Japan: Rinciples and General Objectives of Education

World Data on Education.
6th edition, 2006/07
Japan
Updated version, August 2006.
Principles and general objectives of education

The basic principles for education in Japan are defined in the Constitution, enacted in
1946, and the Fundamental Law of Education (1947). The Constitution provides for
the basic right and duty of the people to receive education as follows: “All people
shall have the right to receive an equal education corresponding to their abilities, as
provided for by law. The people shall be obligated to have all boys and girls under
their protection receive general education as provided for by law. Such compulsory
education shall be free.” (Article 26)
The Fundamental Law of Education sets forth the basic national aims and
principles of education in accordance with the spirit of the Constitution. The Law
defines the central aim of education as: “the full development of personality, striving
for the rearing of people, sound in mind and body, who shall love truth and justice,
esteem the value of the individual, respect labour and have a deep sense of
responsibility, and be imbued with an independent spirit, as builders of a peaceful
state and society.” To achieve this aim, the Law sets forth national principles of
education such as equal opportunity, nine-year compulsory education, co-education,
and prohibition of partisan political education.
Current educational priorities and concerns

The education system in Japan is undergoing overall reorganization based on ideas of
educational reform, with the aim of changing the mode of thinking that places too
much value on formal schooling, and securing stronger links among different
educational functions, including formal education, so as to promote lifelong learning.
From 1984 to 1987, a National Council of Educational Reform engaged in

wide-ranging deliberations regarding education and other related fields. It submitted
to the Prime Minister four successive reports, in which diverse recommendations
regarding educational reform strategies were put forward.
The Council set forth three basic viewpoints for educational reform: (i)
emphasis on individuality; (ii) transition to a lifelong learning society; and (iii) coping
with various changes including internationalization in various sectors of society and
the spread of modern information media.
The emphasis on individuality, defined by the Council as the most important

aspect to be considered in all aspects of the educational reform, encompasses the
principles of dignity of individuals, respect for personality, freedom and self-
discipline, and individual responsibility. This principle, defined by the Council as the
most important aspect to be considered in the educational reform, presupposes the
elimination of the existing negative characteristics of education in Japan: uniformity,
rigidity and closed-ness, and therefore necessitated review of the whole education
Compiled by UNESCO-IBE (http://www.ibe.unesco.org/)

World Data on Education. 6th edition, 2006/07
system, including content and methods of teaching, educational structures and

government policies in education. The importance of fostering children creativity,
thinking ability and powers of expression, avoiding emphasis on memorization, was
also stressed.
The transition to a lifelong learning society is intended to correct a mode of

thinking that places too much value on formal schooling, and to create a new
education system whereby people can participate in learning by freely choosing
relevant opportunities at any time throughout their lives. The creation of such a new
education system is intended to meet the diverse learning demands brought about by
the increase in leisure hours, the improvement of the average level of formal
schooling completed by individuals, and the aging of the population. In addition, it is
designed to respond to the necessity of acquiring new knowledge and skills relevant to
the various social changes, including the progress of advanced science and technology
and the greater predominance of software industries. It is also important that mutual
links among the family, the school and the community be ensured.
Coping with various changes implies that education must interact actively and
flexibly with the changing environment. The most important tasks with which
education is confronted are coping with internationalization and with an information-
oriented society.
The National Council of Educational Reform formulated many proposals that

require further deliberations for their implementation. In this respect, some other
relevant advisory bodies to the Minister have further deliberated specific issues for
implementing reforms, and submitted to the Minister concrete recommendations.
The Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture (MEXT) has been
implementing various reforms on the basis of recommendations put forward by the
Central Council of Education. In April 1995, the Ministry reorganized this Council
and asked it to consider how to develop Japan’s education with a view to the 21st
century. The Council is now deliberating the following three major subjects: (i)
Japan’s education system in the future and the respective roles of the school, the
family, the community and the forms of their collaboration; (ii) education adapted to
the abilities and aptitudes of individuals and the improvement of articulation between
the different school levels; and (iii) education relevant to various social changes such
as internationalization, the spread of modern information media, and the advancement
of science and technology. In July 1996, the Council published its first report.
The Lifelong Learning Council submitted in 1992 the report Strategies for the
promotion of lifelong learning that are relevant to various future trends in society, and
it published in April 1996 another report (Strategies for expanding lifelong learning
opportunities at the community level). In the 1996 report, the Council recommended
various strategies required for the expansion of lifelong learning opportunities at the
community level, with regard to: (i) universities and other higher education
institutions; (ii) elementary, lower secondary and upper secondary schools; (iii)
facilities for non-formal education, culture and sports; and (iv) research and in-service
training institutes.

The University Council has published a report on the following issues: the
expansion and enrichment of graduate school programs; the incorporation of
flexibility into the graduate school system; the improvement of university programs,
as well as of the system of academic degrees; the systematic development, both
quantitative and qualitative, of higher education; the vitalization of university
management; and the improvement of university entrance examinations. The Council
is now deliberating various issues regarding university reform, with a view to
enhancing and vitalizing educational and research activities of individual universities.
Reforms regarding the education system are now shifting from the planning
stage to the stage of gradual implementation. In this transition, emphasis has been
placed on spontaneous choice of alternatives, as well as innovative and creative
efforts, by each locality and by each educational institution. Consequently, the
spontaneous efforts and independent ideas of many related people in each locality and
at each educational institution are required to a greater extent than ever before.
The Central Council for Education, which was created in January 2001 and
integrates the functions of seven former councils, is an organization that carries out
research and deliberations on important matters related to the promotion of education,
lifelong learning, sports and other matters in response to the requests from the
Minister of Education. In January 2001, the MEXT drew up the "Education Reform
Plan for the Twenty-first Century," which maps out specific measures and issues of
educational reforms. The seven priority strategies are: (i) improving the students'
basic scholastic proficiency in “easy to understand classes”; (ii) fostering open and
warm-hearted Japanese through participation in community and other programmes;
(iii) improving the learning environment to one which is enjoyable and free of
worries; (iv) promoting the creation of schools that can be trusted by parents and
communities; (v) training teachers as "education professionals"; (vi) promoting the
establishment of universities of an international standard; and (vii) establishing a new
educational vision for the new century and improving the foundations of education.
Policies and measures in Elementary and Secondary Education include:
• The improvement of the content and methods of teaching and learning

• Redressing the complement of teachers (improving the standards of class sizes
and teacher deployment)
• The enrichment of moral education, to make children learn through personal
experiences in cooperation with the home and community
• The enrichment of student guidance, emotional education and counselling
• The enrichment of career education aimed at instilling in students a desirable
outlook on professions and labour
• Reforming upper secondary education, facilitating the creation of new
"integrated" courses and organizing curricula where students are allowed to
choose their own subjects to a greater extent
• The promotion of kindergarten education as a foundation for life and learning
at total school education, and as places of nurturing for parents and children
• The promotion of special support education for the disabled that is needs
based and sensitive to the learning environment
• The promotion of education on human rights

• The improvement of the textbook system, to ensure that suitable content of

teaching be provided for all children
• The development of vocational education in order to foster specialists who
have advanced knowledge and skills
Priorities in Higher Education include:
• Guarantee of the quality of universities. In FY 2004, all national, public and

private universities introduced a system under which universities are
evaluated, on a regular basis, by evaluation agencies authorized by MEXT.
• Incorporation of national universities. In accordance with the National
University Corporation Law promulgated in July and enforced in October
2003, national universities have become corporations since 1 April 2004.
• Support of university education reforms through national, public and private
universities. From FY 2004, financial support is provided for: distinctive
university education reforms; creation of law schools and other professional
graduate schools; and the 21st Century COE Program, intended to support the
formation of world-class bases for education and academic research (during
the three years from FY 2004, 274 bases at 93 universities have been selected
as world-class bases for education and academic research).
• Professional graduate schools. The professional graduate school system was
inaugurated in 2003 to meet the demand for professionals who have advanced
and specialized vocational skills and are capable of playing a leadership role in
various social and economic fields while playing an active role in the
international community (As of April 2004, 93 professional graduate schools
are in operation, including law schools specialized in nurturing lawyers,
prosecutors, and judges, and other professional schools specializing in finance,
business, public policy, public health, and welfare management).
Laws and other basic regulations concerning education

Specific provisions relating to the school system, educational administration, financial
support and other matters are contained in the School Education Law and other
education legislation enacted in the spirit of the Fundamental Law of Education
(1947).
In accordance with the provisions of the School Education Law, elementary

and secondary schools, as well as higher education institutions, can be established
only by national, prefectural and municipal governments and non-profit corporations
called “school juridical persons.” Educational institutions set up by the national
government are called national schools, those set up by prefectural or municipal
governments—local public schools, and those set up by non-profit corporations—
private schools.
In view of the important role played by private educational institutions, the

national government, under the Private School Promotion Subsidy Law, has been
providing subsidies to these institutions for their current and other expenditure, with a
view to helping maintain and improve the level of the educational and research

activities of these institutions, as well as to helping alleviate the financial burden of

their students.
In 1974 a Law concerning Special Measures for Securing Competent

Educational Personnel in Compulsory Education Schools with the Aim of
Maintaining and Improving the Level of School Education was enacted. This law
was aimed at attracting qualified people to the teaching profession by providing
public compulsory schoolteachers with favourable salary conditions. This law led to a
positive improvement in the level of teachers’ salaries progressively from 1974 until
1979.
In June 1990, the Law concerning the Development of Relevant

