Merit Research Journal of Education and Review Vol. 1(6) pp.

126-132, July, 2013

Available online http://www.meritresearchjournals.org/er/index.htm
Copyright © 2013 Merit Research Journals

Review

What is Culture?
Antonio Lebrón, MBA, DBA
Ana G. Méndez University System
System, San Juan, Puerto Rico
E--mail: [email protected]
Accepted July 27, 2013

The definition of culture is an important term to define in sociology, psychology, political sciences,
anthropology, international business and cross cultural studies. It is quite difficult to find a terminology.
The paper covers the definition
efinition of Culture, Cultural Challenges and Globalization and Culture.
C In 1952,
the American anthropologists, Kroeber and Kluckhohn, critically reviewed concepts and definitions of
culture, and compiled a list of 164 different definitions. Apte (1994:2001), written ten in the ten-volume
Linguistics, summarizes the problem as follows: ‘Despite a century of
Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics
efforts to define culture adequately, there was in the early 1990s no agreement among anthropologists
regarding its nature.’ The use
se of this paper is to facilitate future researchers the finding of the definition
of culture.

Keywords: Cross Cultural Studies,, National Culture, Globalization, Cultural Challenges

INTRODUCTION

Culture behaviors that we share with others in a particular

society, giving us a sense of belongingness and identity.
Culture is important for all the things we do in this world. Because of this, cultural understanding
derstanding is becoming even
The beliefs that create religion, wars, the way of life and more important because of the call to interact with many
many challenges. The first thing we have to define is individuals from other countries and other cultures (Lee,
culture and why is it important in the work life. Culture is 2006). Bodley (1999) further adds three basics
a notoriously difficult term to define. components of culture, namely: what people think, what
Culture consists in patterned ways of thinking, feeling, they do, and nd the material products they produce. All
and reacting, acquired and transmitted mainly by forms of culture exhibit unique ways and value systems
symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of that aid and affect individuals in their perception and
human groups, including their embodiments in artifacts: reaction to different life circumstances.
the essential core of culture consists traditional (i.e. Culture at its most basic level can be defined as
historically derived and selected) ideas and specially their shared symbols,bols, norms, and values in a social
attached values (Kluckkohn, 1951). organization (Walsham, 2002). In addition, Hall and Hall
Scheinin (1990) defines culture in managerial terms as (1990) define culture as a system for creating storing,
“how people feel about the organization, the authority and process information. National culture refers to deeply
system and the e degree of employee involvement and set of values that are shared by members of a nation na
commitment”; he continues, adding that culture can be (Gurung and Prater, 2006).
viewed as a widely held, shared set of values, beliefs and What forms cultures take depends on what individuals
ideas. humans can think, imagine, and learn, as well as on what
Culture refers to society and its way of life. It is defined collective behaviors shape and sustain viable patterns of
as a set of values and beliefs, or a cluster of learned life in ecosystems. Cultures must be thinkable and learn-
 Lebrón 127

