol, “Women in Mesopotamia,” Journal of the Economic and
away as slaves. By condemning her husband to death, as well collector of me also commit matricide, be a violent warrior, of love and the goddess of war. In addition, early renditions of Social History of the Orient 38, no. 2 (1995): 140.
as never producing an heir for her husband, Inanna-Ishtar and destroy so arbitrarily? Scholars suggest that Inanna-Ishtar Inanna described her as a goddess of fertility, and throughout
14
Dominique Collon, The Queen of the Night (London: British
breaks with the women’s most important gender roles of originated and developed as a way to explain the natural history Mesopotamians lauded her success in collecting me Museum Press, 2005), 39-41.
obedience and reproductive usefulness. disasters and unpredictability of the dangerous world they
15
Ibid., 43.
from Enki and the underworld. But her personality and 16
Goetze, “Early Dynastic Dedication Inscriptions from
Despite never having any children in her mythology, lived in.Through her affectionate and/or orderly traits they character stand out because of how much they contrast with Nippur,” 40.
Inanna-Ishtar was as time described as a mother or protective could explain why the world would become benign and the women of ancient Mesopotamia, whose lives for most 17
Nadav Na’aman, “The Ishtar Temple at Alalakh,” Journal of Near
figure. Gertrud Farber translates one Old Babylonian safe or why a kingdom had success militarily. In contrast, revolved around marriage, producing children, and in effect Eastern Studies 39, no. 3 (July 1980): 209-11.
incantation that invoked Inanna to help a woman go through through her violent destruction and chaos priests could 18
being the property of their husbands or other male relatives. 19
Na’aman, “The Ishtar Temple at Alalakh,” 211.
labor: “The woman who was about to give birth steered explain the floods, famine, and other catastrophes that struck Some may find it easy to dismiss this as a simple result of 20
the Gi-baot through the water,/pure Inanna steered the Mesopotamian cities. As Enheduanna describes Inanna in the Inanna-Ishtar being a goddess and above insignificant, human 21
Assante, “Bad Girls and Kinky Boys?,” 23-54.
Gi-boat through the water.”104 Even though Inanna was battle against Ebih, when rules, but the explanation is not that simple.There were
22
Ibid.
a protective deity in these circumstances, she still was only many other Mesopotamian goddesses who did conform to
23
Barbara Nevling Porter, “Ishtar of Ninevah and Her
rarely described as actually being a mother.The Assyrian king FURY OVERTURNS HER HEART! Collaborator, Ishtar of Arbela, in the Reign of Assurbanipal,” Iraq 66
the female gender roles of the era. Inanna-Ishtar specifically (2004): 41.
Assurbanipal was one individual who did fancy her this way. … embraces both female and male characteristics; she was an 24
Ibid., 43.
According to Porter, Ishtar of Nineveh was described as his bedlam unleashed anomaly who broke gender norms more drastically than any 25
Charles Keith Maisels, The Near East: Archaeology in the
mother, and Ishtar of Arbela was his nanny.105 Additionally, She sends down a raging battle other figure in ancient Mesopotamian mythology or history. “Cradle of Civilization” (London: Routledge, 1993), 188.
in an oracular dream, a priest described her relation to him Hurls a storm from her wide arms 26
Samuel Noah Kramer, “Inanna and Sulgi: A Sumerian Fertility
as motherly: “You [Assurbanipal] were standing in front of To the ground below Song,” Iraq 31, no. 1 (1969): 18.
27
Ibid., 20, 22.
her and she spoke to you like a real mother…. She wrapped …
you in her lovely babysling, protecting your entire body.”106

28
James B. Pritchard, ed., The Ancient Near East: An Anthology of 71
Martha T. Roth, Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Farber, Gertrud. “‘Inanna and Enki’ in Geneva: A Sumerian Sjoberg, Ake W. “Samuel Noah Kramer (28 Septermber 1897-
Texts and Pictures (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011), Minor, 2nd ed. (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997), 17-18. Myth Revisited.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 54, no. 4 26 November 1990).” Proceedings of the American Philosophical
416-17. 72
Ibid., 109. (October 1995): 287-92. Society 138, no. 1 (March 1994): 170-77.
29
Ibid., 417. 73
Amy R. Gansell, “Women in Ancient Mesopotamia,” in A _____. “Old Babylonian Childbirth Incantation.” Journal of Near Stol, M. “Women in Mesopotamia.” Journal of the Economic and
30
Assante, “Bad Girls and Kinky Boys?,” 29. Companion to Women in the Ancient World, eds. Sharon L. James and Eastern Studies 43, no. 4 (October 1984): 311-16. Social History of the Orient 38, no. 2 (1995): 123-44.
31
Pritchard, The Ancient Near East, 50. Sheila Dillon (West Sussex, UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2012), 20. Goetze, Albrecht. “Early Dynastic Dedication Inscriptions from Trustees of the British Museum. “Stela of Nabonidus.” The
32
Ibid., 51. 74
Ibid., 11. Nippur.” Journal of Cuneiform Studies 23, no. 2 (1970): 39-56. British Museum. Accessed May 9, 2014. http://www.
33
Kramer, The Sumerians, 252-53. 75
Pritchard, The Ancient Near East, 275. Kramer, Samuel Noah. “Inanna and Sulgi: A Sumerian Fertility britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/
34
Ibid., 251. 76
Georges Contenau, Everyday Life in Babylon and Assyria, trans. Song.” Iraq 31, no. 1 (1969): 18-23. me/s/stela_of_nabonidus.aspx.
35
Kramer, “‘Inanna’s Descent to the Nether World’ K. R. and A. R. Maxwell-Hyslop (London: Edward Arnold Ltd, _____. “‘Inanna’s Descent to the Nether World’ Continued.” Van der Spek, R.J., ed. Studies in Ancient Near Eastern World View
Continued,” 363. 1954), 15. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 94, no. 4 and Society: Presented to Marten Stol on the Occasion of his 65th
36
Ibid. 77
Roth, Law Collections from Mesopotamia, 30-31. (August 25, 1950): 361-63. Birthday, 10 November 2005, and His Retirement from the Vrije
37
Karahashi Fumi, “Fighting the Mountain: Some Observations 78
Contenau, Everyday Life in Babylon and Assyria, 19. Meador, Betty De Shong. Inanna Lady of Largest Heart: Poems of Universiteit Amsterdam. Bethesda, MD: CDL Press, 2008.
on the Sumerian Myths of Inanna and Ninurta,” Journal of Near 79
M. Stol, Women in Mesopotamia, 136. the Sumerian High Priestess Enheduanna. Austin: University of van Driel, G. “Nippur and the Inanna Temple during the Ur III
Eastern Studies 63, no. 2 (April 2004): 114. 80
Contenau, Everyday Life in Babylon and Assyria, 23. Texas Press, 2000. Period.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient
38
Kramer, The Sumerians, 171, 173. 81
Stol, “Women in Mesopotamia 136. Pritchard, James B, ed. The Ancient Near East: An Anthology of Texts 38, no. 3 (1995): 393-406.
