Communications

• Contents

– Introduction to Communication Systems

– Analogue Modulation
AM, DSBSC, VSB, SSB, FM, PM, Narrow band FM, PLL Demodulators, and FLL Loops
– Sampling Systems
Time and Frequency Division multiplexing systems, Nyquist Principle, PAM, PPM, and PWM.
– Principles of Noise
Random variables, White Noise, Shot, Thermal and Flicker Noise, Noise in cascade
amplifiers
– Pulse Code Modulation
PCM and its derivatives, Quantising Noise, and Examples
– Digital Communication Techniques
ASK, FSK, PSK, QPSK, QAM, and M-ary QAM.
– Case Studies
Spread Spectrum Systems, Mobile radio concepts, GSM and Multiple Access Schemes
Mobile radio
 Introduction to Modulation and
Demodulation

The purpose of a communication system is to transfer information from a source to a destination.

In practice, problems arise in baseband transmissions,

the major cases being:

• Noise in the system – external noise

and circuit noise reduces the
signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio at the receiver
(Rx) input and hence reduces the
quality of the output.

• Such a system is not able to fully utilise the available bandwidth,

for example telephone quality speech has a bandwidth ≃ 3kHz, a
co-axial cable has a bandwidth of 100's of Mhz.
• Radio systems operating at baseband frequencies are very difficult.
• Not easy to network.
 Multiplexing

Multiplexing is a modulation method which improves channel bandwidth utilisation.

For example, a co-axial cable has a bandwidth of 100's of Mhz. Baseband speech is a o
 1) Frequency Division Multiplexing FDM

This allows several 'messages' to be translated from baseband, where they are all
in the same frequency band, to adjacent but non overlapping parts of the spectrum.
An example of FDM is broadcast radio (long wave LW, medium wave MW, etc.)
 2) Time Division Multiplexing TDM

TDM is another form of multiplexing based on sampling which is a modulation

technique. In TDM, samples of several analogue message symbols, each one
sampled in turn, are transmitted in a sequence, i.e. the samples occupy adjacent
time slots.
 Radio Transmission

•Aerial dimensions are of the same order as the wavelength, , of the signal
(e.g. quarter wave /4, /2 dipoles).
c
 is related to frequency by λ= where c is the velocity of an electromagnetic wave, and c =
f 3x108 m/sec in free space.
3x10 8
For baseband speech, with a signal at 3kHz, (3x103Hz) λ= = 105 metres or 100km.
3x10 3
• Aerials of this size are impractical although some transmissions at Very Low Frequency (VLF) for specialist
applications are made.

• A modulation process described as 'up-conversion' (similar to FDM) allows the baseband signal to be
translated to higher 'radio' frequencies.

• Generally 'low' radio frequencies 'bounce' off the ionosphere and travel long distances around the earth,
high radio frequencies penetrate the ionosphere and make space communications possible.
The ability to 'up convert' baseband signals has implications on aerial dimensions and design, long distance
terrestrial communications, space communications and satellite communications. Background 'radio' noise
is also an important factor to be considered.

• In a similar content, optical (fibre optic) communications is made possible by a modulation process in which
an optical light source is modulated by an information source.
 Networks

• A baseband system which is essentially point-to-point

could be operated in a network. Some forms of access
control (multiplexing) would be desirable otherwise the
performance would be limited. Analogue
communications networks have been in existence for a
long time, for example speech radio networks for
ambulance, fire brigade, police authorities etc.

• For example, 'digital speech' communications, in which

the analogue speech signal is converted to a digital
signal via an analogue-to-digital converter give a form
more convenient for transmission and processing.
 What is Modulation?

In modulation, a message signal, which contains the information is used to control the
parameters of a carrier signal, so as to impress the information onto the carrier.

The Messages
The message or modulating signal may be either:
analogue – denoted by m(t)
digital – denoted by d(t) – i.e. sequences of 1's and 0's
The message signal could also be a multilevel signal, rather than binary; this is not
considered further at this stage.

The Carrier
The carrier could be a 'sine wave' or a 'pulse train'.
Consider a 'sine wave' carrier:

vc t  = Vc cosωct + φc 
• If the message signal m(t) controls amplitude – gives AMPLITUDE MODULATION AM
• If the message signal m(t) controls frequency – gives FREQUENCY MODULATION FM
• If the message signal m(t) controls phase- gives PHASE MODULATION PM or M
• Considering now a digital message d(t):
If the message d(t) controls amplitude – gives AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING ASK.
As a special case it also gives a form of Phase Shift Keying (PSK) called PHASE REVERSAL
KEYING PRK.
• If the message d(t) controls frequency – gives FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING FSK.
• If the message d(t) controls phase – gives PHASE SHIFT KEYING PSK.
• In this discussion, d(t) is a binary or 2 level signal representing 1's and 0's

• The types of modulation produced, i.e. ASK, FSK and PSK are sometimes described as binary
or 2 level, e.g. Binary FSK, BFSK, BPSK, etc. or 2 level FSK, 2FSK, 2PSK etc.
• Thus there are 3 main types of Digital Modulation:
ASK, FSK, PSK.
 Multi-Level Message Signals

As has been noted, the message signal need not be either analogue (continuous) or
binary, 2 level. A message signal could be multi-level or m levels where each level
would represent a discrete pattern of 'information' bits. For example, m = 4 levels
 What is Demodulation?