Mechanisms for the Promotion of Government Policies for the Promotion of
Lifelong Learning (abbreviated as Law for the Promotion of Lifelong Learning) was
enacted. It represents the first Japanese law concerning lifelong learning. Under this
law, a Lifelong Learning Council, an advisory organ to the Minister, was created in
August 1990, and relevant government services and programs at the prefectural levels
have been promoted. This law is intended to provide a legal framework for the
development of relevant government mechanisms for promoting lifelong learning at
the national and local levels.
In 1991, the Ministry revised the regulations entitled National Standards for
the Establishment of Universities, in order to make their provisions broader and
more flexible. Provision is made for national optimum standards for the curriculum,
teacher qualifications, teaching methods, physical facilities and equipment for
universities. In the same year, the Ministry introduced a system for the self-
monitoring and self-evaluation of individual universities.
The Central Council for Education compiled a report in March 2003 titled the
“New Fundamental Law of Education and Basic Promotional Plan for Education
Befitting to the New Times.” This report points out the necessity to amend the
Fundamental Law of Education in order to clarify the ideals and principles that are
currently regarded as critically important while maintaining the overall philosophy of
the existing law. After the amendment of the Fundamental Law of Education, the
Central Council for Education will further discuss the content of the concrete
measures to be included in the Basic Plan from an expert perspective in various study
groups concerned, based on the considerations and views presented in this report. The
Government as a whole including the ministries and agencies concerned is expected
to formulate the Basic Promotional Plan for Education promptly.
With the aim of reviewing the overall lifestyle of children and enabling them
to fully achieve self-realization by spending more time however they choose to spend
it and utilizing their individuality, the five-day school week system had been
implemented in a phased manner, being adopted once a month since September 1992
and twice a month since April 1995. The report prepared by the Central Council for
Education recommends the implementation of this system for the purpose of enabling
children to engage in various activities in everyday life, society, and nature, in order
to nurture their ikiru chikara (zest for living), which includes the ability to learn and
think for themselves and development of well-rounded characters, by providing them
through mutual cooperation among schools, families, and communities, with more

pressure-free hours. Following this recommendation, the comprehensive five-day

school week system has been implemented since FY 2002.
The Law for Partial Amendment of the School Education Law was enacted
on May 14, 2004.
Education is compulsory for pupils from 6 to 15 years of age. Public education

is free and all children are required to attend a six-year elementary school and a three-
year lower secondary school.
Administration and management of the education system

The central educational authority in Japan is the Ministry of Education, Culture,
Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), formerly the Ministry of Education,
Science, Sports and Culture (MONBUSHO). Under the legal provisions, MEXT's
missions are: to foster creative people with warm-hearted human nature specifically
by advancing education and promoting lifelong learning; to encourage academic,
sporting and cultural activities as well as comprehensive progress in scientific
technologies; and to carry out properly religious administrative affairs.
As far as educational fields are concerned, the national government makes

plans and projects on school education systems and educational administration
systems. It provides various kinds of financial assistance including teachers’ salaries
and funds for developing school buildings and other educational facilities, and also
provides instructions and advice on the operation of such facilities. Schools including
national universities, junior colleges, and colleges of technology as well as social
educational facilities and cultural facilities such as youth houses, museums and art
museums have gradually come to be operated as independent administrative
institutions since April 2001.
With regard to its relation with local governments, the Ministry has the power
to provide guidance, advice or assistance to local educational authorities (i.e.
administrative heads of prefectural and municipal governments, and prefectural and
municipal boards of education), and to require them to submit such reports as are
deemed necessary relating to educational activities under their jurisdiction. The
Ministry may also instruct local educational authorities to correct or improve their
policies or measures, when it considers that such policies or measures violate the
provisions of laws and regulations or impede the primary objectives of education.
In Japan there are forty-seven prefectures (To-Do-Fu-Ken), further divided

into a number of municipalities. In every prefecture there is a Prefectural Board of
Education which serves as the central education authority in the prefecture. The
board is responsible for the administration and management of government services
relating to education, science and culture.
The Prefectural Board of Education is composed of five members appointed

by the governor with the consent of the prefectural assembly (both the governor and
the members of the prefectural assembly are elected directly by the people). The
members hold office for four years.

The Prefectural Board of Education appoints a Prefectural Superintendent of

Education, who serves as its chief executive officer responsible to the board for the
execution of the policies and measures determined by the board. The appointment of
the superintendent has to be approved by the Minister of Education.
The major functions of the Prefectural Board of Education are as follows:
• administer and manage prefectural educational establishments (upper

secondary schools, special schools for the disabled, museums, public libraries,
lifelong education promotion centers, centers for educational research and
training, etc.) other than universities and junior colleges;
• conduct and promote activities for social education, physical education and
sports;
• disseminate and promote cultural activities, and contribute to the protection of

cultural properties;
• provide advice and assistance to governmental and non-governmental bodies for their
activities for the cooperation with UNESCO;
• provide guidance, advice or financial assistance to the municipal education

authorities (i.e., mayors and municipal boards of education) within the
prefecture;
• require mayors or municipal boards of education to submit pertinent reports,

and, when needed, issue orders for corrections or improvements in their
activities;
• approve the establishment and abolition of municipal kindergartens, unified

secondary schools and upper secondary schools, special schools for the
disabled, special training schools and miscellaneous schools;
• deal with personnel affairs (including appointment and dismissal of teachers and
other staff) and pay salaries to the teachers and other staff of municipal elementary
schools, lower secondary schools, special schools for the disabled and part-time
courses of upper secondary schools;
• issue certificates for teachers.
The prefectural governor also has some powers and responsibilities on

education. His/her main functions concerning education include the following:
• administer and manage prefectural universities and junior colleges;
• approve the establishment of private kindergartens, elementary schools, lower

and upper secondary schools, unified secondary schools, special schools,
special training schools and miscellaneous schools, and provide general
supervision, advice and assistance to these schools (private higher education
institutions are under the general supervision of the MEXT);

• coordinate and execute budgets on matters under the jurisdiction of the prefectural
Board of Education and also to acquire and dispose of prefectural educational
properties.
• In each municipality (Shi-Cho-Son) there is a Municipal Board of

Education, which serves as the authority responsible for government services
relating to education, science and culture in the municipality.
The municipal board of education primarily consists of five members (a board

of three members is allowed in the case of towns and villages) appointed by the mayor
with the consent of the municipal assembly (both the mayor and the members of the
municipal assembly are elected directly by the people). Members hold office for four
years.
The municipal board appoints a Municipal Superintendent of Education,

who serves as its chief executive officer, from among the board members with the
approval of the prefectural board of education. The major functions of the municipal
board are as follows:
• administer and manage municipal educational establishments (mainly,

elementary and lower secondary schools, citizens’ public halls, public
libraries, centers for educational research and training, etc.);
• conduct and promote activities for social education, physical education and
sports;
• disseminate and promote cultural activities and contribute to the protection of

cultural properties;
• provide advice and assistance to non-governmental bodies for their activities

for the cooperation with UNESCO;
• adopt textbooks to be used in municipal elementary and lower secondary

schools.
The municipal mayor also has some powers and responsibilities in the area of
education. His/her main duties include the following:
• administer and manage municipal universities and junior colleges;
• coordinate and execute budgets on matters under the jurisdiction of the municipal
Board of Education, and also to acquire and dispose of municipal educational
properties.
There are several advisory bodies supporting the Minister of Education. From
1984 to 1987, a National Council on Educational Reform deliberated wide-ranging
issues in the whole fields of education, science and sports, while focusing on
strategies for thorough educational reform. The recommendations of the Council are
very important, as they provide basic guidelines for the present government policies.

With regard to specific strategies for implementing educational reform, the Central
Council of Education, the University Council (set up in 1987) and the Lifelong
Learning Council (set up in 1990) have submitted their respective recommendations
to the Minister. In addition, advisory committees on upper secondary education
reforms and on the promotion of cultural policies have submitted their respective
reports.
There are also other important advisory organs, such as the Textbook
Authorization and Research Council, the Educational Personnel Training
Council, the Curriculum Council, and the Science Education and Vocational
Education Council.
The Japan Scholarship Foundation was founded in 1944 with the aim of
providing scholarships (loans) for students who perform well but find it difficult to
continue their studies for financial reasons, thus contributing to the equalization of
educational opportunity and to the development of human resources needed by
society. The Foundation is supported by the national, prefectural and municipal
governments, as well as non-profit corporations. The government-supported Japan
Private School Promotion Foundation provides low interest long-term loans for
private institutions for the improvement of their facilities and equipment.
The National Institute for Educational Research plays an important role in

the field of applied and basic research regarding education. This Institute also
“conducts nationwide scholastic achievement surveys in specific subject areas in
collaboration with prefectural institutes of educational research with a view to
compare scholastic achievement of Japanese students at an international level.”
(Kanaya, 1995, p. 488)
In the field of vocational and technical training, institutions under the

Ministry of Labour provide a wide range of skill training courses. “The Ministry of
Agriculture, Fishery, and Forestry also organizes various training programs for junior
farmers, fishermen, and forestry workers.” (ibid., p. 485)

Structure and organization of the education system

Japan: structure of the education system
Pre-school education
Kindergartens cater to children between the ages of 3 and 6. Pre-school education is

not compulsory and is mainly provided by private institutions (79.6% of children in
1995. About 61% of 5-year-olds were enrolled in kindergartens in the year 2000.
The School Education Law prescribes that kindergartens may admit preschool
children who have reached the age of three and have not attained the compulsory
school age of six.
Primary education
Primary education is the first stage of compulsory schooling and all children between
the ages of 6 and 12 are required to attend elementary school. Almost all children
(98.6%) are enrolled in public schools supported by local governments.