39
Fumi, “Fighting the Mountain,” 118. 82
Ibid. and Pictures. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011.
40
Ibid. 83
van Driel, “Nippur and the Inanna Temple,” 402. Roth, Martha T. Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor.
41
Pritchard, The Ancient Near East, 400. 84
Stol, “Women in Mesopotamia,” 137. 2nd ed. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997.
42
Collon, The Queen of the Night, 30. 85
Ibid. Wolkstein, Diane and Samuel Noah Kramer. Inanna Queen of
43
Ibid., 43. 86
Ibid. Heaven and Earth: Her Stories and Hymns from Sumer. New
44
Diane Wolkstein and Samuel Noah Kramer, Inanna Queen 87
Roth, Law Collections from Mesopotamia, 38. York: Harper & Row, 1983.
of Heaven and Earth: Her Stories and Hymns from Sumer (New York: 88
Ibid., 101.
Harper & Row, 1983), 189. 89
Ibid. Secondary Sources
45
These transliterations represent the Sumerian and Akkadian Assante, Julia. “Bad Girls and Kinky Boys?: The Modern
46
Porter, “Ishtar of Ninevah and Her Collaborator,” 43. languages respectively. Prostituting of Ishtar, Her Clergy, and Her Cults.” In
47
Na’aman, “The Ishtar Temple at Alalakh,” 210. 91
This is an English term that has no word in the ancient Tempelprostitution im Altertum: Fakten und Fiktionen, edited by
48
Pritchard, The Ancient Near East, 279. languages since it was not considered a profession. T. S. Scheer, 23-54 (Berlin: Oikumene, 2009).
49
This Ishtar of Arbela is the same one discussed in Porter’s 92
Assante, “Bad Girls and Kinky Boys?,” 32. Collon, Dominique. The Queen of the Night. London: British
analysis of the multiple Ishtars during the Neo-Assyrian period. 93
Roth, Law Collections from Mesopotamia, 31. Museum Press, 2005.
Porter states that “Ishtar of Arbela only appears in the accounts 94
Assante, “Bad Girls and Kinky Boys?,” 32. Contenau, Georges. Everyday Life in Babylon and Assyria.
of military activity,” which would explain why she is the one 95
Gwendolyn Leick, Mesopotamia: The Invention of the City Translated by K. R. and A. R. Maxwell-Hyslop. London:
specifically mentioned in this separate text; see Porter, “Ishtar of (London: Penguin Books, 2001), 178. Edward Arnold Ltd, 1954.
Ninevah and Her Collaborator,” 43. 96
Roth, Law Collections from Mesopotamia, 88. George, A. R. “Observations on a Passage of ‘Inanna’s Descent.’”
50
Ibid., 108. Journal of Cuneiform Studies 37, no. 1 (1985): 109-113.
51
Meador, Inanna Lady of Largest Heart, 117. 98
Stol, “Women in Mesopotamia,” 129. Leick, Gwendolyn. Mesopotamia: The Invention of the City. London:
52
Ibid., 91. 99
Wolkstein and Kramer, Inanna Queen of Heaven and Penguin Books, 2001.
53
Ibid., 119. Earth, 44. Harris, Rivkah. “Inanna-Ishtar as Paradox and a Coincidence
54
Harris, “Inanna-Ishtar as Paradox,” 264. 100
Kramer, “Inanna and Sulgi,” 18. of Opposites.” History of Religions 30, no. 3 (February 1991):
55
Fumi, “Fighting the Mountain,” 113. 101
Roth, Law Collections from Mesopotamia, 114-15. 261-78.
56
Wolkstein and Kramer, Inanna Queen of Heaven and 102
Stol, “Women in Mesopotamia,” 140. Gansell, Amy R. “Women in Ancient Mesopotamia.” In A
Earth, 14. 103
Kramer, “‘Inanna’s Descent to the Nether World’ Companion to Women in the Ancient World, edited by Sharon
57
Ibid., 16-18. Continued,” 363. L. James and Sheila Dillon. West Sussex, UK: Blackwell
58 104
A. R. George, “Observations on a Passage of ‘Inanna’s Gertrud Farber, “Old Babylonian Childbirth Incantation,” Publishing Ltd., 2012.
Descent,’” Journal of Cuneiform Studies 37, no. 1 (1985): 112. Journal of Near Eastern Studies 43, no. 4 (October 1984): 314. Karahashi Fumi. “Fighting the Mountain: Some Observations on
59
G. van Driel, Nippur and the Inanna Temple, 399-400. 105
Porter, “Ishtar of Ninevah and Her Collaborator,” 42. the Sumerian Myths of Inanna and Ninurta.” Journal of Near
60
Ibid., 402. 106
Pritchard, The Ancient Near East, 400. Eastern Studies 63, no. 2 (April 2004): 111-18.
61
Harris, “Inanna-Ishtar as Paradox,” 273. 107
Meador, Inanna Lady of Largest Heart, 99. Kramer, Samuel Noah. The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and
62
Ibid., 274. Character. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963.
63
Ibid., 276. Bibliography Maisels, Charles Keith. The Near East: Archaeology in the “Cradle of
64
Assante, “Bad Girls and Kinky Boys?,” 35. Civilization.” London: Routledge, 1993.
65
Ibid. Primary Sources Marcovich, Miroslav. “From Ishtar to Aphrodite.” Journal of
66
Na’aman, “The Ishtar Temple at Alalakh,” 211. Barondes, R. de Rohan. The Garden of the Gods: Mesopotamia, Aesthetic Education 30, no. 2 (1996), 43-59.
67
Meador, Inanna lady of Largest Heart, 123-124. 5000 BC: An Anthology of Sumerian, Akkadian and Babylonian Na’aman, Nadav. “The Ishtar Temple at Alalakh.” Journal of Near
68
Ibid., 124. Literature Comprising the Epic Poem of Ishtar and Izdubar; also Eastern Studies 39, no. 3 (July 1980): 209-14.
69
Ibid. Collected Cuneiform Inscriptions of Ancient Assyria. Boston: The Porter, Barbara Nevling. “Ishtar of Ninevah and Her
70
Stol, “Women in Mesopotamia,” 126. Christopher Publishing House, 1957. Collaborator, Ishtar of Arbela, in the Reign of Assurbanipal.”
