ARBA MINCH

UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF HEALTH
SCIENCES
Geography
Title: Major Soil TypesAssignment
in Ethiopia
NAME ID NO

1. Bereket Alemayehu ………………………………………………………………………. NSR/481/13

2. Betelihem Minalu ……………………………………………………………………………NSR/522/13
3. Atirshiw Mihretu ………………………………………………………………………….…NSR/374/13
4. Almaz Wasihun …………………………………………………………………………….
NSR/227/13
5. Askual Niguse ………………………………………………….……………………………….
NSR/353/13
6. Chaltu Taye ………………………………………………………………………………...….
NSR/680/13
Table of Contents
7. Tesfaye Galebo …………………………………………………………………………………
NSA/019/13

Submission Date: 6/01/2014

Submitted to: Geography Instructor

Contents page

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1.1 Nitosol and Acrisols…………………………………………..…………………………… 5

1.1.1 Nitosols …………………………………………………………………………..…………. 5

1.1.2 Acrisols……………………………………………………………………..………………… 8

1.2. Vertisols………………………………………………………………………………..……… 9

1.3 Lithosols, Cambisols and Regosols……………………………..………………… 11

1.3.1 Lithosols………………………………………………………………..…………………. 11

1.3.2 Cambisols …………………………………………………………………..……………. 12

1.3.3 Regosols…………………………………………………………………………………… 14

1.4 Xerosols, Yermosols, Solanchaks………………………..………………………….15

1.4.1 Xerosols…………………………………………………………………………..…………15

1.4.2 yermosols…………………………………………………………………..…………… 17

1.4.3 Solanchakes……………………………………………………………….……………. 18

1.5 Fluvisols……………………………………………………………………………….………19

1.6 Luvisols……………………………………………………………………………….……….20

1.7 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………..……….……. 22

1.8 References……………………………………………………………………..…….…….23

FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Nitosols soil of Ethiopia ……………………………………………………........................................ 6

Figure 1. 2 Disribution and extent of Nitosol in Ethiopian high lands ......................................... 7

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Figure 1.3 Acrisols soil of Ethiopia…………………………………………………………................................... 8

Figure 1.4 Vertisols of Ethiopian high lands………………………………………………………………............... 10

Figure 1.5 Lithosol soil …………………………………………………………………………………………................... 12

Figure 1.6 Cambisols soil……………………………………………………………………………………...................... 13

Figure 1.7 Regosols soil………………………………………………………………………………………………….......... 15

Figure 1.8 Xerosols soil ……………………………………………………………………………………………................ 16

Figure 1.9 Yermosols soil……………………………………………………………………………………...................... 17

Figure 2.0 Solanchakes soil of Afar.…………………………………………………………………………………….…… 18

Figure 2.1 Fluvisols soil……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 20

Figure 2.2 Luvisols soil……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 21

Figure 2.3 Soil Types of Ethiopia…………………………………………………………………………………. 22

INTODUCTION

Soil is a delicate but highly varied composition of mineral particles, organic matter and living organisms
in dynamic equilibrium. This variability reflects primarily the parent material from which the soil was
formed over very long periods of time and the environment in which the soil has developed. Soil

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formation is a long-term process. It could take several thousands of years to form a single stratum of
soil. The formation of a particular type of soil depends on parent material, climate, topography, living
organism and time. Soils of Ethiopia are basically derived from crystalline, volcanic and Mesozoic
sedimentary rocks. One can therefore, say that some of the soil divisions in the country are based on the
geologic structure. However, it should be born in mind that, there are soils formed due to long waited
deposition of sediments. FAO has identified 18 soil associations in Ethiopia at scale of 1:2,000,000. Out
of the major

soils, 11 soil associations cover about 87.4 percent of the land area. The six major groups of soils

in Ethiopia are discussed under the following points:

A. Environmental condition i.e. parent material, climatic conditions, topography, the way

they were formed.

B. Characteristic i.e. significant chemical and physical properties.

C. Agricultural suitability in relation to texture, structure, topography, moisture-storage

capacity, etc.

D. Occurrence: general location of the soil types

1.1 Nitosols and Acrisols

1.1.1 Nitosols
Nitosols is a deep, red, well-drained soil with a clay content of more than 30% and a blocky
structure. Nitosols develop on gently sloping ground. Their parent materials include trap series
volcanics, volcanic ash, and even metamorphic rocks. They are strongly weathered soils but far

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more productive than most other tropical soils. They are basically associated with highlands
with high rainfall and they were, probably, formed on forest covered areas originally.