Secondary education
Lower secondary education is the final stage of compulsory schooling and caters to
pupils between 12 and 15 years. Students who have completed the three-year lower
secondary course are entitled to apply to upper secondary schools or colleges of
technology.
Upper secondary schools, first established in 1948, are non-compulsory. There

are three types of upper secondary school courses: full-time, part-time and
correspondence courses. Full-time courses last three years, while part-time and
correspondence courses last three years or more. Part-time courses are mainly offered
in the evenings. In terms of the content of teaching, upper secondary school courses
may be classified broadly into three categories: general; specialized; and integrated.
General courses offer general education, with emphasis on academic subjects, while
specialized courses are designed to provide vocational, technical or other education
for those students who have chosen a particular vocational area as their future career.
These courses are further classified into several categories, such as agriculture,
industry, business, fishery, home economics, nursing, science and mathematics, etc.
Integrated courses comprehensively offer general and specialized education.
In addition to the three-year lower or upper secondary school education that

has prevailed until now, a unified lower and upper secondary school education
became a part of the education system in April 1999 and allows students and
parents/guardians to select a six-year consistent course. It is also expected to promote
further diversification in secondary school education for the purpose of substantiating
the education that pays great respect to a student's individuality. MEXT is promoting
the opening of at least one such unified school per upper secondary school district so
that students can actually choose a unified lower and upper secondary school
education if they so wish.
Higher education institutions in Japan include universities (Daigaku), junior

colleges (Tanki-daigaku) and colleges of technology (Koto-senmongakko). In
addition, special training schools and miscellaneous schools offering advanced
courses may be counted as institutions of higher education.
While universities and junior colleges require for admission the completion of
upper secondary schooling, colleges of technology, established in 1962, offer courses
to students who have completed lower secondary school. A college of technology
usually offers several courses in engineering and mercantile marine studies. There are
a variety of main courses, including those in mechanical engineering, electric
engineering, electronic control, information technology, material/bio-engineering,
civil engineering, mercantile marine, and management information. The duration of
the course is five years (five and a half years for mercantile marine courses).
Special training schools are a new type of educational institution created in

1976. They offer systematic educational activities, aiming to help students develop the
abilities required for vocational and daily life, and also to help improve their cultural
standards. These schools are required to maintain an enrolment of at least forty
students and to offer instruction for 800 hours or more per year for each course. The
courses may be classified into three categories: upper secondary courses admitting

lower secondary school graduates; advanced courses admitting upper secondary

school graduates; and other courses. Those special training schools offering upper
secondary courses may be called “upper secondary special training schools”, while
those offering advanced courses are referred to as “special training colleges.”
Miscellaneous schools are intended to give adults and young people a wide
range of educational opportunities similar to the formal education offered in
secondary schools or institutions of higher education. They provide students of varied
ages with knowledge and skills required for their vocational and daily life.
Junior colleges offer courses lasting two or three years, mainly in the fields of
humanities, home sciences, education and social sciences.
A university has one or more undergraduate faculties or other basic units for
educational activities, which offer courses usually lasting four years (six years for
medical, dental and veterinary courses) leading to a bachelor’s degree.
A university may set up a graduate school aiming to give graduate students

opportunities to pursue in-depth study and research concerning academic theories and
their application. Graduate schools require the completion of an undergraduate course
or its equivalent for admission. A graduate school offers master’s degree courses
(usually two years of study) and doctoral degree courses (the standard duration of
course is five years, except for medical, dental or veterinary courses, which last four
years).
The school year begins on 1 April and ends on 31 March of the following
year, corresponding with the fiscal year of the country. At the elementary and lower
secondary levels the school year is usually divided into three terms: April-July,
September-December and January-March. It consists of thirty-five working weeks
(thirty-four weeks in the first grade of elementary education). While the majority of
upper secondary schools adopt a three-term school year, some of them adopt a
semester system (usually, the first semester ranges from April to September, and the
second from October to March). Higher education institutions usually adopt a two-
semester academic year.
At all school levels, vacations are granted in summer (from around the end of
July through August), in winter (from the end of December to early January) and in
spring (at the end of the school year). The beginning and ending dates of these
vacations are determined by respective boards of education and schools according to
each locality and the circumstances of schools.
In general, educational institutions in Japan are closed on Sundays and on

national holidays. Furthermore, a five-day school week was introduced in a phased
manner by implementing such a week once a month from September 1992 and twice a
month from April 1995. The system has been implemented in a full-fledged manner
since April 2002, making every Saturday a no-school day.

The financing of education

T
The responsibility for financing public education is shared by the national, prefectural
and municipal governments. Each government provides support for its own
educational activities with funds derived from its own taxes and other income.
None of the national, prefectural or municipal taxes are earmarked for specific
governmental services. The decision as to the proportion of tax revenue to be allotted
to educational services is at the discretion of each government.
Educational expenditure of the national government may be classified into two

categories: 1) expenditure for national educational establishments (universities and
others) and services; and 2) education-related contributions and subsidies earmarked
for education, which are allocated to prefectures, municipalities, private educational
establishments and other bodies.
In addition, the national government provides “Local Allocation Tax” grants

to prefectural and municipal governments. These grants are aimed at ensuring that
every local government secures a certain level of income and public services. The
sources of these grants are defined by law as: a certain percentage (32%) of total
national revenue from the income tax, corporation tax and liquor tax; a certain
percentage (24%) of consumption tax income; and a certain percentage (25%) of
cigarette tax income. While these grants are not earmarked for any specific services, a
certain level of local government expenditure for education is made possible under
these grants.
Educational expenditure of prefectural governments include: expenditure for

prefectural educational establishments and services; salaries and allowances for
teachers in municipal elementary, lower secondary and part-time upper secondary
schools; and subsidies to municipalities for educational purposes.
Educational expenditure of municipal governments include: expenditure for

operating municipal elementary and lower secondary schools (other than teachers’
salaries); and expenditure for operating the other municipal educational
establishments.
In the fiscal year (FY) 2001 ending March 2002, total public expenditures for
education amounted to 24,136,873 million yen, which accounted for 6.5% of national
income and 16.2% of the net total of national and local government expenditures. The
proportion of expenditures spent for education to the total expenditures of the national
government was 9.2%, and the average proportion of local government expenditures
devoted to education to the total expenditures was 20.1%. In FY 1998, the national
government share was 42.6% and the prefectural and municipal share was 57.4%.
No tuition fees are charged for instruction in public elementary and lower
secondary schools that provide compulsory education. Tuition fees are charged to
students in public upper secondary schools and in public higher education institutions.
Tuition fees collected from national university students are incorporated into revenue
receipts of the national university corporation that established the university, and the

national government provides fiscal measures for national university corporations

regarding necessary expenditures.
While tuition fees charged in national institutions are uniformly determined by

the Ministry of Education, those charged in prefectural and municipal schools are
determined by individual local authorities.
Scholarship programs, which are important educational measures for offering

equal educational opportunities and for developing competent human resources, are
offered by a number of organizations including the Japan Student Services
Organization (JASSO), which deals with the nation’s scholarship programs, as well as
local governments, non-profit corporations, and schools.
JASSO scholarships are provided, in the form of loans, to excellent students

who have economic difficulty going to a university, a junior college, a graduate
school, or a college of technology or taking a specialized course of a special training.
There are two types of loans: loans with no interest and loans with interest. Loans
bearing no interest are provided for students enrolled in upper secondary schools,
universities, junior colleges, graduate schools, colleges of technology and special
training schools.
Loans with interest are provided for students enrolled in universities, junior
colleges, graduate schools (master’s course) and special training schools (specialized
course). These loans bear no interest while borrowers are enrolled in educational
institutions. On graduating from educational institutions, borrowers will have to begin
to pay back their loans with an average of 3% interest per year and are to repay their
loans within 20 years of graduation at the latest. There is also a system to exempt the
recipient taking a graduate course from repaying all or part of the loan if he/she was
found to have made a specially distinguished achievement while in the graduate
school.
In FY 2004, total budget for the scholarship programs of JASSO amounted to

682 billion yen, and approximately 965,000 students benefited from the scholarship
loans. JASSO sends scholarship money to the recipient students on a monthly basis.
The educational process

T
The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) lays
down the educational contents and the minimum number of school days per year for
kindergartens, and the subjects to be offered in elementary, lower secondary and
upper secondary schools, as well as the standard number of yearly school hours for
each subject.
MEXT also specifies the objectives and standard content of each subject or
each area of school activity in the “Courses of Study”, which presents national
curriculum guidelines for each of the four school levels: kindergarten, elementary
school, lower and upper secondary school. The content of the Courses of Study for the
respective schools is prescribed and announced by the Minister of Education, Culture,

Sports, Science and Technology based on a report by his/her advisory organ, the
Central Council for Education.
Each school organizes and implements its own curriculum in accordance with
the provisions of the relevant statutes and the course of study, taking into account the
actual circumstances of the locality in which it operates, as well as the characteristics
of children enrolled and the stage of their mental and physical development.
In March 1989, the Ministry started the process of revision of the national
course of study for each of the four school levels. The basic objective of this revision
was “to contribute to developing citizens who are rich in heart and are capable of
coping with the changes in society.”
Under the comprehensive five-day school week starting from 2002, the
Ministry has put the revised courses of study into effect since April 2002 for
elementary and lower secondary schools, and from 2003 for the freshmen of upper
secondary schools. The basic aim is to provide education in a worry-free environment
adapted to each school, allowing children to acquire the basic and fundamental
content included in the courses of study without fail, and nurturing a "zest for living"
(ikiru chikara) such as the ability to learn and think on their own based on such
content. The new courses of study should promote a teaching approach that puts the
focus on individuals through tutorials and group study, and teaching according to the
degree of understanding, expanding the range of elective courses and enabling
children to learn advanced content according to their interests.
Each school is to organize its own distinctive curriculum in accordance with

the relevant laws and ordinances and courses of study, taking into consideration the
conditions of the local community and the school itself, the stages of mental and
physical growth and the characteristics of children, pupils and students.
Pre-primary education
Kindergartens are non-compulsory schools intended to help infants develop their

minds and bodies by providing them with an appropriate educative environment. The
Course of Study for kindergartens (put into effect in 1990) sets forth specific aims to
be achieved by children by the end of a kindergarten course with regard to their
emotions, willingness and attitudes, as well as the specific content to be taught to
achieve each objective. These aims and contents are set forth in each of the five
aspects of children’s development: health, human relations, environment, language,
and expression. All objectives and related content are to be achieved through the
instruction revolving around play.
It is also specified that the standard number of daily school hours should be
four and that the number of school weeks per year should be not less than thirty-nine
except under special circumstances.
Primary education
The elementary school is intended to provide children with elementary general

education suited to the relevant stages of their mental and physical development.