able as well as livable (Keesing, 1974). multiple countries, and who come from different
Culture is complex and operates at many levels. While companies (Barczak, McDonough, and Athanassiou,
country or ethnic origin is often used as a proxy for an 2006). In the business literature more generally, cross-
individual team member’s culturally oriented values, the national variations in institutions and their interactions
two levels may actually capture different aspects of with firm strategy and the extra-institutional environment
diversity. Surface-level indicators may be associated have been a core component of the research agenda
most with similarity-attraction and social identity effects, (Lewin and Kim, 2004; Volverda and Lewin, 2003).
and deep-level indicators with information-processing and
value incongruence effects.
There are many other documented definitions of Challenge 1: Different native languages
culture. Hofstede (1991), Trompenaars (1993), and
Czinkota and Ron Kanen (1993) all agreed that culture is When team members are native speakers of different
based on languages, economy, religion, policies, social languages, communicating and understanding in the
institutions, class, values, status, attitudes, manners, shared team language is a challenge. It is essential that
customs, material items, and education which any leader take steps to enable effective communication
subsequently influences managerial values (Kanungo, among, members and ensure that language does not
2006). Culture is an essential element in understanding hinder the team or the project (Barczak, McDonough, and
how social systems change, because culture influences Athanassiou, 2006). Sharing important information also
both the norms and values of such systems and the helps to keep members informed of project progress and
behavior of groups in their interactions within and across problems and is critical for maintaining commitment and
systems. He states that the term “culture” is reserved as motivation. According with Hall (1981) and Faramarz
a whole, for nations, whereas the term “subculture” is (1998), high context cultures are characterized by close
used for the level of organization, profession, or family. contact and strong ties between people and
Culture is the unique characteristic of a social group; organizations, such as those of Latin America or the
the values and norms shared by its members set it apart Middle East, differ from low context cultures like United
from other social groups and is influenced by conscious States and Australia in the importance given to long
beliefs. standing relationships and content-based nuance in
One culture is not right and the other wrong. They are communications. Members of high-context cultures give
just different, and those key differences are culturally much of their communication’s meaning to the situation
rooted. When behavioral scientists discuss self-concept, the context within which it is being made. To give
they also consider the ethical implications of self esteem meaning to a message, the recipient must understand the
(Lu, 2006). Licht et al. (2005: 234) further state that: context within the words is use. Conversely, within a low-
context, the meaning is in the words what you hear is
A common postulate in cross-cultural psychology is that what is meant (Barczak, McDonough, and Athanassiou,
all societies confront similar basic issues or problems 2006).
when they come to regulate human activity. The key
dimensions of culture are derived from these issues,
because the preferred ways of dealing with them are Challenge 2: Diversity
expressed in different societal value emphases. It is thus
possible to characterize the culture of different societies Diversity, including cultural diversity, influences teams in
by measuring prevailing vale emphases on these key there potentially opposing ways. First, according to
dimensions. The yields unique cultural profiles. similarity-attraction theory, people are attracted to
working with and cooperating with those they find similar
As a definition culture can be treated as the collective in term of values, beliefs, and attitudes (Williams and O’
programming of the mind that distinguishes the members Reilly, 1998). Second, according to social identity and
of one group pr category of people from other (Hofstede, social categorization theory (Tajfel, 1982), people tend to
1984). categorize themselves into specific groups, and
categorize others as outsiders or part of other groups.
Third, according to information-processing theory,
Cultural Challenges diversity brings different contributions to teams.
Sometimes people have felt confused about how to
Dissimilar languages, cultures and time zones provide deal with diversity in any organization; that is
added complexity to the already difficult task of managing understandable, since there are at least three possible
people with different functional and backgrounds. Any meanings of the term, and they each call different
team can face challenges such: team members who treatments. The three types of diversity have to with
speak different native languages, who come from culture, identity, and personality. Global business
different cultural backgrounds, who live and work in is already shaping common values and attitudes for its
128 Merit Res. J. Edu. Rev.