Due to the high rainfall, there is considerable soil leaching which makes the nitosols to be poor
in soluble minerals like potassium, calcium etc.; and rich in non-soluble minerals like iron and
aluminum. The reddish-brown color of these soils is because of high concentration of iron
(ferric) oxides due to leaching. But they are now widely found on cultivated areas and on
mountain grasslands.

The predominant processes involved in the genesis of Nitisols include:

(1) ferralitization, i.e., rapid weathering of minerals accompanied by leaching of silica and
bases, and relative accumulation of Fe and Al-compounds (e.g., kaolinite and sesquioxides);

(2) nitidization, i.e. formation of shiny polyhedric (nutty) structure elements; and

(3) homogenization of the soil by termites, ants, worms and other soil fauna (i.e., biological
pedoturbation) which is particularly prominent in the top 100-cm of soil and results in gradual
to diffuse soil horizon boundaries.

Nitosols are divided in to the following sub groups (soil unit):

 Haplic Nitosols
 Luvic Nitosol
 Alic Nitosol
 Mollic nitosol

 Nitosols are dominantly found in:-

western highlands (Wellega),

southwestern highlands (Kaffa, Illuababora),
North centeral high lands (Mecha, Jabi Tehnan and Bure)
Shewan plateau (Gir Jarso and Bako Tibe woreda)
Southern high lands ( Ena and Cheha woredas)
South Eastern high lands (Habro Gurewa woreda of the Hararg ).

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Figure 1.1 Nitosol soil

Nitisols:-

 Are the most dominant soil types in Southern high lands which accounts about 33%.
 Are the second largest soil types in the Shewa plateau accounting for 16% of the landmass
next to that of vertisols which accounts about 66%.
 Are the second largest soil types covering 33% in Mecha, 28% of Jabi Tehnan, 21% in Bure
and 17% in South Achefer woredas next to that of Vertisols in North centeral high lands.
 Are the most dominant soil types in the south western high lands accounting about 73%.
 Are the least abundant soil types in South Eastern high lands accounting about 4% alone.

Nitisol-landscape pattern in the Ethiopian highlands are observed as :

a) In undulating landscapes, such as the residual basalt plateaus, Nitisols are mostly found on
upper and middle slope positions intergrading with Vertisols or Vertic units of other
reference soil groups towards lower slope positions;

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b) In volcanic landscapes (e.g., basalts, pyroclasts), Nitisols occur in the mid-slope positions,
between Andosols and Luvisols at higher slope positions and with Vertisols at the lower slope
positions;

c) In uplifted and dissected landscapes (e.g., residual basalt plateau such as in Ethiopia), Nitisols
are commonly found on lower slopes in association with Ferralsols and the flat and level
plateaus, but this catena is not commonly observed in Ethiopia;

d) In landscapes on limestone, Nitisols occur in pockets in association with other soils such as
Luvisols, Cambisols and Vertisols and such configurations are observed in the Hararghe plateau
of Ethiopia. The natural vegetation in Nitiosol includes tropical rain forest and savannah.
Nitosols are suit for the plantation of crops such as cocoa, coffee, rubber and pineapple, and
are also used for food crop production on small holdings.

Figure 1.2 Distribution and extent of Nitosol in Ethiopian high lands

1.1.2 Acrisols:
• Acrisols are one of the most inherently infertile soils of the tropics, becoming degraded
chemically and organically very quickly when utilized. Acrisols have very low resilience
to degradation and moderate sensitivity to yield decline. In Ethiopia, it has lost most of

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 the base nutrients and are characterized by low productive capacity. Acrisols are found
along with nitosols mostly in some pockets of southwestern highlands of Ethiopia where
there is high rainfall. Most inherently infertile soils of the tropics

• Degraded chemically

• Organically very quickly when utilized

• Very low resilience to degradation

• Moderate sensitivity to yield decline

• Characterized by low productive capacity

• Found mostly in southwestern highlands of Ethiopia where there is high rainfall.

Figure 1.3 Acrisols soil

1.2. Vertisols
Vertisols are heavy clay soils with a high proportion of swelling clays when wet, and cracks
when dry. These soils are extremely difficult to manage (hence easily degraded), but has very

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high natural chemical fertility. Vertisols mostly develop on volcanic plateau basalt, trachyte and
pyroclastic materials, sedimentary rocks, colluvial slopes and alluvial plains. The vertisols are
also soils of highlands and moderate climates.