All parents are required by law to have their children attend an elementary
school for six years from the beginning of the school year after the children have
attained the age of six until the end of the school year in which they reach the age of
12.
The following table presents the subjects to be taught in elementary schools, as

well as the standard number of teaching periods per year to be devoted to each
subject, as specified in the current course of study, which was put into effect in 1992.
Each school is expected to develop its activities for teaching respective subjects with
due regard to the provisions of the course of study.

In September 1992, a five-day school week began to be introduced once every month,
and in April 1996, the five-day week began to be implemented twice every month.
The five-day school week is intended to contribute to an overall review of the
educational functions of the school, the home and the community. It is also aimed at
bringing about the sound character formation of children. The comprehensive five-day
school week is implemented throughout the country since 2002.
The enrolment ratio for compulsory schools in Japan has always been nearly
100%, and grade-to-grade promotion is practically automatic. In 2004, the total
number of elementary schools was 23,420 with 7,200,933 pupils enrolled and 414.908
teachers. The average pupil-teacher ratio was 17.4:1 and the average number of pupils
per class was 26.3. (Ministry of Education, 2005)
Secondary education
The lower secondary school aims to provide pupils aged 12-15 with general
secondary education suited to the level of their mental and physical development,
based on the education given in the elementary school.
It is obligatory for all parents to have their children attend a lower secondary
school for three years from the beginning of the school year after the children have
completed the elementary school course until the end of the school year in which they
reach the age of 15. All children who have completed lower secondary schooling
(compulsory education) are entitled to apply for upper secondary schools or colleges
of technology.

The following table presents the subjects to be taught in lower secondary

schools, as well as the standard number of teaching periods per year to be devoted to
each subject, as specified in the current Courses of Study put into effect in 1993.
The “Period for Integrated Study” was introduced under the new Courses of
Study as a period in which each school may conduct creative and original educational
activities on cross-sectional/comprehensive issues beyond the framework of subjects,
such as international understanding, information, environment, and welfare and
health, as well as topics that draw the interest and preference of the students,
according to the circumstances of the community, school, and students. The new
Courses of Study for lower secondary schools have been implemented in a full-
fledged manner since FY 2002.

In 2004, the total number of lower secondary schools was 11,102, with 3,633,513
students enrolled and 249,794 teachers. The average pupil-teacher ratio was 14.7:1,
and the average number of pupils per class was 31. In the same year, 96.3% of
students completing lower secondary courses entered upper secondary schools and
colleges of technology.
Upper secondary schools are intended to give lower secondary school graduates
general and specialized secondary education suited to their level of mental and physical
development, on the basis of the education given in lower secondary schools. Upper
secondary schools may offer a number of elective subjects at their discretion, so that the
curriculum in each school may be adapted to the aim of the courses offered in the
school and to the differing abilities, aptitudes and future prospects of individuals and
so that students may choose appropriate subjects suited to their own abilities,
aptitudes and future prospects. In 1995, 72.8%of upper secondary school students
were enrolled in general academic courses, and the rest in vocational and other
specialized courses.
The course of study specifies the subjects both in general education and in
specialized education, as well as the objectives and the standard content of teaching in
each subject. In addition, it lays down the standard number of credits to be acquired
for most of the general education subjects.

Upper secondary education: general education subjects and standard number of

credits
Subject Subject No. of Subjects required

area credits
Japanese Japanese Language I 4 X
Language Japanese Language II 4
Japanese Language Expression 2
Contemporary Japanese Language 4
Contemporary Japanese Use and Usage 2
Classics I 3
Classics II 3
Appreciation of Classics 2
Geography World History A 2 One of these two
and World History B 4 subjects
History Japanese History A 2 One of these
Japanese History B 4 four subjects
Geography A 2
Geography B 4
Civics Contemporary Society 4 X or
Ethics 2 X
Politics and Economy 2 X
Mathematics Mathematics I 4 X
Mathematics II 3
Mathematics III 3
Mathematics A 2
Mathematics B 2
Mathematics C 2
Science Integrated science 4 Two subjects from
Physics I A 2 among these five
Physics I B 4 categories of
Physics II 2 subjects
Chemistry I A 2
Chemistry I B 4
Chemistry II 2
Biology I A 2
Biology I B 4
Biology II 2
Earth Science I A 2
Earth Science I B 4
Earth Science II 2
Health and Physical Education 7-9 X
Physical Health 2 X
Education
Art Music I 2 One of these
Music II 2 four categories of
Music III 2 subjects
Fine Art I 2
Fine Art II 2
Fine Art III 2
Crafts Production I 2
Crafts Production II 2
Crafts Production III 2
Calligraphy I 2
Calligraphy II 2
Calligraphy III 2
Foreign English I 4
Languages English II 4

Oral Aural Communication A 2

Oral Aural Communication B 2
Oral Aural Communication C 2
Reading 4
Writing 4
German
French
Home General Home Economics 4 One of these
Economics Home Life Techniques 4 three subjects
General Home Life 4
Note: In order to complete an upper secondary school full-time course, a student must earn 80 credits
or more,
one credit consisting of 35 class hours (one hour lasts 50 minutes). Students in a specialized course
must earn 30
or more credits in vocational or specialized subjects.

List of specialized subjects in upper secondary school


In order to complete an upper secondary school course, a student must earn 80 credits
or more (one credit consists of thirty-five class hours and one hour lasts fifty minutes),
as required by each school. Students enrolled in a specialized course must acquire 30
or more credits in vocational or specialized subjects.
In 1988, “credit system” upper secondary schools, which fall under a special
category of part-time and correspondence upper secondary schools, were
institutionalized. This system was introduced to the full-time upper secondary schools
in 1993. It aims to provide upper secondary school education to a variety of students
at any time in accordance with their own needs. They are non-graded schools whose
intent is to give these students the qualification for graduation from an upper
secondary school course on the basis of the total number of credits. There were 516
schools of this kind in 2003.

The new Courses of Study for upper secondary schools have been
implemented for the entrants in FY 2003 and will gradually penetrate as these
students advance in grade.
Upper secondary school subjects include general educational courses (ordinary

courses) and specialized subject courses (specialized courses) such as agriculture,
industry, business, fisheries, home economics, nursing, information, welfare, science-
mathematics and English language. However, as a part of the reforms made in upper
secondary education since April 1994, a newly established integrated course program
went into effect, which provides general and specialized education on an elective
basis to students.
In addition, some upper secondary schools offer part-time and correspondence

courses to working young people.
In order to meet the diverse situations of students and ensure their individual
growth, MEXT has been advancing the reform of upper secondary school education
by, for example, establishing new types of upper secondary schools such as those with
integrated courses or credit systems, and by organizing diverse courses with a wide
variety of optional subjects. MEXT is also addressing the improvement of the
selection system for students advancing to upper secondary schools by implementing
diverse elective methods.
Local public upper secondary schools select students on the basis of both: the
scholastic achievement test given by the Board of Education of the prefecture or
municipality running the school; and the records on each applicant presented in the
student credentials or other documents submitted by the lower secondary schools.
Then the school principal approves the admission of the selected students.
In 2004, the total number of upper secondary schools was 5.429, with
3,719.048 students enrolled and 255,605 teachers. The average student-teacher ratio
was 14.5:1. In the same year, 50.0% of the age group enrolled in upper secondary
schools entered universities and junior colleges.
“There is no external examination scheme in Japan. Promotion and

certification of completion are made on the basis of internal assessment. [...]
Certification of graduation [from the upper secondary school] is issued by the
individual school principal. Entrance examination for public upper-secondary schools
is organized by the relevant boards of education, whereas the private upper-secondary
schools organize their own entrance examinations.” (Kanaya, 1995, p. 487-8)
Assessing learning achievement nationwide
For the purpose of measuring students’ learning outcomes, it has been planned to
implement national academic achievement tests at elementary, junior high and high
school levels. At the elementary level, tests will be administered in Grades V and VI
in four subjects (Japanese, social studies, mathematics and science). At the junior high
level, tests will be administered in all grades in five subjects (Japanese, social studies,
mathematics, science and foreign language). (Ministry of Education, 2001)

Higher education
Higher education in Japan is mainly provided by universities, junior colleges and
colleges of technology.
Universities are higher education institutions that, as centers of learning,

conduct teaching and in-depth research in specialized academic disciplines and
provide students with broad knowledge. A university may set up a graduate school
aiming to give graduate students opportunities to pursue profound learning and
research concerning academic theories and their application. A graduate school offers
masters degree courses (the standard length of course is two years), doctoral degree
courses (the standard length of course is five years, except for medical, dental or
veterinary courses which last four years) and professional degree courses (standard
two-year term of study; however, three years in the case of law schools).
Junior colleges aim to conduct teaching and in-depth research in specialized

subjects, and to develop in students abilities required for vocational or practical life.
They offer courses lasting two or three years in various fields. Colleges of technology
aim to conduct in-depth teaching in specialized subjects, and to develop in students
such abilities as are required for vocational life. A college of technology has one
specialized department or more, and the duration of a course is five years (five and a
half years for mercantile marine courses). There are a variety of main courses
including those in mechanical engineering, electric engineering, electronic control,
information technology, material/bio-engineering, civil engineering, mercantile
marine, and management information.
In addition, there are a great number of educational establishments called