Iraq 66 (2004): 41-44.

Influential Women of the Mongol Empire
Terri Paulsen
Power within governments is not always what it appears and powerfully swaying the outcomes of the election process
leaders are not always the man or woman at the top.Those at two different quriltais (political assemblies).These two
who are connected intimately either through marriage or women,Törögene Khatun, or queen, and Sorqoqtani Beki,
birth, or even friendships, often are the ones who wield the or princess, each married to sons of Chinggis Khan, either
power behind the person or group who is the presumed ruled as regent upon their spouse’s deaths or managed their
head of governments. Modern governments typically exist deceased husband’s territory, making them quite powerful
as having a strong leader, either by election, monarchy or and influential in politics in ways that Chinggis Khan’s own
theocracy, and have supporting cabinets or ministers who daughters were not.
advise the leader, and it is certainly not uncommon for
leaders in current society to have strong female leaders who Overview of the Lives of Mongol Women
have attained high office through legitimate means.The A brief overview of the customs of the Mongols, including
concept of powerful women in government is not unusual observations of women is provided by Friar Giovanni
even in a male-dominated society, but during the early DiPlano Carpini who was commissioned by Pope Innocent
medieval period, specifically the Mongol dynasty period, IV in 1245 to “offer baptism to the Tartars and tell them of
women could never attain the role of khan, even if they Christianity.”1 Carpini’s mission also included completing
were the direct descendants of the royal Chinggisid family. an ethnographic study of the Mongols for the purposes of
However, they could influence government and politics in discovering their intentions toward the west, and he describes
ways that were undoubtedly more instrumental in shaping many interesting observations of the Mongol women that
the dynasty than the khans themselves. include their dress and their abilities as archers and as horse
Historians have recorded the genealogy of Chinggis riders, all of which was very similar to the men. Because the
Khan and the most common lineage chart only provides Mongols were a nomadic tribe, the women were expected
the names of Chinggis Khan’s sons.The problem with these to be skilled in archery and horse riding as they were often
charts is that Chinggis Khan and his many wives had several in charge of the tribes when the men were hunting or
daughters, many of whom were married off to distant tribes at war. Carpini describes the language the women use as
to secure alliances. Even though most dynastic charts focus “coarse and vulgar” and they often times “get very drunk,”
on the male descendants of Chinggis Khan, historians have but are “chaste” and without “scandal.”2 Mongol men could
recorded the names of some of these daughters, validating have as many wives as they wished and could even buy
the authority they had relating to their lineage. But the most them. It is interesting that women were expected to provide
powerful women of the Mongol dynasty were actually the for the tribe and be as tough as the men, yet could still be
women who were married to the khans, for they were not considered property to be bought or sold. Jennifer Holmgren
just advisors to their husbands; two of these dynamic women points out that not all women and or wives were purchased
impacted politics in ways that historians would agree were for a price or used for the building of alliances; many
unforeseen by even Chinggis Khan himself. Because of the wives were women who had been captured during raids,
respect women in general were given in Mongol society, and sometimes there was simply an “accidental meeting”
traditions in regards to wives’ inheritance rights, and the that probably accounted for a great number of marriages
absence of a clear mandate regarding rules of succession, among the average Mongol nomads.3 Regarding the living
two women were able to shape the Mongol dynasty by arrangements in Mongol society, Carpini notes that while

the women had to share their husbands, they never fought by rival tribes.Temüjin met his bride-to-be when he was who faced more oppression during this time period.13 This of widows and orphans.17 While Törögene ruled as regent
with each other and understood that one wife would be just nine years old and she was ten. His father,Yesügei, took respect for women helped enable Törögene and Sorqoqtani she “executed decrees” with the same authority that a great
the primary wife and that she was “foremost among them him to the Onggurut tribe to arrange the marriage when achieve their goals in regards to the election of their sons khan would have and Rashīd Al-Din attributes her ability to
and he stays with her more than with the others.”4 Carpini Temüjin was a boy because that was the tribe of his mother, as khans, as well as allowed them to rule as regent or to control the empire to her habit of using bribery to attain her
did not write about many noblewomen but he did make Hö’elün. The Secret History tells the story of Yesügei being administer their spouses’ estate upon the deaths of their goals. She “wooed the hearts of kinfolk and emirs with all
observations as to the wealth of the nobles and khans and received by Börte’s father, Dei Sečen, who believes that husbands. manner of gifts and presents.”18
we can assume that the women who were in these families daughters and granddaughters of his tribe were born to be While the Mongol administration was changed under
were provided with more luxuries than the average Mongol khatuns because of their “beauty” and their ability to be Törögene and Sorqoqtani Beki: the regency of Törögene, her most significant action was in
woman might have had. Several historians note that the size “intercessors.”10 Women Who Changed the Course the calculating manner in which she was able to get her son
of the tents in which nobles lived were usually significantly Börte was Chinggis Khan’s primary wife, and while he of the Mongol Dynasty Guüyük elected as khan. As stated earlier,Törögene had the
larger than the average, and Carpini relates that the tents of had several wives and many children, Börte was important in Törögene was the sixth wife of the Great Khan Ögödei, support of the Chagatai line in all matters, and Juvaini states
Güyüks wives were made of “white felt [and] were quite the making of the Mongol dynasty because it was Temüjin’s who was elected khan after the death of Chinggis Khan. that after the death of Ögödei, it was Törögene who took
large and beautiful.”5 rescue of her after she was kidnapped by the Merkit tribe Ögödei became khan in 1230 and he died in 1241, leaving control of the empire by notifying Ögödei’s brothers of his