Demodulation is the reverse process (to modulation) to recover the message signal
m(t) or d(t) at the receiver.
Summary of Modulation Techniques 1
Summary of Modulation Techniques 2
Modulation Types AM, FM, PAM
Modulation Types AM, FM, PAM 2
Modulation Types (Binary ASK, FSK,
PSK)
Modulation Types (Binary ASK, FSK,
PSK) 2
Modulation Types – 4 Level ASK, FSK,
PSK
Modulation Types – 4 Level ASK, FSK,
PSK 2
 Analogue Modulation – Amplitude
Modulation

Consider a 'sine wave' carrier.

vc(t) = Vc cos(ct), peak amplitude = Vc, carrier frequency c radians per second.
Since c = 2fc, frequency = fc Hz where fc = 1/T.

Amplitude Modulation AM

In AM, the modulating signal (the message signal) m(t) is 'impressed' on to the
amplitude of the carrier.
 Message Signal m(t)

In general m(t) will be a band of signals, for example speech or video signals. A
notation or convention to show baseband signals for m(t) is shown below
 Message Signal m(t)

In general m(t) will be band limited. Consider for example, speech via a microphone.
The envelope of the spectrum would be like:
 Message Signal m(t)

In order to make the analysis and indeed the testing of AM systems easier, it is common to make
m(t) a test signal, i.e. a signal with a constant amplitude and frequency given by
m t V m cos m t
 Schematic Diagram for Amplitude
Modulation

VDC is a variable voltage, which can be set between 0 Volts and +V Volts. This
schematic diagram is very useful; from this all the important properties of AM and
various forms of AM may be derived.
 Equations for AM

From the diagram vs t  = VDC + mt cosωc t  where VDC is the DC voltage that can
be varied. The equation is in the form Amp cos ct and we may 'see' that the amplitude
is a function of m(t) and VDC. Expanding the equation we get:

vs t  = VDC cosωc t + mt cosωc t 

 Equations for AM

Now let m(t) = Vm cos mt, i.e. a 'test' signal, vs t  = VDC cosωc t +Vm cosωmt cosωc t 
Using the trig identity cosAcosB =
1
cos A + B + cos A  B 
2
Vm V
we have vs t  = VDC cosωc t + cosωc + ωm t + m cosωc  ωm t 
2 2

Components: Carrier upper sideband USB lower sideband LSB

Amplitude: VDC Vm/2 Vm/2

Frequency: c c + m c – m
fc fc + fm fc + fm

This equation represents Double Amplitude Modulation – DSBAM

 Spectrum and Waveforms

The following diagrams

represent the spectrum
of the input signals,
namely (VDC + m(t)),
with m(t) = Vm cos mt,
and the carrier cos ct
and corresponding
waveforms.
 Spectrum and Waveforms

The above are input signals. The diagram below shows the spectrum and
corresponding waveform of the output signal, given by
Vm Vm
vs t V DC cos c t cos c m t cos c m t
2 2
 Double Sideband AM, DSBAM

The component at the output at the carrier frequency fc is shown as a broken line with
amplitude VDC to show that the amplitude depends on VDC. The structure of the
waveform will now be considered in a little more detail.

Waveforms
Consider again the diagram

VDC is a variable DC offset added to the message; m(t) = Vm cos mt

 Double Sideband AM, DSBAM

This is multiplied by a carrier, cos ct. We effectively multiply (VDC + m(t)) waveform
by +1, -1, +1, -1, ...

The product gives the output signal vs t V DC m t cos c t

Double Sideband AM, DSBAM
 Modulation Depth

Consider again the equation vs t  = VDC +Vm cosωmt cosωc t  , which may be written as
 
vs t  = VDC 1+ m cosωm t cosωc t 
V
 VDC 
Vm V
The ratio is defined as the modulation depth, m, i.e. Modulation Depth m = m
VDC VDC
From an oscilloscope display the modulation depth for Double Sideband AM may be
determined as follows:
Vm

VDC 2Emax
2Emin
 Modulation Depth 2

2Emax = maximum peak-to-peak of waveform

2Emin = minimum peak-to-peak of waveform

2 Emax  2 Emin
Modulation Depth m =
2 Emax + 2 Emin
Vm
This may be shown to equal as follows:
VDC

2 Emax 2 V DC V m 2 Emin 2 V DC V m

2VDC + 2Vm  2VDC + 2Vm 4Vm Vm

m= = =
2VDC + 2Vm + 2VDC  2Vm 4VDC VDC
Double Sideband Modulation 'Types'

There are 3 main types of DSB

• Double Sideband Amplitude Modulation, DSBAM – with carrier

• Double Sideband Diminished (Pilot) Carrier, DSB Dim C

• Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier, DSBSC

• The type of modulation is determined by the modulation depth,

which for a fixed m(t) depends on the DC offset, VDC. Note, when a
modulator is set up, VDC is fixed at a particular value. In the following
illustrations we will have a fixed message, Vm cos mt and vary VDC
to obtain different types of Double Sideband modulation.
Graphical Representation of Modulation
Depth and Modulation Types.
Graphical Representation of Modulation
Depth and Modulation Types 2.
 Graphical Representation of Modulation
Depth and Modulation Types 3

Note then that VDC may be set to give

the modulation depth and modulation
type.