“special training schools” and “miscellaneous schools”. Created in 1976, special
training schools offer systematic educational activities whose aim is to help students
develop the abilities required for vocational and daily life, and also to help improve
their cultural standards. These schools are required to maintain an enrolment of at
least 40 students, to offer courses lasting at least one year, and to offer instruction for
800 hours or more per year for each course. The courses at special training schools
may be classified into three categories: upper secondary courses admitting lower
secondary school graduates; advanced courses admitting upper secondary school
graduates; and general courses that do not require a specific academic background.
Those special training schools offering upper secondary courses may be called “upper
secondary special training schools”, while those offering advanced courses may be
called “special training colleges”.
In particular, special training colleges have made steady improvements in

response to various social needs that are becoming increasingly advanced and
complicated, and have developed into higher educational institutions to which about
20% of upper secondary school graduates go. In light of this, the title of “Technical
Associate” has been granted since 1994 to those who have completed the courses
accredited by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology
(MEXT). Since 1999, those who have graduated from special training colleges that
satisfy certain requirements have been allowed to transfer to universities. They offer
education similar to formal education, and provide students of varied ages with

knowledge and skills required for their vocational and daily life, irrespective of the
academic qualifications of entrants.
Admission to universities and junior colleges is granted on a competitive basis

to those who have completed upper secondary courses. Entrants are selected by means
of scholastic achievement tests (including the nationwide examination administered
by the National Center for University Entrance Examinations through national, local
public and private universities) and other tests assessing students’ abilities and
aptitudes. Assessments submitted by upper secondary schools are also taken into
account. Recently, however, the number of universities admitting a certain number of
students merely on the basis of the recommendation from upper secondary school
principals has been increasing. Unlike universities or junior colleges, colleges of
technology require for admission the completion of lower secondary schooling.
In April 2003, approximately 850,000 upper secondary school graduates of the

previous fiscal year applied for admission to universities or junior colleges. About
720,000 (84.7%) students were successfully admitted to these institutions. Of these
entrants, about 130,000 (18%) had graduated from upper secondary schools one or
more years ago. The total number of entrants to special training schools (advanced
courses) in FY 2003 was about 338,000, of which, about 97,000 entrants (28.8%) are
those who graduated from upper secondary schools one or more years ago. The
percentage of the total number of entrants accounted for 23.2% of Japan’s 18 year-old
people.
With regard to universities (undergraduate courses), in 2003 more than one-

half of all students were enrolled in humanities and social science courses, while
nearly one-third were in scientific courses (natural science, engineering, agriculture,
medicine, dentistry, etc.). The distribution of students by major fields of study varies
among national, local public and private institutions. In national universities,
enrolment in humanities and social science courses accounts for only 24.0% of total
enrolment, while the proportion of students enrolled in these courses reaches 50.0% in
local public universities, and about 63.1% in private universities.
With regard to junior colleges, enrolment rates in humanities and home

economics courses account for one-half of all students, followed by education and
social science courses.
Students in universities, junior colleges and colleges of technology are

required to meet certain credit requirements for the completion of a specific course.
The optimum standard requirements for credits are specified in the respective
ordinances of the MEXT providing for optimum national standards for the structure,
teacher staffing, content of education, physical facilities, etc., for the different types of
higher education institutions. Content and methods of teaching are at the discretion of
individual institutions of higher education.
The Ministry has implemented various institutional reforms, so that

universities may cope with the needs of adults for lifelong learning. These reforms
include: (i) the introduction of a system in which non-degree students can learn a
single subject or a few subjects at university and earn regular university credits for
these subjects; (ii) the creation of a system whereby universities are authorized to

award part of their credits for the results of student learning at a special training
college; (iii) the expansion of university courses open both in the daytime and in the
evening, in order that universities may adapt their programmes to the varied life
patterns of working adults; and (iv) the introduction of a new system of student
placing, which will facilitate the entrance or transfer of students to the second year or
above of a university course.
In 1989, the Ministry introduced the following reforms in the graduate school
system: (i) the authorization of graduate school evening courses; (ii) the revision of
the National Standards for the Establishment of Universities, so as to authorize the
establishment of universities providing a graduate school only (i.e. “graduate
universities”); (iii) the introduction of flexible provisions which will enable students
to obtain a master’s degree in one year after completion of an undergraduate course,
and which will enable students to earn a doctoral degree in three years after
completion of an undergraduate course; and (iv) the introduction of flexible
provisions regarding qualifications of graduate school entrants, so that university
students may be admitted to a graduate school after completing the third year of an
undergraduate course.
In 1991, the Ministry introduced a thorough reform of the academic degree

system. Under this reform, some consolidation was made of, and more flexibility was
given to, the categories of degrees. It was made possible for those who have not
graduated from a university to obtain a bachelor’s degree, under certain requirements
and subject to the screening by the National Institution for Academic Degrees.
In 2000, the total number of universities was 649, with 2,740,023 students
enrolled and 150,563 teachers. The total number of junior colleges was 572, with
327,680 students enrolled and 16,752 teachers. The total number of colleges of
technology was 62, with 56,714 students enrolled and 4,459 teachers. In addition,
there were 3,551 specialized training colleges (750,824 students enrolled and 37,656
teachers) and 2,278 miscellaneous schools (222,961 students enrolled and 13,412
teachers).
In 2004, the total number of universities was 709, with 2,809,295 students
enrolled and 158,770 teachers. The total number of junior colleges was 508, with
233,754 students enrolled and 12,740 teachers. The total number of colleges of
technology was 63, with 58,698 students enrolled and 4,473 teachers. In addition,
there were 3,444 specialized training colleges (792,054 students enrolled and 40,663
teachers) and 1,878 miscellaneous schools (178,117 students enrolled and 11,267
teachers).
In April 1995, approximately 335,000 students followed advanced courses

offered by special training schools. About 249,000 of these students graduated from
upper secondary schools in March of the same year. This number accounted for
15.7% of all graduates from upper secondary schools, which was a little more than
that of entrants to junior colleges.

Special education
Children with disabilities, who have trouble in fully developing their abilities from the
teaching provided in ordinary classes alone, are provided with special educational
opportunities in accordance with the kind and degree of their disorder, either at
special schools for the disabled (schools for the blind, schools for the deaf and schools
for the otherwise disabled) or at special classes or in supplementary courses in
ordinary elementary or lower secondary schools. Special educational treatment for the
disabled includes special educational curricula, small classes, specially prepared
textbooks, teachers with specialized knowledge/experience, and facilities/equipment
that give consideration to disabilities. There are three types of special schools: schools
for the intellectually disabled, schools for the physically disabled, and schools for
children with health impairments.
Special schools aim to provide children having comparatively heavy handicaps

with education equivalent to that available in ordinary kindergartens, elementary or
secondary schools, and, at the same time, to provide necessary knowledge and skills
so as to make up for the students deficiencies. These schools usually have both an
elementary department and a lower secondary department. Some of them also have a
kindergarten department and/or an upper secondary department.
Special classes in ordinary elementary and lower secondary schools cater to

disabled children whose disabilities are not so serious. These special classes are
classified into seven kinds according to the disabilities of children enrolled: the
intellectually disabled, the physically disabled, the health impaired/physically weak,
the sight impaired, the hearing impaired, the speech impaired, and the emotionally
disturbed.
Supplementary courses are for children with relatively less serious disabilities
in regular elementary and secondary school classes, in which they can take standard
subjects in regular classes and receive special instruction in special classes according
to their disabilities. They are provided to children with six types of disabilities: the
speech impaired, the emotionally disturbed, the sight impaired, the hearing impaired,
the physically disabled, and the health impaired/physically weak.
Education at schools for the blind, the deaf, the physically disabled and the
health impaired is composed of: regular subjects in compliance with the curricula at
kindergartens, elementary schools, lower secondary schools and upper secondary
schools, moral education, special activities, the Period of Integrated Study (divided
into each field in the case of the kindergarten department); and “activities for
encouraging independence” with the aim of improving and overcoming various
problems caused by disabilities.
Education at schools for intellectually disabled students is composed of

regular subjects, moral education, special activities, activities for encouraging
independence and the Period of Integrated Study. In order to offer educational
programs according to the actual condition of students with intellectual development
of a special nature in terms of ability to memorize, think abstractly, presume and
judge as compared to normal students of the same ages, educational goals and

contents are suggested with respect to regular subjects in consideration of the disabled
students’ learning characteristics caused by their disabilities.
The standard length of daily educational hours in the kindergarten department

is 4 hours and the standard number of educational weeks in each academic year is 39
weeks. Each school may decide the actual length of daily educational hours and
number of educational weeks as appropriate. Total length of learning hours in each
academic year in the elementary and lower secondary departments shall be in
compliance with that of ordinary elementary schools and lower secondary schools
respectively. Each school may decide the actual length of learning hours for each
subject in the academic year as appropriate. In the case of the upper secondary
department in the schools for the blind, the deaf, the physically disabled and the
health impaired, each school may decide the number of credits and length of learning
hours of classes that should be taken before graduation and the number of credits that
should be completed before graduation, in compliance with the curricula of ordinary
upper secondary schools. In the case of the upper secondary department in the schools
for intellectually disabled students, each school may decide the length of learning
hours for each subject in the academic year under the provisions of the Courses of
Study, without adopting the credit system.
In May 2000, the number of special schools was 992, with 90,104 pupils
enrolled and 57,547 teachers. In May 2004, there were 999 special schools with
98,796 pupils enrolled. The total number of teachers was 62,256.
Private education
It is a general principle that private educational institutions are supported by their own
income including tuition fees. Part of their income, however, is derived from subsidies
by national and local governments.
In 2004, nearly 75% of university students, more than 90% of junior college
students, about 30% of upper secondary school students, and about 80% of
kindergarten pupils were enrolled in private institutions. Thus, quantitatively, these
institutions have a relatively large place in the national education system. They have
also been contributing much to the development of formal education, by means of
carrying out educational and research activities based on the distinctive aims or
principles set out by their founders. In this manner, private institutions significantly
contribute to both the qualitative and quantitative development of Japanese formal
education.
In view of the important role played by these private institutions, the national
government, under the Private School Promotion Subsidy Law, has been providing
subsidies to these institutions for their current and other expenditures, with a view to
helping maintain and improve the level of the educational and research activities of
these institutions, as well as helping alleviate the financial burden of students enrolled
therein. In its budget for FY 2003, the national government included 321.75 billion
yen of national subsidies to private universities, junior colleges and colleges of
technology for their current expenditures. It also included 100.15 billion yen in
subsidies to prefectural governments to cover part of their prefectural subsidies to

private elementary and secondary schools for their current expenditures. In addition,
grants amounting to 23.55 billion yen were also included to cover the necessary
expenditures for improving facilities and equipment of private universities, such as
educational and research equipment, while 2.006 billion yen was also included in the
budget as funds required for upgrading the functions of school buildings and facilities
of private upper secondary schools.
The Promotion and Mutual Aid Corporation for Private Schools of Japan
provides low interest long-term loans for private institutions for the improvement of
their facilities and equipment. The total sum of these loans planned for FY 2003 was
77 billion yen.
Means of instruction, equipment and infrastructure