participants. But cultural differences can still add a lot of employees regardless of the kind of culture they belong.
noise to communication signals (Maccoby, 2006). Third, the most progressive and internationally oriented
So how you deal with diversity? You should be aware MNEs would have already developed systems to avoid
of cultural differences, bring them out in the open and get such conflicts from happening in the first place.
agreement on behavioral and decision making processes Conflict is the expression of differences in opinion or
(Maccoby, 2006). Cultures provide a source of identity for priority because of opposing needs and demands
their members. In international business we most often (Tjosvold, 1986). Because of cultural differences are
talk about country-based cultures, but cultures also deep and often held subconsciously, the sources of
develop around professions, organizations, religions, and conflict in multicultural teams may be difficult to identify,
so on. One step in understanding individuals is to ask and even more difficult to resolve. Teams composed of
them what kinds of work they must like to do, how they individuals from different countries, differences in values,
would like to be managed and what they must like to norms of behavior, and communication styles are a
learn (Maccoby, 2006). It seems obvious, but many frequent source of irritation, misunderstandings, and
managers think they don’t need to ask. They think they conflict (e.g. Brett et al., 2006; Distefano andMaznevski,
already know what motivates people. Cultural diversity 2000). This seems that the effects of cross-national
tends to increase divergent processes. Divergent diversity on team outcomes are stronger than for national
processes are those that bring different values and ideas diversity.
into the team and juxtapose them with each other Knowledge of the generally acceptable behavior of
(Canney Davison and Ekelund, 2004). Examples include members of a culture is only a departure point for a
brainstorming and creativity. Divergent processes can global leader. She/he still has to get to know the
also decrease the group’s performance, if the differences individual.
are seen as detracting from the team’s purpose or
progress. On the other hand, cultural diversity tends to
decrease convergent processes. Convergent processes Challenge 3: Ethics
are those that align the team around common objectives,
commitment, or conclusions. Some convergent Member in order to understand how their behavior way
processes contribute positively to group outcome. These be informed by national cultural pressures even though
positive processes include communications, or the their actual behavior may ultimately be different (Barczak,
sharing of common meaning, and social integration, or McDonough and Athanassiou, 2006).
the development of group cohesion, commitment and Systematically understanding how culture influences
identity. ethical decision making will help all professionals have a
The creative benefits of heterogeneous team better defense against potentially unethical behavior
composition come from the new ideas, multiple (Su,2 006).
perspectives, and different problem solving styles that Gender differences in ethical perception and decision
members bring to the team (Adler, 2002). making are consistent with a masculine success
Managing diversity is a sensitive, potentially volatile, orientation (males are more concerned with materials and
and sometimes uncomfortable issue. In Europe, as well success) and a female relationship-orientation (females
as in the United States, creating a diverse workforce is are most interested in relationships and assisting people)
increasingly considered a necessity. Jilten Patel, race (Franke, Crown and Spake, 1997).
equality manager with HSBC, a major UK bank, declares The literature suggests that age is a factor in
“For us, the ideal is true diversity, which means that we determining ethical perception and decision-making Su
value every individual for who and what they are, and we (2006). And also, in an investigation of expatriate and
provide them with the opportunities to meet their full local managers in Hong Kong, Mcdonald and Kan (1997)
potential within the organization” (Kreitner, Kinicki, and found older employees are less likely to express
Buelens, 2002). Also, a Dutch study reveals that 37 out of agreement to an unethical action than younger
94 companies have no diversity policy at all. employees Su (2006).
The rationale for managing diversity goes well beyond One culture is not right and the other wrong. They are
Czaplewski (2002) enumerates three characteristics that just different, and these key differences are culturally
a multinational enterprises or MNE’s should have to rooted. When behavioral scientists discuss self-concept,
break the cycle of cross-cultural conflicts. First, when a they also consider the ethical implications of self-esteem
critical incident of cross cultural conflict arises, this should (Lu, 2006).
be directly addressed and brought to management’s
attention. Second, MNEs should have systems to catch
the issue and mark it for further attention. In other words, Challenge 4: Recruiting
Human Resource Managers should have ways to venture
further into the issue and discover its root causes Recruiting employees who understand cultural
and other details. Such systems should be open to all differences and their values guarantees success in the
 Lebrón 129