DSBAM VDC >> Vm, m  1

DSB Dim C 0 < VDC < Vm,
m > 1 (1 < m < )
DSBSC VDC = 0, m = 

The spectrum for the 3 main types of

amplitude modulation are summarised
 Bandwidth Requirement for DSBAM

In general, the message signal m(t) will not be a single 'sine' wave, but a band of frequencies
extending up to B Hz as shown

Remember – the 'shape' is used for convenience to distinguish low frequencies from high
frequencies in the baseband signal.
 Bandwidth Requirement for DSBAM

Amplitude Modulation is a linear process, hence the principle of superposition

applies. The output spectrum may be found by considering each component cosine
wave in m(t) separately and summing at the output.
Note:

• Frequency inversion of the LSB

• the modulation process has effectively shifted or frequency translated the baseband
m(t) message signal to USB and LSB signals centred on the carrier frequency fc
• the USB is a frequency shifted replica of m(t)
• the LSB is a frequency inverted/shifted replica of m(t)
• both sidebands each contain the same message information, hence either the LSB or
USB could be removed (because they both contain the same information)
• the bandwidth of the DSB signal is 2B Hz, i.e. twice the highest frequency in the
baseband signal, m(t)
• The process of multiplying (or mixing) to give frequency translation (or up-conversion)
forms the basis of radio transmitters and frequency division multiplexing which will be
discussed later.
 Power Considerations in DSBAM

2
 V pk 
Remembering that Normalised Average Power = (VRMS)2 =  
 2
we may tabulate for AM components as follows:

vs t  = VDC cosωc t + m cosωc + ωm t + m cosωc  ωm t 

V V
2 2
Component Carrier USB LSB

Amplitude pk VDC Vm Vm
2 2
Power 2 2 2
 Vm   Vm 
2 2
VDC V V Total Power PT =
  = m   = m
2 2 2 8 2 2 8 Carrier Power Pc
Power
+ PUSB
2 2 2 2 2
VDC m VDC m VDC + PLSB
2 8 8
 Power Considerations in DSBAM

From this we may write two equivalent equations for the total power PT, in a DSBAM signal
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
V V V V V VDC m 2VDC m 2VDC
PT = DC + m + m = DC + m and PT = + +
2 8 8 2 4 2 8 8
2 m2 m2  m2 
The carrier power Pc =
VDC i.e. PT = Pc + Pc + Pc or PT = Pc 1+ 
2 4 4  2 

Either of these forms may be useful. Since both USB and LSB contain the same information a
useful ratio which shows the proportion of 'useful' power to total power is

m2
Pc
PUSB 4 m2
= =
PT  m2  4 + 2m 2
Pc 1+ 
 2 
 Power Considerations in DSBAM

For DSBAM (m  1), allowing for m(t) with a dynamic range, the average value of m
may be assumed to be m = 0.3

Hence,
m2
=
0.3 = 0.0215
2

4 + 2m 2 4 + 20.32

Hence, on average only about 2.15% of the total power transmitted may be regarded
as 'useful' power. ( 95.7% of the total power is in the carrier!)

m2 1
Even for a maximum modulation depth of m = 1 for DSBAM the ratio =
4 + 2m 2 6

i.e. only 1/6th of the total power is 'useful' power (with 2/3 of the total power in the
carrier).
 Example

Suppose you have a portable (for example you carry it in your ' back pack') DSBAM transmitter
which needs to transmit an average power of 10 Watts in each sideband when modulation depth
m = 0.3. Assume that the transmitter is powered by a 12 Volt battery. The total power will be
m2 m2
PT = Pc + Pc + Pc
4 4
m2 410 40
where Pc = 10 Watts, i.e. Pc = = = 444.44 Watts
4 m 2
0.32

Hence, total power PT = 444.44 + 10 + 10 = 464.44 Watts.

Hence, battery current (assuming ideal transmitter) = Power / Volts =

464.44 amps!
12
i.e. a large and heavy 12 Volt battery.

Suppose we could remove one sideband and the carrier, power transmitted would be
10 Watts, i.e. 0.833 amps from a 12 Volt battery, which is more reasonable for a
portable radio transmitter.
 Single Sideband Amplitude Modulation

One method to produce signal sideband (SSB) amplitude modulation is to produce

DSBAM, and pass the DSBAM signal through a band pass filter, usually called a
single sideband filter, which passes one of the sidebands as illustrated in the diagram
below.

The type of SSB may be SSBAM (with a 'large' carrier component), SSBDimC or
SSBSC depending on VDC at the input. A sequence of spectral diagrams are shown
on the next page.
Single Sideband Amplitude Modulation
 Single Sideband Amplitude Modulation

Note that the bandwidth of the SSB signal B Hz is half of the DSB signal bandwidth.
Note also that an ideal SSB filter response is shown. In practice the filter will not be
ideal as illustrated.

As shown, with practical filters some part of the rejected sideband (the LSB in this
case) will be present in the SSB signal. A method which eases the problem is to
produce SSBSC from DSBSC and then add the carrier to the SSB signal.
Single Sideband Amplitude Modulation
 Single Sideband Amplitude Modulation

with m(t) = Vm cos mt, we may write:

vs t  = VDC cosωc t + cosωc + ωm t + m cosωc  ωm t 

Vm V
2 2
The SSB filter removes the LSB (say) and the output is
Vm
vs t  = VDC cosωc t + cosωc + ωm t 
2
Again, note that the output may be For SSBSC, output signal =
SSBAM, VDC large
V
SSBDimC, VDC small vs t  = m cosωc + ωm t 
SSBSC, VDC = 0 2
 Power in SSB

 m2 
From previous discussion, the total power in the DSB signal is PT = Pc 1+ 
2 2
 2 
m m
= PT = Pc + Pc + Pc for DSBAM.
4 4
Hence, if Pc and m are known, the carrier power and power in one sideband may be
determined. Alternatively, since SSB signal =
Vm
vs t  = VDC cosωc t + cosωc + ωm t 
2
then the power in SSB signal (Normalised Average Power) is
2
 V 
2 2 2
V V V
PSSB = DC +  m  = DC + m
2 2 2 2 8
2 2
VDC V
Power in SSB signal = + m
2 8
 Demodulation of Amplitude Modulated
Signals

There are 2 main methods of AM Demodulation:

• Envelope or non-coherent Detection/Demodulation.