In accordance with the provisions of the School Education Law, all elementary and
secondary schools in Japan are required to use textbooks in the classroom teaching of
each subject. As a principle, textbooks to be used in schools must be either those
authorized by the MEXT, or those compiled by the Ministry itself. As a matter of fact,
most of the textbooks currently used in schools are those published by commercial
publishers and authorized by the Ministry. Textbooks compiled by the Ministry itself
are limited to those for certain vocational subjects in upper secondary schools and
those for special schools for the disabled, both of which, due to a very limited market
existing, no commercial publisher would be willing to publish.
The authorization of textbooks means that, after examining draft textbooks

written and compiled by authors or publishers from the private sector, the Ministry
approves those deemed suitable as textbooks to be used in schools.
The usual procedures for such authorization are as follows. Either the author
or the publisher who wishes to publish a textbook applies to the Minister for the
authorization of the proposed textbook. The draft of the textbook is submitted to the
Minister for the examination by the Textbook Authorization Council, an advisory
body to the Minister, and also for examination by both senior specialists for textbook
examination (who are officers at the Ministry) and specialist members of the Council
(who are university teachers, school teachers or others) as required. The results of the
examination by the senior specialists and specialist members are reported to the
Council for its consideration. The Council makes its judgment as to whether each
proposed textbook is suitable for use in schools, after due consideration of these
reports as well as the results of the examination by the Council members themselves.
Based on the recommendation of the Council, the Minister approves or disapproves
each of the proposed textbooks.
When the Council finds it appropriate to re-examine a proposed textbook after

relevant revisions are made to the original draft, the Council will inform the author or
the publisher of the Council’s comments on the draft while putting off its decision on
acceptance of the textbook, examine the revised one submitted by the author or the
publisher and then make a decision on acceptance based on the re-examination.

The authority of adoption of textbooks for local public schools rests with the
local Board of Education of the municipality or prefecture setting up these schools.
On the other hand, such authority for national or private schools rests with the
principal of each school. For the purpose of adopting textbooks for municipal
elementary and lower secondary schools, a prefecture is usually divided into a number
of areas, most of which comprise two or more municipalities. The municipal boards of
education within a particular area jointly decide on the same textbook for each
subject. At present, there are 578 adoption areas in the forty-seven prefectures of
Japan (as of April 27, 2004).
Usually, the same textbooks are to be adopted for elementary and lower
secondary schools for four years in a row.
During the FY 2004, 2,029 authorized textbooks (1,542 in 2001), as well as

301 textbooks (256 in 2001) published by the Ministry, were used in elementary,
lower secondary, upper secondary schools, and special schools for the disabled.
With a view to realizing to a greater extent the spirit of the provisions in the
Constitution that “compulsory education shall be free”, since 1963 the national
government has been supplying textbooks free of charge to all children enrolled in
compulsory schools (national, local, public and private). All costs for the free
distribution are met by the national government. MEXT’s budget for the free
distribution of textbooks amounted to approximately 40.3 billion yen in the FY 2004
(44.1 billion in FY 2001). In FY 2001, the average textbook expense per pupil was
about 3,173 yen in elementary schools, about 4,595 yen in lower secondary schools,
some 5,706 yen for general courses and 7,005 yen for specialized courses in upper
secondary schools. Upper secondary school students enrolled in full-time courses buy
their own textbooks, while the national government bears part of the textbook
purchase costs for students enrolled in part-time or correspondence courses, as well as
for students enrolled in upper secondary departments of special schools for the
disabled.
Educational facilities include local facilities such as elementary and lower

secondary schools, libraries, sports and culture facilities, which serve as community
bases, as well as facilities such as universities, which foster skilled human resources
and perform advanced scientific researches. These facilities play a significant role in
expanding the foundation of educational measures.
With the aim of maintaining educational facilities to correspond appropriately

to changes in society, MEXT carries out the measures according to the following
viewpoints:
• Maintaining a comprehensive educational environment corresponding to the

diversified needs of lifelong education for the people
• Promoting the establishment of environmentally friendly facilities (Eco-
schools) and energy conservation measures in order to reduce the
environmental load
• Promoting the establishment of facilities that take into consideration the
cooperation of the local communities

• Promoting the establishment of school facilities in which children can spend

their daily lives at ease and which can correspond to the diversification and
flexibility of the contents and methods of education
• Taking measures against earthquake and other disasters at school facilities in
order to protect pupils and students from such disasters
• Promoting the establishment of school facilities as safe, secure, and enriched
educational environments
• Establishing facilities as bases for original and advanced scientific research
and activities to foster creative human resources
At present, the total area of buildings for formal and non-formal educational
institutions amounts approximately to over 350 million square meters (in terms of
aggregate total floor space). A substantial number of these buildings are rather
obsolete.
Both audio-visual centers and audio-visual libraries make audio-visual

teaching materials available to schools, social education facilities and communities,
and also provide them with advisory and other services concerning the use of audio-
visual aids in education. Of these facilities, larger ones with extensive functions are
designated as audio-visual centers. In April 2003, there were 53 (44 in 2000) audio-
visual centers and 777 (826 in 2000) audio-visual libraries throughout the country.
There are a great number of playgrounds, gymnasiums, swimming pools and

other public facilities for physical education and sports used by the community as a
whole. In addition, many physical education facilities attached to schools and colleges
are made available to the general public for their use during the hours when they are
not being used for school activities. In 1990, there were about 300,000 facilities for
physical education and sports throughout the country. Of this total, about half of them
were facilities attached to schools and colleges, about 20% were independent public
facilities and approximately 25% were private facilities including those set up by
industrial firms for their employees.
There is a growing need for the development and expansion of educational

facilities relevant to the spread of information media. The courses of study for
elementary and secondary schools, issued in March 1989, specify that computers and
other information media should be utilized in teaching and learning in different
subjects in all school levels. In order to facilitate the creation of computer rooms in
elementary, lower secondary and upper secondary schools, the Ministry has published
a “reference material for designing school spaces for computer learning” and a
“guidebook on furniture for computer learning.” The Ministry has been providing
guidance and advice to prefectural boards of education and other bodies about the
development of appropriate conditions favourable to computer learning. In addition, it
subsidizes part of the costs for the provision of computer rooms in public schools, and
also gives subsidies to private schools for the alteration of ordinary classrooms into
computer rooms.
The e-Japan strategy (January 2001) announces Japan's goal to become the
most advanced IT nation in the world within five years. The e-Japan Selective Plan
was laid down in March 2001 based on the Advanced Information
Telecommunication Network Social Integration Basic Law (IT Basic Law) to promote

information telecommunication in the country. It promotes the computerization of

society in such fields as education, technology, science, sports and culture.
The e-Japan Strategy II was formulated in July 2003. Since initiating the “e-
Japan Priority Policy Program 2004” in June 2004 in accordance with the Basic Law
for Formation of Advanced Information Communication Network Society (IT Basic
Law), the Government has been working toward promoting information technology
and also making positive efforts to promote the computerization of society in such
fields as education, science and technology, sports, and culture. In elementary and
secondary school education, it has become a nationwide commitment to prepare
students with the necessary qualifications for an advanced information
telecommunication (IT) network-based society. Students will be taught how to operate
computers, how to select the necessary information subjectively from a considerable
amount of information and transmit such selected information as their own ("ability to
exploit information"). The revision of the course of study also contributes to the
promotion of IT education.
Furthermore, based on “e-Japan Strategies”, the Government has been

improving the learning environment to make computers available to students and
teachers in all classes. The learning environment will be developed so that all the
teachers and students will be able to use a computer. The Government is also
enhancing the functioning of the National Information Center for Educational
Resources (NICER: http://www.nicer.go.jp), the cores website on educational
information in Japan, which has been established to systematically organize and
provide information concerning education and learning available on the Internet.
In high school education, for further utilization of IT, the Standards for the
Establishment of Universities were partially revised in March 2001. Classes using the
Internet will be qualified as formal classes, national universities will be connected by
satellite communications, and the exchange of studies on education will be promoted
through joint classes and workshops between universities that are located far away
from one another.
Adult and non-formal education

In Japan the term social education is used as a general term for organized educational
activities (including those for physical education and recreation) mainly for adults and
young people, other than those provided in the curriculum of formal education. Social
education activities are carried out in diverse ways on the basis of people’s voluntary
and spontaneous desire for learning. Major public facilities for social education
include citizens’ public halls, public libraries, museums, youth houses, children’s
centers and women’s education centers.
Citizens’ public halls are key facilities for social education in the community.
They undertake a variety of educational and cultural programmes adapted to the
practical lives of community members. At present, citizens’ public halls exist in more
than 90% of all municipalities throughout the country. They are carrying out a variety
of activities, which include organizing different kinds of courses, classes, lectures and
exhibitions, lending books, and holding meetings for physical training and recreation.