that brought him to the attention of other clan leaders. Törögene to act as regent and allowing her to rule form death and that someone needed to administer important
Hö’elün and Börte: The Women Responsible Christian explains that because Temüjin was able to form 1241 to 1246. Her position as sixth wife should have affairs of the Mongols, such as “the army and the court” and
for Shaping Chinggis Khan a steppe coalition to help in the successful rescue of Börte, excluded her from being regent, but she was the mother to the “interests of the people.”19 The Chaghataids agreed that
The mother of Chinggis Khan, Hö’elün khan, had no and the fact that they utterly destroyed the Merkit tribe in the eldest son of Ögödei, Güyük, and this garnered her the Törögene should rule as regent and Juvaini states, “until a
luxuries when Chinggis Khan was a boy, but was still able the process, the rescue and battle “transformed Temüjin’s rank of regent. As regent,Törögene took her position quite quriltai [can be] held, it was she that should direct the affairs
to provide for her sons and is credited with saving their lives status” on the steppe.11 Rashīd Al-Din recounts a different seriously and she instituted changes to the administration that of the state.”20 Törögene, however, went against Ögödei’s
after her husband was killed by a rival tribe member.The story about Börte’s kidnapping. He does not tell of the were highly aggressive. Rashīd Al-Din states that as regent wishes regarding who should inherit the throne upon
account of Hö’elün and her children’s survival is eloquently tribal alliance Temüjin made to get her back, but he does Törögene “displaced all the great officers because no quriltai Ögögei’s death. According to René Grousset, Ögödei had
detailed in a poem in The Secret History of the Mongols. There state that while she was held captive by the Merkit tribe, was held as the princes did not appear and meet together.”14 initially wanted his third son, Kucha, to inherit the throne
has been much debate as to when The Secret History was she was treated with “respect and consideration” and that Rashīd Al-Din’s statement reflects two major points in the but he died before Ögödei. Ögödei then named Kucha’s
written, with many scholars providing valid points arguing she was “exceedingly beautiful and capable.”12 Rashīd Al- regency of Törögene: She dismissed ministers of Ögödei eldest son, Shiramün, to become Great Khan upon Ögödei’s
their ideas, but Igor De Rachewiltz believes The Secret Din states that she was held by the Merkit tribe and then and replaced them with men she believed would serve her death.21 But Törögene “disobeyed [Ögödei’s] command and
History was written in 1228, one year after the death of escorted back to Temüjin, with no mention of warfare on more adequately and she delayed the quriltai until she had elevated Güyük to the Khanate.”22
Chinggis Khan, with subsequent texts completed at later the part of Temüjin to get her back.While Rashīd Al-Din the votes she needed to get her son, Güyuk, elected as khan. As with other medieval nomadic tribes, the issue of
dates.6 Despite the many controversies surrounding the date is the only source to not describe Temüjin’s battle to get The quriltai is the event that takes place when a new khan is succession caused not only unrest within the tribes, but
it was written, The Secret History provides a framework for Börte back, it reaffirms the idea that women were respected elected. All great khans are to be present for the election of often battles for succession led to outright civil war among
how the Mongols viewed women and Hö’elün in particular. and capable within the Mongol and steppe culture. Most a new khan, thus it took considerable time for the quriltai to brothers, uncles, and cousins.When Chinggis Khan named
She is revered as the mother of Temüjin because of her secondary sources repeat the former story of Börte’s rescue, proceed because of the distance people had to travel to reach his successor as Ögödei, his third born son, he began a new
fierce strength in keeping her family alive as well as being which enhanced the strength of Temüjin’s alliance building the quriltai. tradition on the steppe, which had previously seen the eldest
a woman who continued her nurturing even after Temüjin capabilities and reinforced the idea that he was willing to Ata-Malik Juvaini states that Törögene was a “very son or brother be the successor to the throne. Because there
was elected as khan. The Secret History includes a poem which brutally exterminate opposing tribes. shrewd and capable woman,” and she secured the support were no real traditions or laws that clearly dictated the line
describes Hö’elün as “a clever woman ... tying tightly her While Börte’s rescue provided Temüjin the opportunity of the Chaghatai line who agreed that because she was the of succession and she was ruling as regent, it was easy for
belt to shorten her skirt … gathering crab apples and bird to demonstrate his qut (divine mandate to rule) at the mother of the eldest son, she should rule as regent until a Törögene to disregard Ögödei’s wishes. Rashīd Al-Din
cherries” after she and her children were ostracized following beginning of his domination of a new era on the steppe, quriltai could be held, but that “the old ministers should asserts that Ögödei accepted the seat of khan at the 1246
the death of her husband,Yesügei.7 David Christian explains Hö’elün set the standard by which women were viewed, remain in the service of the court, so that the old and quriltai “on the condition that henceforth the Khanate shall
the matriarchal respect the Mongols had by relating stories respected, and accepted in Mongol society. Because of her new yasas [laws] might not be changed from what was the be settled in my family.”23 Because Törögene ruled as regent
from the Secret History that include how Hö’elün “rebukes” perseverance as a strong and powerful woman surviving law.”15 However, once Törögene was secure in her position, she was able to secure the support of the all the Chinggisid
Chinggis Khan and how she “chased after him and disgraced on the steppe, along with the reality of what the average she made changes to the administration by replacing families except that of Batu in her attempt to have her son
him into pardoning his brother.”8 Christian argues that woman was capable of in regards to contributing to and care those ministers she did not like, specifically Yelü Chucai Güyük succeed Ögödei, despite Ögödei’s explicit wishes that
because The Secret History has so many stories of Hö’elün it is for steppe tribes, other women were recognized as nearly and Mahmud Yalavach16 By making these administrative he be succeeded by his grandson, Shiramün.