• Synchronised or coherent Demodulation.

 Envelope or Non-Coherent Detection

An envelope detector for AM is shown below:

This is obviously simple, low cost. But the AM input must be DSBAM with m << 1, i.e.
it does not demodulate DSBDimC, DSBSC or SSBxx.
 Large Signal Operation

For large signal inputs, ( Volts) the diode is switched i.e. forward biased  ON, reverse
biased  OFF, and acts as a half wave rectifier. The 'RC' combination acts as a 'smoothing
circuit' and the output is m(t) plus 'distortion'.

If the modulation depth is > 1, the distortion below occurs

 Small Signal Operation – Square Law
Detector

For small AM signals (~ millivolts) demodulation depends on the diode square law
characteristic.

The diode characteristic is of the form i(t) = av + bv2 + cv3 + ..., where

v = VDC + mt cosωc t  i.e. DSBAM signal.

 Small Signal Operation – Square Law
Detector

aVDC + mt cosωc t + bVDC + mt cosωc t  + ...

2
i.e.

 2 2
2

= aVDC + amt cosωc t + b VDC + 2VDC mt + mt  cos ωc t + ...

  12
= aVDC + amt cosωc t + bVDC + 2bVDC mt + bmt   + cos2ωc t 
2 2 1 
 2 
2bVDC mt  bmt 2
2 2

= aVDC + amt cos ωc t  +

bVDC
+ + + b
VDC
cos2ωc t + ...
2 2 2 2
'LPF' removes components.
2

+ bVDC mt  i.e. the output contains m(t)

bVDC
Signal out = aVDC +
2
 Synchronous or Coherent Demodulation

A synchronous demodulator is shown below

This is relatively more complex and more expensive. The Local Oscillator (LO) must be
synchronised or coherent, i.e. at the same frequency and in phase with the carrier in the
AM input signal. This additional requirement adds to the complexity and the cost.

However, the AM input may be any form of AM, i.e. DSBAM, DSBDimC, DSBSC or
SSBAM, SSBDimC, SSBSC. (Note – this is a 'universal' AM demodulator and the
process is similar to correlation – the LPF is similar to an integrator).
 Synchronous or Coherent Demodulation

If the AM input contains a small or large component at the carrier frequency, the LO
may be derived from the AM input as shown below.
 Synchronous (Coherent) Local Oscillator

If we assume zero path delay between the modulator and demodulator, then the ideal
LO signal is cos(ct). Note – in general the will be a path delay, say , and the LO
would then be cos(c(t – ), i.e. the LO is synchronous with the carrier implicit in the
received signal. Hence for an ideal system with zero path delay

Analysing this for a DSBAM input = VDC + mt cosωc t 

Synchronous (Coherent) Local Oscillator

VX = AM input x LO

= VDC + mt cos 2 ωc t 

= VDC + mt cosωc t  cosωc t 
= VDC + mt  1 + 1 cos2ωc t 
2 2 

VDC VDC mt  mt 

Vx = + cos2ωc t + + cos2ωc t 
2 2 2 2
We will now examine the signal spectra from 'modulator to Vx'
Synchronous (Coherent) Local Oscillator

(continued
on next
page)
 Synchronous (Coherent) Local Oscillator

and

Note – the AM input has been 'split into two' – 'half' has moved or shifted up to

 mt   V mt 
2 fc  cos2ωc t +VDC cos2ωc t  and half shifted down to baseband, DC and
 2  2 2
 Synchronous (Coherent) Local Oscillator

The LPF with a cut-off frequency  fc will pass only the baseband signal i.e.
VDC mt 
Vout = +
2 2

In general the LO may have a frequency offset, , and/or a phase offset, , i.e.

The AM input is essentially either:

• DSB (DSBAM, DSBDimC, DSBSC)

• SSB (SSBAM, SSBDimC, SSBSC)
 1. Double Sideband (DSB) AM Inputs

The equation for DSB is VDC + mt cosωct  where VDC allows full carrier (DSBAM),
diminished carrier or suppressed carrier to be set.
Hence, Vx = AM Input x LO Vx = VDC + mt cosωc t .cosωc + Δωt + Δφ
Since cosAcosB =
1
cos A + B + cos A  B 
2

Vx =
VDC + mt  cosω + ωc + Δωt + Δφ+ cosωc + Δωt + Δφ  ωc t 
c
2
V mt  
Vx =  DC + cos2ωc + Δωt + Δφ+ cos Δωt + Δφ
 2 2 

VDC V
Vx = cos 2ωc + Δω t + Δφ+ DC cos  Δωt + Δφ
2 2
mt  mt 
+ cos2ωc + Δω t + Δφ+ cos Δωt + Δφ
2 2
 1. Double Sideband (DSB) AM Inputs