They also open their facilities to the public for their voluntary learning activities. In
October 2002, there were 17,947 citizens’ public halls in Japan (18,257 in 1999). Of
these, 17,936 (18,251 in 1999) were run by local governments and the remaining 11
(six in 1999) by private organizations.
Youth houses are public facilities designed to help develop young people with
sound bodies and minds by providing them with opportunities to participate in
overnight group training and offering the facilities for use in such training. They are
located in a natural environment and equipped with diverse facilities for training,
physical training and outdoor activities. By participating in training and other
activities at these houses, young people are given an opportunity to develop a spirit of
self-discipline, co-operation, friendship and social service. They are also encouraged
to act more in a spirit of solidarity, enhance their general cultural awareness and
physical fitness. Some of these youth houses are operated by the national government
and others by local governments. Some of the latter are non-residential facilities
located in urban areas for day use. In October 2002, there were 406 youth houses (418
in 1998); thirteen were operated by the national government and 393 by local
governments. In April 2001, national youth houses were integrated into a corporation
and changed from a national organization to an independent administrative institution.
Children’s centers are public facilities intended to provide compulsory

schoolchildren with an opportunity to become familiar with nature, as well as
developing in them a well-balanced personality. Through training and other activities
in a natural environment, sometimes overnight, they enable children to make direct
contact with nature and to develop a positive attitude toward nature. They also enable
children to develop a sense of self-discipline, co-operation, friendship and social
service, to train mind and body and to engage in practical and creative activities in the
natural environment. There are both national and local children’s centers. In October
2002, there were 339 facilities (fourteen national centers and 325 local centers). In
April 2001, children’s centers were integrated into a corporation and changed from a
national organization to an independent administrative institution.
Women’s education centers are social education facilities intended to enhance

women’s education. They undertake their own programmes for the education and
training of women and those engaged in women’s education, for the exchange of
experience and information among these people and for the provision of useful
information for them, and for various surveys and research. These centers also make
their facilities and equipment available to voluntary groups and organizations of
women for educational purposes. Through these activities, women’s education centers
aim to contribute to the improvement of the qualities and capabilities of women, as
well as their knowledge and skills. As of March 2002, there were 197 centers of this
kind throughout the country (207 in 1999). One of them was operated by the national
government, 94 by local governments, and 102 by non-governmental bodies. The
National Women's Education Center became an independent administrative institution
in April 2001.
Public libraries are social educational facilities which collect, arrange and
keep books and written records to make them available for public use and thus to
respond to public needs and demands for educational, cultural, research and
recreational activities. In October 2002, there were 2,742 public libraries throughout

the country. (Of these, 2,714 were run by local governments and the remaining 28 by
private bodies.)
Museums are social educational facilities, intended to be utilized by the public

in their educational, cultural, research and recreational activities, by means of
collecting, keeping and displaying materials on history, the arts, folklore, industry, the
natural sciences, etc. There are several categories of museums: general museums,
history museums, art museums, science museums, zoological gardens, botanical
gardens, etc. In October 2002, there were 1,120 museums in Japan. (Of these, 31 were
operated by the national government or independent administrative institutions, 608
by local governments and 481 by private bodies.)
The National Olympics Memorial Youth Center is a social educational

institution aiming at promoting youth education and fostering sound youths by way of
providing training for youths and people involved in youth education including youth
educational leaders, promoting liaison and cooperation among youth educational
facilities and organizations, and granting subsidies to youth educational organizations.
The Center plays a role as the only national center in Japan with regards to youth
education.
Teaching staff
T
Elementary and secondary school teachers in Japan are trained mainly at universities
or junior colleges approved by MEXT. Most elementary school teachers are trained at
four-year elementary school teacher training courses at national universities. Lower
secondary school teachers are trained mainly at national, local public or private
universities, while upper secondary school teachers are trained at universities
(undergraduate courses) and national, local public and private graduate schools. In
2001, teachers who were university graduates accounted for 84.5% of elementary
school teachers, 92.4% of lower secondary teachers, and 97.8% of upper secondary
teachers, and 98.3% of the unified secondary school teachers. Teachers who are
university graduates account for 84.5% of the elementary school teachers, 92.4% of
the lower secondary school teachers, 97.8% of the upper secondary school teachers,
and 98.3% of the unified secondary school teachers. Practically all teachers at
institutions of higher education including colleges of technology are university
graduates.
The majority of teachers at elementary, lower secondary, upper secondary and

special schools for the disabled are working at local public schools, while the majority
of teachers at kindergartens, junior colleges, special training schools and
miscellaneous schools are employed at private institutions. The number of female
teachers accounts for 93.9% of all kindergarten teachers and 62.7% of all elementary
school teachers. At the lower and upper secondary levels, the proportion of female
teachers is relatively low: 40.9% at the lower secondary level and 27.1% at the upper
secondary level. At the higher education level, the proportion of women teachers is
relatively higher for junior colleges (46.1%), while it is very low for universities and
for colleges of technology.

In order to become a teacher of an elementary or secondary school, one is

required to obtain a teaching certificate awarded by the prefectural Board of
Education under certain conditions. For each level or type of school, teaching
certificates are classified into three major categories: regular, special and temporary.
The regular certificate is subdivided into three classes: advanced, first and
second. In addition, for the lower and upper secondary school levels, each type of
certificate is further divided into several categories, according to the types of subjects.
A regular teaching certificate that is granted by a prefectural Board of Education is
valid in all prefectures for life.
Special certificates are intended to attract working people to the teaching

profession. Therefore, they are granted to those who are working in sectors other than
the teaching profession, and who have specialized knowledge and techniques.
Temporary certificates are granted to those who are not qualified for a regular
certificate. They are issued when an adequate number of teachers holding a regular
certificate are not available for the teaching profession.
In order to effectively utilize working people with excellent knowledge and

skills in the field of school education in response to the diversification of elementary
and secondary education, a program has been established for appointing people who
lack teaching certification as part-time teachers (special part-time teacher system).
This program originally needed permission from the prefectural Board of Education
but the procedures were simplified in 1998 and now it only needs registration.
There is no certification system for teachers at higher education institutions.

Qualifications for teaching staff at universities (including graduate schools), junior
colleges and colleges of technology are specified in the ordinances of the Ministry of
Education entitled Standards for the establishment of universities, Standards for the
establishment of graduate schools, Standards for the establishment of junior colleges,
and Standards for the establishment of colleges of technology.
Elementary and secondary school teachers are recruited by competent

authorities from among those who hold relevant teacher certificates. The prefectural
Board of Education is responsible for the appointment of teachers of prefectural
schools (most of which are upper secondary schools), as well as of municipal
elementary/lower secondary schools and part-time courses of upper secondary
schools, with a view to facilitating the exchange of teachers among different
municipalities. The responsibility for the appointment of teachers of the other
municipal schools (including kindergartens and full-time upper secondary schools)
rests primarily with the municipal Board of Education.
Teachers at private kindergartens and at elementary and secondary schools are

appointed by the authority of the corporation establishing the respective school, while
teachers at elementary and secondary schools attached to a national university are
appointed by the Minister of Education on the basis of the nomination by the
president of the university.

The procedure for the appointment of municipal compulsory schoolteachers,

as well as of prefectural upper secondary school teachers, is as follows:
• usually, the prefectural Board of Education conducts a teacher appointment

examination for certified teacher candidates every year, which comprises
written tests in general education subjects, professional subjects and teaching
subjects, interviews, essay tests, and practical tests in physical education, fine
arts, foreign language, etc.;
• the prefectural Board of Education appoints a new teacher after

comprehensively considering both his/her results in the appointment
examination, and his/her academic performance at the university and various
social experiences;
• teachers at higher education institutions are recruited by the appointing

authority from among those who satisfy the certain requirements specified in
the aforementioned ordinances of the Ministry for the respective types of
schools. The educational abilities and the academic achievements of applicants
are duly taken into account.
Regarding the in-service training of elementary and secondary school teachers,

a statutory system of one-year induction training for newly appointed teachers was
created in May 1988. The one-year compulsory training for all beginning teachers at
all public elementary, lower and upper secondary schools, and special schools is
conducted at the prefectural and municipal levels. In FY 2003, a system was
established to provide training to teachers who have reached their 10th year in the
teaching profession in order to improve their skills in teaching the content of
textbooks and in providing student guidance, according to their individual abilities
and aptitude. Teachers are also provided with other training according to their
teaching experience, as well as social experience training at private companies.
Furthermore, a variety of training programs for developing leaders in school
education and for addressing urgent challenges are provided at the Independent
Administrative Institution National Center for Teachers’ Development, which was
established in April 2001.
The majority of kindergarten and elementary school teachers are assigned to a

single class, and are responsible for teaching all or most subjects to the class. In
elementary schools there are a small number of teachers specializing in each of
practical subjects such as music, arts and handicrafts, physical education and home
economics, because the teaching of these subjects requires special competences.
Instruction in lower secondary schools is departmentalized to a large extent,

and the majority of teachers are specialists responsible for teaching one or two subject
areas to several classes of children. Instruction in upper secondary schools is more
departmentalized than in lower secondary schools. The greater majority of teachers
teach only one subject area or even only one subject.
The maximum number of pupils per class for elementary and secondary
schools is defined by law. The standard class size is defined as 40 pupils. In May
2003, the national average number of pupils per class was 26.5 (28.4 in 1995) for

elementary schools, and 31.3 (33.3 in 1995) for lower secondary schools. The average
number of pupils/students per teacher (teachers here include the school principal, the
vice-principal, teaching staff, nurse teachers, and lecturers) was 17.5 for elementary
schools, 14.9 for lower secondary schools, and 14.7 for upper secondary schools. It is
required by law that the number of teachers to be assigned to each school be more
than the number of classes.
The majority of teachers at elementary, lower secondary, upper secondary and