reflective of the Mongol “willingness to treat the judgment, equal to men in life on the steppe. George Lane argues changes, she effectively changed the yasa, permitting the new Törögene is also thought to have created a level of
as well as the endurance and fortitude of women with that steppe life was difficult for men and women alike, and minister’s undersecretary, Sharaf al-Din, to tax widows and corruption surrounding the issuance of ortaghs, or passports,
respect.”9 because women performed duties similar to men, they were orphans.Timothy May points to the law recorded by Juvaini that allowed merchants to use yams, or the postal service, at
Börte’s story is similar to Höelün’s in that they were considered to be more equal and given more rights when that stated “there is no charge in the law of God nor impost the same price as bureaucrats. Because the merchants were
both from the Onggurut tribe and both had been kidnapped compared to women who lived in sedentary populations, in the yasa of Chingiz-Khan” in reference to the taxation issued these ortaghs at the same price as bureaucrats they paid

a smaller fee, which caused an economic hardship on nomads of Ögödei and is comparing Sorqoqtani to Törögene in resources that favored the Jochid and Toluid lines and largely that the daughters of Chinggis Khan were placed in
who lived near a yam.24 This corruption is another reason her maneuvering to get Güyük elected as the next khan, eliminated the Ögödeid and Chaghataid lines. 35 marriages that enabled them to rule for the Mongol dynasty,
Törögene’s regency is so harshly judged. ignoring Ögödei’s wishes. Juvaini also writes that even regardless of their own personal desire, but they understood
Sorqoqtani Beki was the primary wife of Chinggis Güyük held Sorqoqtani Beki and her sons in higher esteem The Ruling Daughters of Chinggis Khan that the common goal was to keep control of the tribes via
Khan’s youngest son,Tolui, and after his death, she inherited than other royal family matters and “in all his speeches While Törögene and Sorqoqtani Beki were the two most these marriage alliances, therefore strengthening and growing
his territory and was the administrator of his estate, giving Güyük Khan used to hold them up as an example….Them influential ruling women in the Mongol dynasty, other the Mongol dynasty. It also indicates that the Mongols, or
her great power.While she never ruled as regent she was he praised and lauded.”31 women, including Chinggis Khan’s daughters, were given at least Chinggis Khan, understood the value of marriage
nearly as powerful as Törögene and similarly she was able Because Sorqoqtani Beki was held in such high esteem, power to rule subordinate tribes by being married into these alliances. Zhao points out that Chinggis Khan and his
to get her son, Möngke, elected as Great Khan after the her opinion was respected and it allowed her to influence tribes, creating alliances based on marriage.This was not an successors never married his daughters to his own generals
death of Ögödei. However, her actions differ in the area of the shaping of the dynasty in a similar fashion as Törögene. uncommon practice among the nomads, dating back as far because he had already secured the loyalty of his generals;
administering the yasa set forth by Chinggis Khan. Firstly, Rashīd Al-Din states that Sorqoqtani Beki became of aware as the Tsiung-Nu, but because the Mongol territory was marriage alliances were not necessary within his own tribe.40
Sorqoqtani Beki was given much power as she inherited of a plot against Batu from Güyük and sent a warning to so vast, these daughters who were used to secure alliances Interestingly, Ögödei had proposed that Sorqoqtani Beki
the ordos (realms) of her husband Tolui when he died.This is Batu, but Güyük died before he reached Batu’s camp, which were a true extension of Chinggis Khan. One of the most marry Güyük after the death of Tolui, which would have
significant because it reflects the Mongol pattern that women left the Mongols in the position of having to elect another significant ways of securing an alliance was through the strengthened the bond between the Ögödeied and Toluid
are considered equal to men and included in inheritance khan. Just as Törögene was able to influence the quriltai practice of one-way and two-way marriages. One-way line and perhaps changed the course of history, but she
matters, even when they are not direct descendants of and had the power to rule, Sorqoqtani Beki did as well, and marriage was the marriage between a Mongol princess to a declined. 41 Holmgren suggests that levirate marriage “was
Chinggis Khan. Carpini states that camps were not broken Weatherford argues that in terms of who was most influential member of a lesser tribe, giving her power to rule over that not an obligatory institution … and that elite women had
up upon the death of princes, but were given to wives to in shaping the Mongol dynasty, “she stands second only to tribe, and a two-way marriage was the practice of Mongol some choice in the matter.”42 It is clear that Sorqoqtani Beki
rule.25 Peter Jackson notes that The Secret History stated, Genghis Khan himself.”32 princesses marrying princes of allied tribes, as well as princes had more power being the widow of Tolui than a wife of
“Yesüi Khatun, one of [Chinggis Khan’s] wives, was given As stated earlier, when Ögödei accepted the khanate, from that tribe or dynasty marrying into the Mongol dynasty. Güyük.
a large part of the Tangut people in the recently subjugated he did it on the grounds that his line would continue to The two-way marriage carried a more conciliatory tone Jack Weatherford relates that sources that include B.
kingdom of Hsi-Hsia.”26 These sources are the foundation be the ruling line and this was accepted by all the Jochid, of alliance than the one-way marriage. Chinggis Khan and Baljinnyam indicate that an “unidentified” daughter was
on which the high standard to which women were held and Chagataid, and Toluid lines at Ögödei’s accession. However, Börte had several children, and Chinggis Khan had several married to “Arslan Khan of the Karluk Turks” who lived
reflect the responsibility, power, and trust they were given in after Güyük’s death, Sorqoqtani Beki, who had the backing children with his other wives as well. Several of the children far to the west, near the Ili Valley, in approximately 1211.
ruling Mongol territory. The Secret History also relates that of Batu, the eldest living son of the eldest son of Chinggis were girls who would be used to help secure alliances Chinggis Khan removed the title of khan from Karluk’s
Yisüi Khatun “respectfully” advised Chinggis Khan as he Khan, and who “had the right to nominate a new ruler,” through marriage. Many of these daughters of Chinggis name and replaced it with “guregen, son-in-law, or prince
was going to war that it was important for him to “designate agreed to hold the quriltai at Batu’s ordos, creating a conflict Kahn would be sent to far away lands to rule in his stead, and consort.”43 Weatherford asserts that while this daughter’s
a successor” and he agreed, stating, “no one has advised me with Törögene and the remaining Ögödeids who wanted while these daughters were placed in marriages to be used to name had been “censored” from The Secret History, this story
like this,” further showing that Mongols valued the advice of the quriltai held at the traditional location of “Chingiz-Khan’s “establish or strengthen the military relationships with every illustrates the elevation of Mongol princesses over the khans
women.27 capital.” 33 According to Rashīd Al-Din, Sorqoqtani Beki marriage partner,” they were in reality used “as pawns” by of subordinate tribes in that the Mongols were aware of
Secondly, as Tolui’s primary and favorite wife, Sorqoqtani wanted her son Möngke to be the next great khan and she Chinggis Khan in controlling his empire.36 how titles were perceived and that the Mongol princesses
Beki inherited the Tolui ordos in approximately 1233. knew that the “others” — the Ögödeids and Chagataids — Primary sources vary about the number of daughters were required to “outrank” whoever they were married to