The LPF with a cut-off frequency  fc Hz will remove the components at 2c (i.e.
components above c) and hence
mt 
cos ωt + φ
VDC
Vout = cos( t + φ) +
2 2
VDC mt 
Obviously, if Δω = 0 and Δφ 0 we have, as previously Vout = +
2 2
Consider now if  is equivalent to a few Hz offset from the ideal LO. We may then
say
V mt 
Vout = DC cos Δωt + cos Δωt 
2 2

The output, if speech and processed by the human brain may be intelligible, but
would include a low frequency 'buzz' at , and the message amplitude would
fluctuate. The requirement  = 0 is necessary for DSBAM.
 1. Double Sideband (DSB) AM Inputs

Consider now if  is equivalent to a few Hz offset from the ideal LO. We may then
say
V mt 
Vout = DC cos Δωt + cos Δωt 
2 2

The output, if speech and processed by the human brain may be intelligible, but would
include a low frequency 'buzz' at , and the message amplitude would fluctuate. The
requirement  = 0 is necessary for DSBAM.

Consider now that  = 0 but   0, i.e. the frequency is correct at c but there is a
phase offset. Now we have

VDC mt 
Vout = cos Δφ+ cos Δφ
2 2

'cos()' causes fading (i.e. amplitude reduction) of the output.

 1. Double Sideband (DSB) AM Inputs

The 'VDC' component is not important, but consider for m(t),

π π mt   π 
• if Δφ = (900), cos  = 0 i.e. Vout = cos  = 0
2  
2 2 2
π mt 
• if Δφ = (1800), cosπ  = 1 i.e. Vout = cosπ  = mt 
2 2

The phase inversion if  =  may not be a problem for speech or music, but it may be
a problem if this type of modulator is used to demodulate PRK
π
However, the major problem is that as  increases towards the signal strength
2
π
output gets weaker (fades) and at the output is zero
2
 1. Double Sideband (DSB) AM Inputs

If the phase offset varies with time, then the signal fades in and out. The variation of
amplitude of the output, with phase offset  is illustrated below

Thus the requirement for  = 0 and  = 0 is a 'strong' requirement for DSB amplitude
modulation.
 2. Single Sideband (SSB) AM Input

The equation for SSB with a carrier depending on VDC is

Vm
VDC cosωc t + cosωc + ωm t 
2
i.e. assuming mt  = Vm cosωmt 

 
Vx = VDC cos ωc t + cos ωc + ωm t cos ωc +  t + Δφ
Hence
Vm
 2 

cos2ωc + Δωt + Δφ+ DC cos Δωt + Δφ

= VDC V
2 2
+ m cos2ωc + ωm + Δωt + Δφ+ m cosωm  Δωt  Δφ
V V
4 4
 2. Single Sideband (SSB) AM Input

The LPF removes the 2c components and hence

cos Δωt + Δφ+ cosωm  Δωt  Δφ

VDC Vm
2 4
VDC Vm
Note, if  = 0 and  = 0, + cosωm t  ,i.e. mt  = Vmcosωmt  has been
2 4
recovered.
Consider first that   0, e.g. an offset of say 50Hz. Then

cos Δωt + m cosωm  Δωt 

VDC V
Vout =
2 4

If m(t) is a signal at say 1kHz, the output contains a signal a 50Hz, depending on VDC
and the 1kHz signal is shifted to 1000Hz - 50Hz = 950Hz.
 2. Single Sideband (SSB) AM Input

The spectrum for Vout with  offset is shown

Hence, the effect of the offset  is to shift the baseband output, up or down, by .
For speech, this shift is not serious (for example if we receive a 'whistle' at 1kHz and
the offset is 50Hz, you hear the whistle at 950Hz ( = +ve) which is not very
noticeable. Hence, small frequency offsets in SSB for speech may be tolerated.
Consider now that  = 0,  = 0, then
VDC V
Vout = cos Δφ+ m cosωm t  Δφ
2 4
 2. Single Sideband (SSB) AM Input

• This indicates a fading VDC and a phase shift in the

output. If the variation in  with time is relatively slow,
thus phase shift variation of the output is not serious for
speech.

• Hence, for SSB small frequency and phase variations in

the LO are tolerable. The requirement for a coherent LO
is not as a stringent as for DSB. For this reason, SSBSC
(suppressed carrier) is widely used since the receiver is
relatively more simple than for DSB and power and
bandwidth requirements are reduced.
 Comments

• In terms of 'evolution', early radio schemes and radio on long wave (LW)
and medium wave (MW) to this day use DSBAM with m < 1. The reason for
this was the reduced complexity and cost of 'millions' of receivers compared
to the extra cost and power requirements of a few large LW/MW
transmitters for broadcast radio, i.e. simple envelope detectors only are
required.

• Nowadays, with modern integrated circuits, the cost and complexity of

synchronous demodulators is much reduced especially compared to the
additional features such as synthesised LO, display, FM etc. available in
modern receivers.