new global paradigm (Chadwin, Rogers, Pan, 1995). problems of communication and understanding (Laroche,
There is disagreement concerning Hofstede’s premise 1998). The very basic concepts that normally process of
that culture influence management approaches and negotiations as proven in the literature are collectivism-
performance within organizations (Venezia, 2005). Kim individualism, power distance, communication context,
(1999) agrees with Hofstede, while Common (1998) and the conception of time.
adopts the stance that globalization imposes The world population has diversified in three ways: in
convergence of social structures and ideology of affluent genes, in language, and in cultures. Cultural
societies despite culture or histories (Venezia, 2006). diversification operates the fastest, but it still take periods
Oyserman, Coon, and Kemmelmeir (2002) looked at of maybe 500 to 5000 years (Hofstede, 1984). With the
83 studies of Individualism and Collectivism and 170 advent of the Internet and the increasingly economical
studies on the psychological implications of individualism telecommunications and airfares, we find ourselves
and collectivism to determine whether European participants in what is becoming a truly global society
Americans were higher individualism than other societies (Hofstede, Pedersen, and Hofstede, G.J., 2002).
(Venezia, 2006). They divided the countries into eight Actually, many barriers are cultural for many companies
regional blocks where the Latin/South America Block was or organizations. Now more than ever it is necessary to
included along with Brazil, Mexico, and Puerto Rico. The be culturally sensitive in order to build and maintain
recruitment in Latin America is based on which mutually beneficial relationships in business, educational,
candidates are willing to cooperate with the management and social environments (Hofstede, Pedersen, and
in order to maintain good working conditions (Elvira and Hofstede, G. J., 2002).
Davila, 2005). Also is founded that the “glass ceiling” in Cultural integration is a top management
Latin America is based on social status which supports responsibility, but if top managers don’t know what
the power distance theory. culture is, the disasters are predictable if we fail to
Ethnic and racial groups comparisons within the provide the guidance in how to react cross-cultural
United States were based on 21 articles and research differences (Hoppe, 2004). Understanding the big
reports (Oyserman, et al., 2002). European Americans differences in mindsets between people from different
were compared with African Americans, Asian countries helps enormously in interpreting what’s going
Americans, and Latin Americans on individualism. The on and where we can and cannot hope for progress.
results displayed African Americans were higher in Hu (1996) finds that globalization brings a borderless
individuality than European Americans, Latin Hispanic world dominated by stateless corporations where many
Americans did not differ from European Americans with different cultures, values, and practices are accepted. He
the exception of Puerto Rico, that was higher individuality further adds that cultures differ between national
and Asian Americans were assessed lower (Venezia, communities, but it’s importance, particularly in
2006). international competition, is significant (Kanungo, 2006).
During the 1950’s and 1960’s it was believed that all
nations desired to emulate the more developed nations.
Culture, globalization and effective communication This notion gave birth to the one size fits all theory
(Venezia, 2006). This theory is called convergence theory
Culture and globalization are two forces to influence where; the main source of cultural clashes is the process
managerial decisions. National culture is the internal of modernization. Senghaas (2002) is surely right to note
mechanism that drives the behavior of a people. Nations that modernization is a confliction process. The change
might have overlapping dimensions but each nation with from a traditional society with an agricultural base to an
shades of differences makes unique. Communicating industrializing one is bound to cause tremendous
across the cultural dimensions demands an upheaval. Senghaas contends that modern societies are
understanding of those cultural values inherent to that characterized by a certain kind of chaos, restlessness,
people. Globalization, and external matrix from the and plurality. The main task of modernizing societies then
Western hemisphere, envelops ever nation regardless of becomes to figure out how to manage this chaos, or how
culture. The difficulty of globalization is its complexity and to civilize the conflict that is apparently always possible in
numerous definitions and theories (Venezia, 2006). the chaos of modern societies. The response to this
Due to differences in cultural perspectives and beliefs, potential conflict, Senghaas announces, is inevitable:
and the failure of many groups to meet halfway with their monopoly of force by the state, rule of law, differentiated
demands and conditions, there has been the need for roles for individuals, democratic participation, debates
constant negotiations to patch up differences and resolve about distributive justice, and the development of a
conflicts. Negotiation is said to be a mutual exchange of political culture of constructive conflict management
signals between parties of different cultures. Problems (Spinner-Haley, 2003). Globalization has blurred the line
arise when signals are misinterpreted and unintentionally between industrialized countries and developing nations
portrayed. Since different cultures have different forms of by integrating politics and culture into managem-
arbitrary signals, this is likely to occur; thus arising further ent improvement (Venezia, 2006). Dwivedi (2001), (2003)
130 Merit Res. J. Edu. Rev.