special schools work at local public schools, while the majority of teachers at
kindergartens, junior colleges, special training schools and miscellaneous schools are
employed by private institutions.
Concerning teacher workload, in 2001 the average number of school hours per
week for public teachers was 17.8 hours at the elementary level, 13.6 hours at the
lower secondary level, and 13.5 hours at the upper secondary level.
The salary scales and the kinds and amounts of allowances for teachers at
national educational institutions, who used to be national government employees, had
been laid down by laws. However, they are now specified by individual national
university corporations since these teachers became employees of national university
corporations instead of national government employees when national universities
became incorporated in FY 2004. Those for teachers at prefectural or municipal
educational institutions, who are local government employees, are determined by
ordinances of each prefecture or municipality. The salary scales and the kinds and
amounts of allowances used to be provided for in prefectural and municipal by-laws
based on those for national schoolteachers, so they were more or less at the same level
nationwide. Nevertheless, the system was revised in FY 2004 from one based on the
standards of national schools to one in which the prefectures became capable of
independently deciding the salary scales and the kinds and amounts of allowances
according to the local circumstances based on the duties and the special expertise of
the teachers.
The salaries for local public compulsory schoolteachers are basically paid by
the prefectural governments due to their stable financial conditions, but one-half of
the amounts are borne by the national government in order to maintain the national
level of compulsory education and to secure equal opportunities for education
nationwide.
Salaries of private school teachers are determined individually by school

juridical persons that have established the respective private schools.
There are four salary scales for teachers: the first for teachers at kindergartens,
elementary schools and lower secondary schools; the second for those at upper
secondary schools; the third for those at colleges of technology; and the fourth for
those at universities and junior colleges.
The specific grade or step in the salary scale for a particular teacher is
determined mainly on the basis of two factors: his/her educational attainment and the
length of his/her service. Salary scales are usually revised once every year, mainly to
reduce the difference with the private sector in the level of the salary of employees. In

general, teachers are given annual or biennial increments. In addition, those teachers
who have shown an outstanding service may be given special promotion to a higher
step.
With regard to the salaries of teachers at compulsory educational institutions,

the “Law concerning Special Measures for Securing Competent Educational
Personnel in Compulsory Education Schools with the Aim of Maintaining and
Improving the Level of School Education” provides that necessary preferential
measures must be taken for the salaries of teachers compared to the pay standard of
general government officials. This Law was aimed at attracting excellent people to the
teaching profession, thereby further improving the level of compulsory education.
This system is expected to become increasingly important for securing competent
teachers as the issues facing schools become increasingly diversified and complicated.
In addition to the salary, public school teachers in Japan are paid a variety of
allowances (including family allowance, cost-of-living adjustment allowance, housing
allowance, travel allowance, and the “bonus”). The most important of these
allowances is the “bonus,” which is paid to all teachers three times a year, and
amounts to 5.2 times the monthly salary.
All teachers are provided with welfare benefits, including the retirement
annuity, under “mutual aid” schemes in which all teachers are required to participate.
Under these schemes, a teacher makes a certain contribution to the mutual aid
association in which he/she participates. In return for his/her contribution, the teacher
is given two categories of benefits: short-term and long-term. The former category
includes medical care expense, childbirth expense, illness allowance, disaster
allowance, etc.; the latter includes the retirement annuity, disability annuity,
survivors’ annuity, etc.

Minimum requirements for teacher's certificates

Under the teacher certification system, MEXT is proceeding to improve

teacher training courses at university through course authorization and other means,
and also supporting prefectural training programs for new and experienced teachers,
in addition to conducting other necessary training itself. MEXT also actively
promotes training programs for teachers in local governments and the private sector,
and the use of part-time instructors from the community. A day leave system for
voluntary training in graduate schools was also set up in FY2000.
Educational research and information

The National Institute for Educational Policy Research (NIER) started out as the
National Institute for Educational Research, founded in 1949. The name was changed
as part of the reorganization of central government ministries that took place in
January 2001. The functions and responsibilities of the Institute were also modified
and expanded substantially. NIER research organization structure was overhauled and
reconfigured to enable it to provide improved assistance with the planning,
formulation, and implementation of educational policy. The NIER also pursues a wide
range of activities such as providing academic sectors with information about
educational studies, conducting research studies in conjunction with schools, pursuing
practical research into social education, and conducting joint international initiatives
(including research studies) in the education field.
NIER serves as the Secretariat for the National Federation of Educational

Research Institutes, and consists of prefectural, municipal, and private sector
education research institutes throughout Japan. As such, the Institute works together
with individual education research institutes from the Federation collaborative
initiatives such as joint research studies and seminars, research conferences, and
symposiums designed to promote the dissemination of research outcomes and
enhance the standard of education in schools.

In April 2001, the Social Education Practice Research Center was set up,
while the information dissemination and distribution capacity of the Educational
Resources Research Center was upgraded.
Two additional new agencies—the Curriculum Research Center and the

Guidance and Counseling Research Center—have been set up to enable the NIER to
pursue specialized surveys and research works together with governmental bodies,
provide enhanced advice, and support services.
In the Ministry of Education, there is one division for educational research and
statistics that carries out policy-oriented research. In all prefectural and major
municipal boards of education there is an institution called either “education center,”
“education research institute,” or “in-service education center.” This institution aims
at providing in-service training programmes for teachers in the area. At the same time,
it conducts various action-oriented research activities.
The Ministry of Education and the local boards of education encourage

school-based research by classroom teachers for the improvement of teaching
methods and materials. Universities faculties in education are also a strong wing for
educational research. Several of them have their own educational institutes or
centers.” (Kanaya, 1995, p. 488).
References
Kanaya, T. Japan. In: T.N. Postlethwaite, ed. International encyclopaedia of national
systems of education, p. 482-89. Second edition, Oxford/New York/Tokyo, Elsevier
Science, 1995.
Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture. Development of education in

Japan 1992-1994. International Conference on Education, 44th session, Geneva,
1994.
Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture. Development of education in

Japan 1994-1996. International Conference on Education, 45th session, Geneva,
1996.
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. Development of

education in Japan 1997-2001. International Conference on Education, 46th session,
Geneva, 2001.
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. The Development of

education in Japan 2002-2004. International Conference on Education, 47th session,
Geneva, 2004.
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. FY2004 White

Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. MEXT, Tokyo, 2005.
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. Japan’s Education

at a Glance 2005. MEXT, Tokyo, 2005.

Web resources
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology:
http://www.mext.go.jp/english/ [In Japanese and English. Last checked: October
2007.]
National Information Center for Educational Resources:

http://www.nicer.go.jp/index_en.html [In Japanese and English. Last checked:
October 2007.]
National Institute for Educational Policy Research of Japan:

http://www.nier.go.jp/homepage/kyoutsuu/English/index.html [In Japanese and
English. Last checked: October 2007.]
National Institute of Special Education: http://www.nise.go.jp/ [In Japanese. Last

checked: October 2007.]
For updated links, consult the Web page of the International Bureau of Education of
UNESCO: http://www.ibe.unesco.org/links.htm

Japan: Rinciples and General Objectives of Education

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World Data on Education.

6th edition, 2006/07

Principles and general objectives of education

Current educational priorities and concerns

From 1984 to 1987, a National Council of Educational Reform engaged in

The emphasis on individuality, defined by the Council as the most important

Compiled by UNESCO-IBE (http://www.ibe.unesco.org/)

system, including content and methods of teaching, educational structures and

The transition to a lifelong learning society is intended to correct a mode of

The National Council of Educational Reform formulated many proposals that

Compiled by UNESCO-IBE (http://www.ibe.unesco.org/)

Policies and measures in Elementary and Secondary Education include:

• The improvement of the content and methods of teaching and learning

Compiled by UNESCO-IBE (http://www.ibe.unesco.org/)

• The improvement of the textbook system, to ensure that suitable content of

Priorities in Higher Education include:

• Guarantee of the quality of universities. In FY 2004, all national, public and

Laws and other basic regulations concerning education

In accordance with the provisions of the School Education Law, elementary

In view of the important role played by private educational institutions, the

Compiled by UNESCO-IBE (http://www.ibe.unesco.org/)

activities of these institutions, as well as to helping alleviate the financial burden of

In 1974 a Law concerning Special Measures for Securing Competent

In June 1990, the Law concerning the Development of Relevant

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pressure-free hours. Following this recommendation, the comprehensive five-day

Education is compulsory for pupils from 6 to 15 years of age. Public education

Administration and management of the education system

As far as educational fields are concerned, the national government makes

In Japan there are forty-seven prefectures (To-Do-Fu-Ken), further divided

The Prefectural Board of Education is composed of five members appointed

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The Prefectural Board of Education appoints a Prefectural Superintendent of

The major functions of the Prefectural Board of Education are as follows:

• administer and manage prefectural educational establishments (upper

• disseminate and promote cultural activities, and contribute to the protection of

• provide guidance, advice or financial assistance to the municipal education

• require mayors or municipal boards of education to submit pertinent reports,

• approve the establishment and abolition of municipal kindergartens, unified

• issue certificates for teachers.

The prefectural governor also has some powers and responsibilities on

• administer and manage prefectural universities and junior colleges;

• approve the establishment of private kindergartens, elementary schools, lower

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• In each municipality (Shi-Cho-Son) there is a Municipal Board of

The municipal board of education primarily consists of five members (a board

The municipal board appoints a Municipal Superintendent of Education,

• administer and manage municipal educational establishments (mainly,

• disseminate and promote cultural activities and contribute to the protection of

• provide advice and assistance to non-governmental bodies for their activities

• adopt textbooks to be used in municipal elementary and lower secondary

• administer and manage municipal universities and junior colleges;

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The National Institute for Educational Research plays an important role in

In the field of vocational and technical training, institutions under the

Compiled by UNESCO-IBE (http://www.ibe.unesco.org/)

Structure and organization of the education system

Kindergartens cater to children between the ages of 3 and 6. Pre-school education is