Amplitude Modulation forms the basis for:

• Digital Modulation – Amplitude Shift Keying ASK

• Digital Modulation – Phase Reversal Keying PRK
• Multiplexing – Frequency Division Multiplexing FDM
• Up conversion – Radio transmitters
• Down conversion – Radio receivers
 Chapter Three:
Amplitude Modulation
 Introduction
• Amplitude Modulation is the simplest and earliest form
of transmitters
• AM applications include broadcasting in medium- and
high-frequency applications, CB radio, and aircraft
communications
 Basic Amplitude Modulation
• The information signal
varies the instantaneous
amplitude of the carrier
 AM Characteristics
• AM is a nonlinear process
• Sum and difference frequencies are created that carry the
information
Full-Carrier AM: Time Domain
• Modulation Index - The ratio between the amplitudes
between the amplitudes of the modulating signal and
carrier, expressed by the equation:

Em
m=
Ec
 Overmodulation
• When the modulation index is greater than 1,
overmodulation is present
 Modulation Index for Multiple
Modulating Frequencies
• Two or more sine waves of different, uncorrelated
frequencies modulating a single carrier is calculated by the
equation:

m  m  m   
2
1
2
2
Measurement
of
Modulation
Index
Full-Carrier AM: Frequency Domain
• Time domain information can
be obtained using an
f usb  f c  f m
oscilloscope f lsb  f c  f m
• Frequency domain
mE c
information can be calculated E lsb  E usb 
using Fourier methods, but 2
trigonometric methods are
simpler and valid
• Sidebands are calculated
using the formulas at the right
 Bandwidth
• Signal bandwidth is an important characteristic of any
modulation scheme
• In general, a narrow bandwidth is desirable
• Bandwidth is calculated by:

B  2 Fm
 Power Relationships
• Power in a transmitter is
important, but the most important
power measurement is that of the  m 2 
portion that transmits the
information Pt  P c

1 

• AM carriers remain unchanged
 2 
with modulation and therefore
are wasteful
• Power in an AM transmitter is
calculated according to the
formula at the right
 Quadrature AM and AM Stereo
• Two carriers generated at the same frequency but 90º out of
phase with each other allow transmission of two separate signals
• This approach is known as Quadrature AM (QUAM or QAM)
• Recovery of the two signals is accomplished by synchronous
detection by two balanced modulators
Quadrature Operation
 Suppressed-Carrier AM
• Full-carrier AM is simple but not efficient
• Removing the carrier before power amplification allows
full transmitter power to be applied to the sidebands
• Removing the carrier from a fully modulated AM systems
results in a double-sideband suppressed-carrier
transmission
Suppressed-Carrier Signal
 Single-Sideband AM
• The two sidebands of an AM signal are mirror images of
one another
• As a result, one of the sidebands is redundant
• Using single-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission
results in reduced bandwidth and therefore twice as many
signals may be transmitted in the same spectrum allotment
• Typically, a 3dB improvement in signal-to-noise ratio is
achieved as a result of SSBSC
DSBSC and SSB
Transmission
Power in Suppressed-Carrier Signals
• Carrier power is useless as a measure of power in a
DSBSC or SSBSC signal
• Instead, the peak envelope power is used
• The peak power envelope is simply the power at
modulation peaks, calculated thus:
2
Vp
PEP 
2 RL
ANGLE MODULATION
ANGLE MODULATION

Part 1
Introduction
Introduction

 Angle modulation is the process by

which the angle (frequency or phase)
of the carrier signal is changed in
accordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of modulating or message
signal.
Cont’d…
 classified into two types such as
 Frequency modulation (FM)
 Phase modulation (PM)
 Used for :
 Commercial radio broadcasting
 Television sound transmission
 Two way mobile radio
 Cellular radio
 Microwave and satellite communication system
 Cont’d…
Advantages over AM:
 Freedom from interference: all natural and
external noise consist of amplitude variations,
thus receiver usually cannot distinguish
between amplitude of noise or desired signal.
AM is noisy than FM.
 Operate in very high frequency band (VHF):
88MHz-108MHz
 Can transmit musical programs with higher
degree of fidelity.
 FREQUENCY MODULATION
PRINCIPLES

 In FM the carrier amplitude remains

constant, the carrier frequency varies
with the amplitude of modulating
signal.
 The amount of change in carrier
frequency produced by the modulating
signal is known as frequency
deviation.
Carrier Modulating signal

Resting fc
FM

Increasing fc

Decreasing fc

Increasing fc

Resting fc
 PHASE MODULATION(PM)

 The process by which changing the phase of carrier

signal in accordance with the instantaneous of message
signal. The amplitude remains constant after the
modulation process.
 Mathematical analysis:
Let message signal:
 m t   Vm cos mt
And carrier signal:
 c t   Vc cos[ ct   ]
 PM (cont’d)

 Where  = phase angle of carrier signal. It is changed

in accordance with the amplitude of the message
signal;
 i.e.   KVm (t )  KVm cos mt
 After phase modulation the instantaneous voltage will
be v ( t )  V cos( t  KV cos  t ) or
pm C C m m

v pm ( t )  VC cos(C t  m p cos m t )

 Where mp = Modulation index of phase modulation

 K is a constant and called deviation sensitivities of the
phase
FREQUENCY MODULATION
(FM)

 A process where the frequency of the

carrier wave varies with the magnitude
variations of the modulating or audio
signal.
 The amplitude of the carrier wave is
kept constant.
FM(cont’d)

 Mathematical analysis:
 Let message signal:

 m t   Vm cos mt
 And carrier signal:
 c t   Vc cos[ ct   ]
FM (cont’d)

 During the process of frequency modulations the

frequency of carrier signal is changed in
accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of
message signal .Therefore the frequency of
carrier after modulation is written as
i  c  K1vm t   C  K1Vm cos m t