sees a relationship between nation’s culture, tradition, cultural issues arise in the management of the company’s
and style of government. Management according to human resources (Lee, 2006). According to Lionel
Hofstede (1999) is culturally constrained. Laroche (1998), the rapid globalization of the world’s
According to Kristof, A .L. Brown, K. G, Sims Jr., H. P., economy has brought forth several changes. Laroche
and Smith, K. A. (1995), global teams are defined as affirms that divergence in the attitudes, perspectives, and
temporary, culturally diverse, geographically dispersed, priorities of suppliers and customers with different cultural
communicating work groups. Coward (2003) describes backgrounds have led to many project failures among
important factors or drivers that influence managerial organizations.
decisions in the international arena. Factors that play an According to Laroche (1998), communication,
important role is global managerial decisions may management style, and problem solving techniques also
include: vary in different cultures. Their differences in body
1. Culture and Language. language and gestures, differences in the meanings of
2. Time differences. exactly the same words and differences in the
3. The presence of western business practices. assumptions of similar situations. Laroche suggests that
Cultural differences may be reflected in differences in in-depth understanding of the cultural backgrounds of the
communications, work ethics, and approaches to problem people one is dealing with can increase the probability of
solving among teams. Local culture may also impact the business success among investors and workers
way customer service is handle. Culture is not nation operating in foreign cultures. Cultural studies and
specific. One country may embody several different relevant training are very important in a multinational
cultures and several countries may share the same company’s operation.
culture. What is important is that culture is distinctive and According to Dean Foster (2004), the dawn of
can be observed in such things as rituals, customs, and globalization has challenged the relevance of culture in
symbols (Parker, 1994). To bridge cultural gaps, the heart of business in the heart of business in the
companies may offer cultural training, cultural awareness global village. Many people question that if we exist in a
initiatives and team building workshops as part of any global village, what use will our individual cultures be?
global team structure (Gurung and Prater, 2006). Cultural However, as many companies venture into the
differences are associated strongly with all three international arena, it was revealed that culture matters a
mechanisms through which diversity influences teams. lot. In just about every aspect of human activity, culture is
People from same culture know that they share basic practiced. And whenever on may go, whether in study,
values and beliefs, and therefore feel strong similarity- work, business or travel, going beyond one’s borders
attraction with each other. Finally culture is associated requires an in-depth understanding of the ways of life of
with such deep differences in perspectives and cognitive societies very different from those at home (Lee, 2006).
frameworks that people from different cultures bring very Doktor, Tung, and Von Glinow (1991) point out that as
different sources and means of information processing to multinational organizations become more global in their
a team (Hofstede, 2001). focus and direction, cultural diversity leads to difficulties.
Literature has consistently highlighted the problems Because management behaviors are based upon cultural
and conflict inherent where expatriates lack cross-cultural assumptions, behaviors that are appropriate in one
skills (Sargent and Matthews, 1998). Literature has culture may not be appropriate in another.
highlighted the need for acculturation and adaptation, the Organizations must be able to understand and take
need to make sense of, and understand other cultures advantage of a multicultural workforce; therefore, it is
(Osland and Bird, 2000; Osland, DeFranco and Osland, imperative that business leaders gain as much
1999) and the need to adapt managerial styles via information as possible with regard to the values,
intercultural adaptation. attitudes, and beliefs of subcultures represented in their
Barkema, H. G., Bell, J. H. J., and Pennings, J. M. companies. A company’s productivity and success in a
(1996), in their study of foreign ventures, found that highly competitive global economy require having
performance was negatively related with the cultural employees who are comfortable working in an
distance between host and home country. Therefore, environment comprised of different races, classes, and
Gurung and Prater (2006) propose that cultural backgrounds.
differences will affect any managerial process. They also Globalization is a contributing factor. However, the
believe that cultural differences due to issues such as cultural, political, psychological, and geographical hurdles
language barriers will negatively impact the quality of cross-cultural integration are enormous (Shelton, Hail,
business relationships. and Darling, 2003). Organizations are not longer
In the advent of globalization, many companies, be it constrained by national borders. Burger King is owned by
corporate, public or international operates on a global a British firm, and McDonald’s sells hamburgers in
scale. Mostly, international organizations operating Moscow. Exxon, receives almost 75 per cent of its
abroad are faced with employees of foreign cultures revenues from sales outside the United States. Toyota
with an entirely different perspective. Oftentimes, cross- makes cars in Kentucky; General Motors makes cars in
 Lebrón 131

Brazil; and Ford (which owns part of Mazda) transfers CONCLUSION

executives from Detroit to Japan to help Mazda manage
its operations (Shelton, Hail, and Darling, 2003). Literature has reported many definitions of culture. There
Although merger details may rather quickly be is no agreement between all the studies on which is the
committed to paper, integrating two independent right definition. It has been determine according with the
companies with divergent organizational cultures into one definitions a better understanding of culture can lead to
cohesive organization is a daunting and delicate process. better performance in many areas such managing
Many failures in many mergers, what went wrong? How relationships, management, operations, marketing and
can leaders of global teams acquire intercultural behavior many others. The success of any organization is based
skills? on the company’s ability to develop activities not only
First, personal experience as a global team member is according with the organizational culture also with the
very important. In addition, a leader whose national foreign cultures itself. Many companies and countries can
culture coincides with the national origin of the set themselves to succeed is they take advantage to
multinational firm within which the team functions must be understand the term culture.
particularly sensitive to differences among members who
may work in subsidiary organizations. Some leaders may
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