Sorqaqtani Beki is mentioned by Carpini as being “higher would not go to Batu because they were in conflict with Chinggis Khan had and used in marriages for political gain, in the subordinate tribe. According to Weatherford, Arlsan
and more powerful among all the Tartars than any except him and they demanded the quraltai be held in the traditional but three daughters in particular are noted to have been would later join Genghis Khan on a campaign, leaving the
the emperor’s mother [Törögene] and Bati.”28 Rashīd Al- place of Qaraqorum. As a result, she sent Möngke to Batu, advised personally by Chinggis Khan to “become one of “unidentified” daughter to rule Arslan’s “homeland,” which
Din states that Sorqoqtani Beki’s sister, whose name is not who “swore allegiance to him and set him up as Qa’an.”34 [his] feet…. [They] should be [his] helper.”37 His daughter was the “Mongol gateway to the Muslim lands to the
given, was Batu’s mother, which created an alliance between Because of these maneuvers, Sorqoqtani Beki, with the help Alahai-Beki was initially married to the chief of the Öngüt south.”44 Weatherford explains the difficulty in identifying
the Jochid and Toluid lines that would eventually change of Batu, effectively changed the royal line of the Mongol tribe and ruled over a substantial area that included “not only this daughter by concluding that she was “Tolai, a name
the destiny of the dynasty.29 Rashīd Al-Din describes her as dynasty from the Ögödeid to the Toluid line, which in turn the Öngüt tribe, but also all territories of Northern China.”38 that formed a euphonious set with Tolu” and the that Yuan
“intelligent and able and towered above all women in the would later cause a civil war. Current historians have a view Not only was Alahai-Beki’s marriage used as political Shi mentions a daughter of a similar sounding name being
world, possessing … virtue, modesty and chastity.” Rashīd Al- of Sorqoqtani Beki that is not as complimentary as those of strategy, but she was forced into levirate marriages, after the married to Arslan’s son.45
Din further compares her to Hö’elün in that she “[trained] Rashīd Al-Din and Juvaini. Jackson describes her actions in death of her first husband, the chief, in order to maintain A third daughter by the name of Checheyigen was
her children” in the same manner as Hö’elün.30 But more regards to Möngke becoming khan as a power grab, or coup, the Chingissid hold on the Öngüt tribe. Levirate marriage married to “Inalchi, the son of Khutuqa-Begi of the Oirat
importantly, primary sources by Rashīd Al-Din and Juvaini and states, “it was Tolui’s line which seized upon the imperial implies that a widow is obliged to marry her deceased tribe,” who were known as the “People of the Forest,” in
repeat the belief that Sorqoqtani Beki obeyed the law, stating, dignity in 1251.” He further argues that “Möngke’s accession spouse’s brother and he is obliged to marry her. In this approximately 1207.46 Weatherford argues that while this
“Sorqoqtani Beki and her sons, [they] did not swerve one and the overthrow of the lines of Ögödei and Chaghatai” case, Alahai-Beki married her dead husband’s son, then his daughter was in the least sophisticated marriage because of
hair’s breath from the yasa and law of their ordinances.” was the beginning of a clear division of territory and nephew, then her second husband’s son, in order to preserve the location of the tribe compared to the other daughters
Juvaini is referring to the quriltai to be held after the death the hold the Mongols had on this area.39 This demonstrates who might have ruled over the Silk Road or in Northern

China garnering them more luxuries and interactions with the areas in which they lived.Timothy May states that 29
Rashīd Al-Din, The Successors of Genghis Khan, 99. Lane, George. Daily Life in the Mongol Empire. Westport, Conn.:
more developed cultures, Checheyigen was successful in travelers from the west were quite astonished and “clearly
30
Ibid., 169. Greenwood Press, 2006.
31
Juvaini, Genghis Khan, 255-256. May, Timothy. The Mongol Conquests in World History. London:
combining the Oirat tribe with the Mongol tribe, making uncomfortable with the idea of a woman openly issuing 32
Jack Weatherford, The Secret History of the Mongol Queens: Reaktion Books, 2012.
the Oirat the “first non herding tribe to join Genghis governmental orders” as “female rulers,” which was How the Daughters of Genghis Khan Rescued His Empire (New York: Weatherford, Jack. The Secret History of the Mongol Queens: How
Khan.”47 unusual among sedentary populations, but was normal Crown, 2010), 103. the Daughters of Genghis Khan Rescued His Empire. New York:
Weatherford argues that the daughters of Chinggis Khan in the Mongol empire, and is reflected by they power 33
Ibid., 170. Crown, 2010.
were used as “shields around the Mongol homeland.”The women held.51 While Mongol women could never
34
Ibid. Zhao, George Qingzhi. Marriage as Political Strategy and Cultural
35
Jackson, “From Ulus to Khanate,” 28. Expression: Mongolian Royal Marriages from World Empire to
three daughters mentioned in this essay were all married become khans, their influence shaped the structure of the 36
George Qingzhi Zhao, Marriage as Political Strategy and Yuan Dynasty. New York: Peter Lang, 2008.
into tribes whose geographical locations created a triangle Mongol empire and changed the course of history. Cultural Expression: Mongolian Royal Marriages from World Empire to
that Weatherford claims was a “phalanx” that gave Chinggis Yuan Dynasty (New York: Peter Lang, 2008), 36-37.
Khan security to know that Mongols ruled all points of the Endnotes
37
Ibid., 37.
empire, allowing him the freedom to “move outward from
38
Ibid.
11
Friar Giovanni DiPlano Carpini, The Story of the Mongols 39
Ibid., 38.
the Mongol steppe.”48 Whom We Call the Tartars, trans. Erik Hildinger (Boston: Branden, 40
Ibid., 40.
1996), 17. 41
Holmgren, “Observations on Marriage and Inheritance
Conclusion
22
Ibid., 51, Practices,” 163.
33
J. Holmgren, “Observations on Marriage and Inheritance 42
Ibid.
There were many variables that shaped the Mongol Practices in Early Mongol and Yüan Socieity, with Particular 43
Weatherford, The Secret History of the Mongol Queens, 64.
dynasty, but it is clear that women, especially those most Reference to the Levirate,” Journal of Asian History 20 (1986): 44
Ibid., 65.
127-92. 45
Ibid.
intimately connected to the sons of Chinggis Khan, played 44
Ibid., 54. 46
Zhao, Marriage as Political Strategy, 39.
a significant role in how the dynasty evolved. Because of 55
Ibid., 111. 47
Weatherford, The Secret History of the Mongol Queens, 66.
the liberal inheritance rules that benefitted the wives of 66
Igor De Rachewiltz, trans., The Secret History of the Mongols: 48
Ibid.
Mongols,Törögene and Sorqoqtani Beki each “received a A Mongolian Epic Chronicle of the Thirteenth Century, trans. (Leiden: 49
Holmgren, “Observations on Marriage and Inheritance
portion of property from her husband’s share of the family Brill, 2004), xxxiii. Practices,” 131.
77
Ibid., 18-19 50
Ibid., 149.
patrimony.49 With the inheritance of property came resources 8
David Christian, A History of Russia, Central Asia and 51
May, The Mongol Conquests in the World, 236.
and power and each woman used her power to influence Mongolia (Oxford: Blackwell, 1998), 421.
the outcomes of the quraltai by either bribery or using the 9
Ibid., 421.
alliance and support of other lines to sway the outcome of
10
De Rachewiltz, Secret History, 15. Bibliography
the election, changing the course of the Mongol dynasty,
11
Christian, A History of Russia, 391. Primary Sources
12
Rashīd Al-Din, The Successes of Genghis Kahn, trans. John
while disregarding the wishes of Ögödei.While both Andrew Boyle (New York: Columbia, 1971), 97-98. DiPlano Carpini, Friar Giovanni. The Story of the Mongols Whom
Chinggis Khan and Ögödei named their successor and 13
George Lane, Daily Life in the Mongol Empire (Westport, We Call the Tartars. Translated by Erik Hildinger. Boston:
Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2006), 232. Branden Publishing Company, 1996.
attempted to set up a clear line of succession, the Mongols Juvaini, Ata-Malik. Genghis Khan: The History of the World-
were no different from other nomadic tribes when it came
14
Rashīd Al-Din, The Successors of Genghis Khan, 178.