 To find the instantaneous phase angle of modulated

signal, integrate equation above w.r.t. t

 
i   i dt   C  K1Vm cos m t dt  C t 
K1Vm
m
sin m t
FM(cont’d)

 Thus, we get the FM wave as:

K1Vm
v FM ( t )  Vc cos 1  VC cos(C t  sin m t )
m

vFM (t )  VC cos(C t  m f sin mt )

 Where modulation index for FM is given by
K1Vm
mf 
m
FM(cont’d)

 Frequency deviation: ∆f is the relative

placement of carrier frequency (Hz) w.r.t
its unmodulated value. Given as:
max  C  K1Vm
min  C  K1Vm
d  max  C  C  min  K1Vm
d K1Vm
f  
2 2
FM(cont’d)

 Therefore:

K1Vm
f  ;
2
f
mf 
fm
 Equations for Phase- and Frequency-Modulated Carriers

Tomasi Copyright ©2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Electronic Communications Systems, 5e Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Example (FM)

 Determine the peak frequency deviation

(∆f) and modulation index (m) for an FM
modulator with a deviation sensitivity K1 = 5
kHz/V and a modulating signal,
vm (t )  2 cos(22000t )
Example (PM)

 Determine the peak phase deviation (m)

for a PM modulator with a deviation
sensitivity K = 2.5 rad/V and a modulating
signal, vm (t )  2 cos(22000t )
FM&PM (Bessel function)

 Thus, for general equation:

vFM (t )  VC cos(C t  m f cos mt )


 n 
cos(  m cos )  
n  
J n ( m) cos 

  n 
2




 n 
m( t )  VC  J n (m) cos c t  nm t  
n    2 
 Bessel function

   
vt FM  VC{J 0 (mf ) cos C t  J1 (mf ) cos (C  m ) t    J1 (mf ) cos (C  m ) t  
 2  2

 J 2 (mf ) cos(C  2m )t   J 2 (mf ) cos(C  2m )t   ...J n (mf )...}

B.F. (cont’d)
 It is seen that each pair of side band is preceded by J
coefficients. The order of the coefficient is denoted by
subscript m. The Bessel function can be written as

 mf 
n
 1 m f / 22 m f / 24 
J n m f         ....
 2   n 1!n  1! 2!n  2! 

 N = number of the side frequency

 Mf = modulation index
B.F. (cont’d)
Bessel Functions of the First Kind, Jn(m)
for some value of modulation index
Representation of frequency spectrum
Example

 For an FM modulator with a

modulation index m = 1, a modulating
signal vm(t) = Vmsin(2π1000t), and an
unmodulated carrier vc(t) =
10sin(2π500kt). Determine the number
of sets of significant side frequencies
and their amplitudes. Then, draw the
frequency spectrum showing their
relative amplitudes.
Angle Modulation
Part 2

FM Bandwidth
Power distribution of FM

Generation & Detection of FM

Application of FM
FM Bandwidth
 Theoretically, the generation and transmission of FM requires
infinite bandwidth. Practically, FM system have finite bandwidth
and they perform well.
 The value of modulation index determine the number of
sidebands that have the significant relative amplitudes
 If n is the number of sideband pairs, and line of frequency
spectrum are spaced by fm, thus, the bandwidth is:

B fm  2nf m
 For n≥1
FM Bandwidth (cont’d)
 Estimation of transmission b/w;
 Assume mf is large and n is approximate mf + 2; thus
 Bfm=2(mf + 2)fm

f
= 2(  2) f m
fm

B fm  2(f  f m )........(1)

(1) is called Carson’s rule

Example
 For an FM modulator with a peak frequency
deviation, Δf = 10 kHz, a modulating-signal
frequency fm = 10 kHz, Vc = 10 V and a 500
kHz carrier, determine
 Actual minimum bandwidth from the Bessel
function table.
 Approximate minimum bandwidth using
Carson’s rule.
Then
Plot the output frequency spectrum for the
Bessel approximation.
Deviation Ratio (DR)

 The worse case modulation index which produces the widest

output frequency spectrum.
f (max )
DR  f m (max )

 Where
 ∆f(max) = max. peak frequency deviation
 fm(max) = max. modulating signal frequency
Example
 Determine the deviation ratio and bandwidth
for the worst-case (widest-bandwidth)
modulation index for an FM broadcast-band
transmitter with a maximum frequency
deviation of 75 kHz and a maximum
modulating-signal frequency of 15 kHz.
 Determine the deviation ratio and maximum
bandwidth for an equal modulation index
with only half the peak frequency deviation
and modulating-signal frequency.
 FM Power Distribution

 As seen in Bessel function table, it shows that as the

sideband relative amplitude increases, the carrier
amplitude,J0 decreases.

 This is because, in FM, the total transmitted power is

always constant and the total average power is equal
to the unmodulated carrier power, that is the
amplitude of the FM remains constant whether or not
it is modulated.
FM Power Distribution (cont’d)

 In effect, in FM, the total power that is originally in

the carrier is redistributed between all components of
the spectrum, in an amount determined by the
modulation index, mf, and the corresponding Bessel
functions.
 At certain value of modulation index, the carrier
component goes to zero, where in this condition, the
power is carried by the sidebands only.
 Average Power

Vc2
 The average power in unmodulated carrier Pc 
2R
 The total instantaneous power in the angle modulated carrier.

m( t ) 2 Vc2
Pt   cos 2 [c t  ( t )]
R R
Vc2  1 1  Vc
2
Pt    cos[2c t  2( t )] 
R 2 2  2R
 The total modulated power