Vertisols are heavy clay soils with a high proportion of expanding. During the dry season, the
clay shrinks and becomes very hard, the soil forms deep and wide cracks, and the surface soil
falls apart in fine granules and crumb (mulch) which falls into the cracks, causing the subsoil
being mixed with topsoil materials. However, During the wet season, the cracks are filled with
water, which causes the clay, which was dry and hard, to become wet, sticky and plastic.

Vertisols are a group of heavy-textured soils which occur extensively in the

tropics, subtropics and warm temperate zones and are known as Dark Clays,
Black Earths, Black Cotton soils, Dark Cracking soils, in
other classification systems. The major areas of Vertisols are found
in Australia, India, Sudan, Chad and
Ethiopia; these five countries contain over 80% of the total area
of Vertisols in the world.

They are important soil order in semi-arid dryland agriculture because in this environment
they are amongst the most productive soils. The major factor contributing to the
productivity of Vertisols in semi-arid environments is their high water-holding
capacity; in areas of uncertain and variable rainfall, sometimes too much and

 Often too little, the ability of a soil to store sufficient water to carry crops through
droughty periods is of great importance Heavy clay soils: composed essentially of clay
particles

Extremely difficult to manage (hence easily degraded) but has very high natural chemical
fertility

 Ethiopia ranks third in Vertisols abundance in Africa after Sudan and Chad. More than half
of the Vertisols are found in the central highlands with altitude of more than 1500 meters
above sea level. About 25 % of the Vertisols occurring in the highlands are cultivated.

 Mostly develop on: Volcanic plateau basalt: basaltic lava during eruptions

Vertisol that are further qualified as:

 Haplic(Eutric,Pellic,Calcic)
 Calcic(Eutric,pellic),
 Gleyic (Eutric, Pellic, mesotropic) and Grumic Vertisols.

The vertisols are also soils of highlands and moderate climates. In Ethiopia, they are
commonly found in parts of :-

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  Northwestern high lands
 North Central high lands (Mecha,Dera,Jabbi Tehnan)
 Southeastern highlands (especially in Gojjam, Shewa, Arsi, Bale and central
Hararghe).
 Southern Tigray ( Raya Azebo, Raya Alamata)

Vertisols are the most dominant in North centra high lands and in Shewan plateau. They are
also the second and the third most dominant soil types in southern Tigray and Southern high
lands.

Figure. 1.4 Vertisol of Ethiopian high land

1.3. Lithosols, Cambisols and Regosol

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1.3.1. Lithosols: any of a group of shallow azonal soils consisting of imperfectly
weathered rock fragments. The fifth soil group is Lithosols found primarily in the Denakil Plain.
Lack of moisture and shallow profile preclude cultivation of these soils.  They are perhaps the
most inherently fertile of the tropical soils because of their high nutrient content and deep,
permeable structure. They are exploited widely for plantation agriculture .

Iron oxides and high water content are believed to play important roles in creating the soil
structure. By and large, these soils are found in different parts of rugged and steep slopes of
Central Highlands, on the Rift Valley Escarpments and highlands in of western Hararghe.
Regosol and Lithosols are also found in the Danakil and eastern Ogaden.

Lithosols which are found in all the agro ecological zone of Africa are very shallow, occurring
mainly on steep slope often with exposed rock debris. These soils are at risk of very sever
erosion.

Mostly found in

Rugged topography: rough terrain or landscape/having long narrow shallow depression

Steep slopes: inclined of the land's surface

Little evidence of pedogenic processes-soil forming processes

 As a result they are:

 Young: shallow and have little organic matter
 Shallow: Soil depth less than 22.5cm
 Coarse textured: high proportion of sand
 Low water holding capacity: amount of water held by the soil

Found in areas of low rainfall. So, have limited agricultural use Left under the natural plant
cover and used for grazing.

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Figure 1.5 Lithosol soil

1.3.2. Cambisols :
Cambisols are soils of limited pedogenetic age. The name, “Cambisols,” originates from the
Latin word, “cambiare,” which means, “to change,” implying the beginning of the
transformation from parent material into soil. In the initial stages of soil formation, these soils
show signs of the beginning of horizon formation. Cambisols have weak structure and brownish
discolouration in the sub-surface horizon, and they have undergone sufficient modification in
the soil forming processes to distinguish them from the other shallow soils such as Leptosols,
Regosols. However, these modifications have not been large enough to form the kinds of
horizons that are required for classification into other major soil groups.