15
Ata-Malik Juvaini, Genghis Khan: The History of the World Conqueror. Translated by J. A. Boyle. Seattle: University of
to succession, and Holmgren correctly concludes that when Conqueror, trans. J. A. Boyle (Seattle: University of Washington Washington Press, 1997.
a strong father dies, “his death [leaves] power and authority Press, 1997), 240. Rashīd al-Din. The Successors of Genghis Khan. Translated by John
in the clan dangerously fragmented.”50 This is demonstrated 16
Timothy May, The Mongol Conquests in World History Andrew Boyle. New York: Columbia University Press, 1971.
clearly in the Mongol dynasty by the actions following the (London: Reaktion Books, 2012), 50.
17
Ibid., 50. Secondary Sources
death of Güyük when Sorqoqtani Beki and Batu staged their Christian, David. A History of Russia, Central Asia, and Mongolia.
18
Rashīd Al-din, The Successors of Genghis Khan, 176.
coup, taking power away from the Ögödeids that created a 19
Juvaini, Genghis Khan, 240. Oxford: Blackwell, 1998.
divide among the families that led to virtually independent 20
Ibid. De Rachewiltz, Igor, trans. The Secret History of the Mongols. Brill:
states. 21
René Grousset, The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Leiden, 2004.
Asia (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press), 268. Grousset, René. The Empire of the Steppes. Translated by Naomi
While Törögene and Sorqoqtani were undoubtedly Walford. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press,
22
Rashīd Al-Din, The Successors of Ghenghis Khan, 19.
the most powerful women of the early Mongol period, 23
Ibid., 182. 1970.
Chinggis Khan’s daughters played an important role as 24
May, The Mongol Conquests in World History, 120. Holmgren, J. “Observations on Marriage and Inheritance
well, but to a lesser degree.They were used to secure 25
Carpini, The Story of the Mongols, 106. Practices in Early Mongol and Yüan Society, with Particular
alliances with rival tribes and ruled with the authority 26
Peter Jackson, “From Ulus to Khanate: The Making of the Reference to the Levirate.” Journal of Asian History 20 (1986):
Mongol States c. 1220-c. 1290,” in The Mongol Empire and Its 127-192.
given to them by their father. Although they were Jackson, Peter. “From Ulus to Khanate: The Making of the
Legacy, ed. Reuven Amitai-Preiss and David O. Morgan (Leiden:
important rulers for the Mongol dynasty, Brill, 1998), 19. Mongol States c. 1220-c. 1290.” In The Mongol Empire and
Chinggis Khan’s daughters were left in the far reaches 27
De Rachewiltz, The Secret History, 182. Its Legacy, edited by Reuven Amitai-Preiss and David O.
of the empire and their power only extended as far as 28
Carpini, The Story of the Mongols, 64. Morgan, 12-38. Leiden: Brill, 1999.

Section III.
Review Essay
Job with sons and daughters, from Bible Historial, 1372.
HISTORIAL??? Vol. XLIV, Spring 2015 • 57

The Evolution of Childhood’s History
Keri Heath
When Philippe Ariès published his book Centuries of time, and works of fiction.While these sources provide for an
Childhood in 1960, he likely had no idea that his work would interesting analysis, they are not sufficient to use as a base for
launch decades of discourse and conversation about the a wide sweeping statement about childhood during the time
history of childhood. His assertion of childhood as a modern period because these sources are at risk of subjectivity and
invention, as a life stage unrecognizable to historical peoples, can be misinterpreted based on personal opinions.While this
was both supported and attacked by historians that followed issue alone is enough to punch a hole in Ariès’s argument,
him. In works such as Barbara Hanawalt’s Growing Up in another problem arises due to the fact that the author did not
Medieval London, Steven Ozment’s Flesh and Spirit, Rudolph use sources from the time period he was addressing.
Bell’s How to Do It, and Emily Coleman’s “Infanticide in the However, though Ariès’s ideas about childhood do
Early Middle Ages,” the concept of historical childhood as a not draw from objective fact and thus have a somewhat
recognized stage of growth is explored.Through the use of unconvincing argument, his book does set the historical
various sources, the majority of these analyses determined a stage for a decades-long discussion about the true nature of
conclusion vastly different from that of Ariès.The generally historical childhood. A counterargument in this dialogue to
held view of historical childhood has shifted away from an Ariès’s belief is outlined in Barbara Hanawalt’s Growing Up in
unrecognized life stage towards the belief that childhood Medieval London. Hanawalt writes her book in direct response
was a key step in the development of medieval children. to Ariès, claiming that “the Middle Ages did recognize stages
Since Ariès developed his thesis, historians have come to of life that correspond to childhood and adolescence.”3
understand historical childhood to be similar to modern While she engages primarily in social history to show the
childhood in the sense that this life stage was neither horrible heavily social aspect of growing up during the Middle Ages,
nor ideal during the Middle Ages. Hanawalt also utilizes economic history and cross pollination
At the time that Ariès wrote Centuries of Childhood, to illustrate her point. By approaching the topic of childhood
a revival of macrohistory was taking place across the from several angles, Hanawalt reveals that her thesis can
scholarly world, a trend represented in Ariès’s piece. His be upheld with respects to multiple disciplines, creating a
assertion that “there was no place for childhood in the more convincing argument. In addition, the entirety of her
medieval world”1 and that “the indifference was a direct and book is centered on the skepticism of postmodernism and
inevitable consequence of the demography of the period”2 is reflected in her adamant doubt throughout the work of
is a broad one. Ariès focuses on making wide assertions Ariès and insistence that “socialization of children and young
about childhood from the thirteenth and fourteenth people into polite society occupied an important segment of
centuries to the twentieth century, avoiding detailed work medieval London culture.”4 The main reason that Hanawalt’s
about the nuances and details of children’s lives. By taking argument is so convincing rests in the fact that she uses a
a macrohistorical view of the topic, Ariès looks only at broad spectrum of sources, court records, coroner’s reports,
general trends and beliefs held by all of society, rather government documents, and letter books, accurate to the
than by individuals. From this approach, Ariès concluded time period, sources that she states Ariès ignores completely.
that medieval people saw children as little adults who Granted, she does leave out material about negative
never experienced a childhood stage. Using a focus on aspects of a child’s life, such as abuse of orphans, death of
material culture, Ariès’s argument is based primarily on the unsupervised children, and strict education for adulthood;
conclusions he draws from paintings, clothing styles of the Hanawalt’s agenda is decidedly to show medieval childhood

in a positive light. However, she provides a solid opposition to draw conclusions about people’s history based on her writings.While each of these authors approaches the subject
to Ariès’s thesis, as well as establishes the convention for evidence.Yet, what makes Coleman’s point more convincing with varying degrees of presentism and historicism, each
future historical books about childhood: the organization of than Ariès’s is her willingness to qualify her own statements analyze the source with some amount of cross-pollination
information in order of birth to adulthood. with counterarguments through her admitted use of and social history. By examining the differing views of
Yet not all modern works about medieval childhood presentism and the recognition that there may be other childhood, it can be established that a recognized childhood
carried such a defined agenda as did that of Hanawalt. factors accounting for the smaller number of females in the did exist during the Middle Ages and that it was similar to
Rudolph Bell, in his book How to Do It, refrains entirely tax documents. Even with these concessions, the reader leaves modern ideas of the life stage in the sense that it was neither
from presenting his own beliefs about childhood to readers the article with a sense that Coleman would agree with Ariès terrible nor perfect.
and gives minimal commentary, instead providing readers that children in the Middle Ages were not highly valued and
with text from primary sources and allowing them to make that childhood was not a recognized part of development. Endnotes
their own conclusions. Bell uses only advice manuals for Coleman’s article is important to the study of childhood 1
Phillipe Ariès, Centuries of Childhood, trans. Robert Baldick
the sources in his book, a choice that has both benefits because it reminds historians that medieval childhood was (New York:Vintage Books, 1962), 33.
and drawbacks.While these sources represent the ideal that not wholly positive.
2
Ibid., 39.
3
Barbara Hanawalt, Growing Up in Medieval London (New
society strives towards, it also may leave out some of the Steven Ozment, in his book Flesh and Spirit, somewhat
York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 5.
harsh realities that are associated during the time with raising agrees with this idea. Following Hanawalt’s convention of 4
Ibid., 69.
children. Instead, Bell simply focuses on the concerns that the moving chronologically through a child’s life in a book, 5
Rudolph Bell, How to Do It: Guides for Good Living for
manuals specifically bring up and makes observations about Ozment explores childhood on a much more personal Renaissance Italians (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press,
the texts, such as how odd it is that “authors who wrote in level. Rather than the official documents used by other 1999), 131.
6
Ibid., 176.
such detail about how to select a wet nurse … would be so historians, Ozment uses personal journals, diary entries, 7
Emily Coleman, “Infanticide in the Early Middle Ages,” in
silent about how parents should check on a child put out to and letters to show that “the family of the past was neither Women in Medieval Society, ed. Susan Mosher Stuard (Philadelphia:
a wet nurse.”5 This tendency marks Bell as one who works as wholesome as the romantics portray it, nor as cruel University of Philadelphia Press, 1976), 59.
primarily from a historicist position, presenting the past as the cynics suspect.”9 This anti-Whiggist approach to
8
Ibid., 59.
on its own terms. At the same time, Bell sometimes admits studying childhood is most similar to Hanawalt’s method
9
Steven Ozment, Flesh and Spirit: Private Life in Early Modern
Germany (New York: Penguin Books, 1999), x.
that when looking “back five hundred years…, we may be in the sense that Ozment also uses various forms of cross- 10
Ibid., 247.
struck instantly by similarities with modern concerns,”6 pollination, including social, economic, anthropological, and
revealing that he holds some presentist views about his intellectual history. However, Ozment’s work differs from Bibliography
work, comparing the past to the present.Yet Bell’s book is that of Hanawalt in that Ozment takes a more intimate look
Ariès, Philippe. Centuries of Childhood. Translated by Robert
primarily objective and advances the discussion of childhood at the lives of his subjects, giving the text a definite style Baldick. New York:Vintage Books, 1962.
by allowing readers to observe the continuity of childhood of historicism. In Flesh and Spirit, readers can dive straight Bell, Rudolph. How to Do It: Guides for Good Living for Renaissance
through their own interpretation of sources about ideal into the minds of people living in the time and learn from Italians. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1999.
parenting. firsthand accounts that the failures of a father’s children “may Coleman, Emily. “Infanticide in the Early Middle Ages.” In
Women in Medieval Society, edited by Susan Mosher Stuard,
However, not all of the literature written about have distressed their father just as deeply and their successes 47-70. Philadelphia: University of Philadelphia Press, 1976.
childhood since Ariès’s thesis was published upholds pleased him just as much.”10 Ozment’s tendency to accept Hanawalt, Barbara. Growing Up in Medieval London. New York:
the recognition of a childhood; Emily Coleman’s article history for how it is presented illustrates that children were Oxford University Press, 1993.
“Infanticide in the Early Middle Ages” paints an extremely both a joy and a job to parents and that historical childhood Ozment, Seven. Flesh and Spirit: Private Life in Early Modern
different picture from that of Hanawalt and Bell about what had its ups and downs.The fact that parents worried in this Germany. New York: Penguin Books, 1999.
childhood looked like. In analyzing population and tax way about their children proves the existence of a childhood
documents for farms and manors during the time, Coleman and Ozment’s book contributes further to the discussion by
comes to the conclusion that female infanticide resulted giving a firsthand, personal look at how the integration of
in the low numbers of women and girls.While Coleman childhood into society affected life in that time.
admits that “the killing of children of some years … would Since Ariès published his view about the nonexistence
surely be difficult to explain,”7 she insists that farms only of a childhood in the Middle Ages, historians have used a
supported a certain number of females and that “it would not variety of methods to analyze his statement.While those such
be difficult … for a baby to be exposed, or simply smothered as Hanawalt steadfastly oppose Ariès, others such as Coleman
in the home.”8 She reaches many of these conclusions by have come to accept parts of Ariès’s thesis. As these authors
drawing on statistical history and making analyses from the have shown us, many types of documents can be used to
population numbers. In some sense, Coleman’s methods are determine ideas about childhood of the past, including
comparable to those of Ariès because she uses psychohistory legal documents, tax records, material objects, and personal

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Wittenberg History Journal

New Perspectives on Gender,

On the Cover 49 Influential Women of the Mongol Empire

Address Correspondence to:

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Job with sons and daughters, from Bible Historial, 1372.

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