Three major conditions are believed to have resulted in the development of Cambisols:

 soils that develop on geologically young materials or sediments;

 soils that develop in areas where environmental conditions inhibit soil-forming
processes (e.g., resistant parent materials, high relief, climate (low moisture and
temperature regimes); and
 erosion and deposition cycles that account for the widespread occurrence in
mountainous regions

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Cambisols are characterized by large quantities of easily weatherable primary and secondary
minerals and more resistant feldspars and mica with attendant clay formation and
accumulation of organic matter.

Cambisols occur predominantly in the higher altitudes and steep slope positions wherever
conditions are not favourable for soil forming process for other soils to develop. Erosion and
deposition cycles are believed to account for the widespread occurrence of Cambisols in
mountainous regions and sloping positions. Owing to their wide-ranging geomorphological
environment intergrade with nearly every reference soil group. For this reason, Cambisols are
sometimes referred to as the “garbage can soil.

In the northcentral highlands, Shewa plateaus and southern highlands, Cambisols are
exclusively found in the river gorges, canyons and escarpments and on moderately steep to
steep slope gradients (15-45%). In these slope ranges, Cambisols intergrade with various other
reference soil groups including Leptosols at the higher slope positions, and Luvisols and Nitisols
in the middle-slopes. The soils form on a complex mixture of different parent materials
including volcanic, calcareous limestone and alluvial and colluvial deposits.

Cambisols are characterized by the absence of layer of accumplited clay, Humus, soluble salt, or
iron and aluminium oxide.

Cambisols naturally form on medium to fine textured parent material under any climatic,
topographic and vegetation cover condition.

Figure 1.6 Cambisoil

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 1.3.3. Regosol
Regosols (from Greek rhego, blanket) are weakly developed soil in unconsolidated mineral
material of some depth (i.e., deeper than Leptosols) that are not very rich in gravels and coarse
textured materials (i.e., Arenosols), do not have materials with fluvic properties (i.e., Fluvisols),
and are lacking any diagnostic horizon.

Pedogenetic processes of Regosols have not proceeded fully perhaps as result of:

 conditions that retard soil formation such as low soil temperature or hot desert climate
(i.e., aridity) or poor vegetation cover;
 recent exposure of the soil material;
 unfavourable topography (steep slope up to 30%); and
 slow weathering parent materials because of low soil temperatures, and prolonged
dryness.

Regosol are characterized by shallow, medium-to fine-textured, unconsolidated parent material

that may be of alluvial origin and by the lack of a significant soil horizon(layer) formation
because of dry or cold climatic condition.

Regosols occur mainly in polar and desert region, occupying about 2% of the continental land
area on earth, principally in northern china, green land, Antarctica.

They are found most extensively in eroding lands, particularly in arid and semi-arid areas and in
mountainous terrain. In Ethiopia, Regosols are most abundant in the Hararghe plateau on
mixed limes stone and sandstone parent materials (see soil landscape map of the woredas in
the Hararghe plateau

Regosols were classified as Lithic, Umbric, Eutric, Dystric, Gypsic subgroups. The most common
Regosol units under the WRB system include Leptic, Haplic, Endogleyic Regosol, etc. Leptic
Regosols have continuous hard rock starting within 100 cm of the soil surface. Endogleyic
Regosols are those having in some parts reducing conditions and gleyic colour pattern . In
CASCAPE woredas, Haplic and Lithic Leptosols are most abundant although Hyperskeletic
Leptosols do also cover sizeable area in some woredas. In the CASCAPE survey, extensive areas
of Leptic. Regosols were found in the Hararghe and Tigray plateaus.

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Distribution of Regosols is largely limited to the sandstone and limestone dominated areas in
the Hararghe plateau.

Figure 1.7 Regosol soil

1.4. xerosols, yermosols, solanchaks

1.4.1. Xerosols : are characterized by an aridic (but not cold) cliamate
and moderate content of organic matter in the top soil
Xerosols are those having a weakly developed A horizon.
• Desert or dry steppe soils
• Majorly available in arid and semiarid areas
 Characterized by:
• High salt content
• Low organic content
• Poor humus content and nitrogen, Rich in phosphorus and potash

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  Xerosols
 Characterized as:
• Desert soil
• Low organic content
• Extremely subjected to wind erosion
• Concentration of soluble salts
• Found in Ogaden and northeastern escarpments
• The Xerosols are characterized by an aridic (but not cold) climate and
moderate contents of organic matter in the topsoil

Figure 1.8 Xerosol soil

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1.4.2. Yermosols: are other soil having very weak
ochric a horizon and an aridic moisture regime; lacking permafrost within 200cm
of the surface
 Even drier and more problematic than xerosols
 Cover: Ogaden and Afar plains
 The Yermosols are also characterized by an aridic (but not cold) climate
and very low contents of organic matter in the topsoil

Figure 1.9 Yermosol soil

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1.4.3. Solanchakes: any of an intrazonal group of strongly
saline soil usually light colored and without characteristic structural form and
typically developed in poorly drained arid or semiarid areas vegetated mostly by
halophytes.
The Solanchaks are majorly located in salty plains of Afar.
 Characterized as:

• Saline soils develop in areas of high evaporation and capillary action

• Badly managed irrigation schemes
• They cover the Ogaden and Afar plains
• majorly located at Salty plains of Afar
• The  Solonchaks are characterized by their high content of soluble salts

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 Figure 2.0 The Solanchalks soil of Afar region

1.5. Fluvisols :
Fluvisols develop on flat or nearly flat ground, on recent alluvial deposits. These
soils are associated with fluvial (river), marine (sea) and lacustine (lake) deposits.
These are soils formed due to deposition of eroded materials from highlands. The
deposition takes place in depressions, lower valleys and lowlands. Lower regions
of rivers like Omo, Awash, Abay and the plains of Akobo and Baro Rivers are home
for fluvisols. Lakes region (main Ethiopian rift) is also characterized by fluvisols.
 Fluvisols are highly variable, but much prized for intensive agriculture
because: they develop on flat ground, deposition sites,
 they are associated with rivers and ground water, making them important
for large-scale irrigation and
 they are fertile and their fertility is always renewed as a result of deposition
of new soil materials

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  Characterized as:
 Develop on: Flat ground, Nearly flat ground, Recent alluvial deposits
 Associated with:
Fluvial (river) deposits: deposited by flowing water of a stream
Marine (sea) deposits: transported from land areas to the ocean
Lacustine (lake) deposits: formed in the bottom of ancient lakes
 Formed due to deposition of eroded materials from highlands
 Deposition takes place in: Depressions, Lower valleys, Lowlands

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Figure 2.1 Fluvisol soil

1.6. Luvisols:
Luvisols are characterized by an argic B-horizon indicating an illuvial accumulation
of clay eluviated from the surface horizon.

Luvisols develop mainly in areas where pronounced wet and dry seasons occur in
alternation. Where leaching is not very high, they are found in association with
nitosols. Luvisols have good chemical nutrients and they are among the best
agricultural soils in the tropics. So, they are intensively cultivated. However,
when luvisols are found on steep slopes (stony) and on flat areas (waterlogged)
they are avoided and left for grazing. In Ethiopia, places with luvisols include Lake

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Tana area, parts of Northern, Central and Eastern Highlands and Southern
lowlands.

 Characterized as:

• Develop mainly in areas where pronounced wet and dry seasons

• Leaching is not very high

• Good chemical nutrients-best agricultural soils in the tropics

• So, intensively cultivated

• Found on: Steep slopes (stony)

Flat areas (waterlogged)

• They are avoided and left for grazing

• Found in: Lake tana area

• Parts of northern, central and eastern highlands and southern lowlands

Figure 2.2 luvisols soil

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Figure 2.3 Soil types of Ethiopia

1.7. Conclusion
It is generalized that the formation of a particular type of soil depends on parent
material, climate, topography, living organism and time. One can therefore, say
that some of the soil divisions in the country are based on the geologic structure,
deposition of sediment and other factors. About 80% of the Ethiopian land are
covered by six most important major soil type which have inturn a great impact
on the type of vegetation, plant cover and on the human settlement, because of
the variabilities of their chemical compositon, their moisture content. The result

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of the study revealed variation in morphology, physical and chemical properties
affected the soil types of Ethiopia.

1.8. References
1. Belay Tegene (1995). Morphological, physical and chemical characteristics of Ethiopian soil.

SINET: Ethiop. J. Sci. 18 (2): 143–169

2. Mohr, P. (1971). The Geology of Ethiopia. HIS University Press, Addis Ababa.

3. Fresh man course Geography Module.

4. Dent, D. and Young, A. (1981). Soil Survey and Land Evaluation. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge.

5. Wada, K. (1985). The distinctive properties of Ethiopian soil. Advances in Soil Sciences pp.
174– 224

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