Vc2 2(V1 ) 2 2(V2 ) 2 2(Vn ) 2

Pt  P0  P1  P2  ..  Pn     .. 
2R 2R 2R 2R
Example
 For an FM modulator with a modulation
index m = 1, a modulating signal
vm(t) = Vmsin(2π1000t),
and an unmodulated carrier
vc(t) = 10sin(2π500kt).
Determine the unmodulated carrier power
for the FM modulator given with a load
resistance, RL = 50Ω. Determine also the
total power in the angle-modulated wave.
Quiz
 For an FM modulator with modulation index,
m = 2, modulating signal,
vm(t) = Vmcos(2π2000t),
and an unmodulated carrier,
vc(t) = 10 cos(2π800kt).

a) Determine the number of sets of significant

sidebands.
b) Determine their amplitudes.
c) Draw the frequency spectrum showing the relative
amplitudes of the side frequencies.
d) Determine the bandwidth.
e) Determine the total power of the modulated wave.
Generation of FM

 Two major FM generation:

i) Direct method:
i) straight forward, requires a VCO whose oscillation
frequency has linear dependence on applied voltage.
ii) Advantage: large frequency deviation
iii) Disadvantage: the carrier frequency tends to drift and must
be stabilized.
iv) Common methods:
i) FM Reactance modulators
ii) Varactor diode modulators
Generation of FM (cont’d)
1) Reactance modulator
Generation of FM (cont’d)
2) Varactor diode modulator
Generation of FM (cont’d)
ii) Indirect method:
i. Frequency-up conversion.
ii. Two ways:
a. Heterodyne method
b. Multiplication method
iii. One most popular indirect method is the Armstrong
modulator
Wideband Armstrong Modulator
 Armstrong Modulator
A complete Armstrong modulator is supposed to
provide a 75kHz frequency deviation. It uses a
balanced modulator and 90o phase shifter to phase-
modulate a crystal oscillator. Required deviation is
obtained by combination of multipliers and mixing,
raise the signal from 400kHz  14.47Hz to 90.2MHz  75kHz
suitable for broadcasting.
 FM Detection/Demodulation

 FM demodulation

 is a process of getting back or regenerate the

original modulating signal from the modulated
FM signal.

 It can be achieved by converting the frequency

deviation of FM signal to the variation of
equivalent voltage.

 The demodulator will produce an output where

its instantaneous amplitude is proportional to the
instantaneous frequency of the input FM signal.
FM detection (cont’d)
 To detect an FM signal, it is necessary to
have a circuit whose output voltage varies
linearly with the frequency of the input
signal.

 The most commonly used demodulator is

the PLL demodulator. Can be use to detect
either NBFM or WBFM.
PLL Demodulator

V0(t)
FM input
fi
Phase Low pass
Amplifier
detector filter

fvco
Vc(t)
VCO
PLL Demodulator

 The phase detector produces an average output voltage that

is linear function of the phase difference between the two input
signals. Then low frequency component is pass through the
LPF to get a small dc average voltage to the amplifier.

 After amplification, part of the signal is fed back through VCO

where it results in frequency modulation of the VCO
frequency. When the loop is in lock, the VCO frequency
follows or tracks the incoming frequency.
PLL Demodulator

 Let instantaneous freq of FM Input,

fi(t)=fc +k1vm(t),
and the VCO output frequency,
f VCO(t)=f0 + k2Vc(t);
f0 is the free running frequency.
 For the VCO frequency to track the
instantaneous incoming frequency,
fvco = fi; or
PLL Demodulator
 f0 + k2Vc(t)= fc +k1vm(t), so,

Vc (t )  f c  f 0  k1vm (t )
 If VCO can be tuned so that fc=f0, then
Vc (t )  k1vm (t )
 Where Vc(t) is also taken as the output voltage,
which therefore is the demodulated output
Comparison AM and FM
 Its the SNR can be increased without increasing transmitted
power about 25dB higher than in AM

 Certain forms of interference at the receiver are more easily

to suppressed, as FM receiver has a limiter which eliminates
the amplitude variations and fluctuations.

 The modulation process can take place at a low level power

stage in the transmitter, thus a low modulating power is
needed.

 Power content is constant and fixed, and there is no waste of

power transmitted

 There are guard bands in FM systems allocated by the

standardization body, which can reduce interference between
the adjacent channels.
Application of FM

 FM is commonly used at VHF radio frequencies for

high-fidelity broadcasts of music and speech (FM
broadcasting). Normal (analog) TV sound is also
broadcast using FM. The type of FM used in
broadcast is generally called wide-FM, or W-FM
 A narrowband form is used for voice
communications in commercial and amateur radio
settings. In two-way radio, narrowband narrow-fm
(N-FM) is used to conserve bandwidth. In addition,
it is used to send signals into space.
Summary of angle modulation
-what you need to be familiar with
Summary (cont’d)
Summary (cont’d)

 Bandwidth:
a) Actual minimum bandwidth from Bessel
table:
B  2(n  f m )

b) Approximate minimum bandwidth using

Carson’s rule:
B  2(f  f m )
 Summary (cont’d)
 Multitone modulation (equation in general):
i  c  Kvm1  Kvm 2

i  c  2f1 cos 1t  2f 2 cos 2t....

f1 f 2
i  C t  sin 1t  sin 2t......
f1 f2
 Summary (cont’d)

v fm t   VC cos i
f1 f 2
v fm t   VC cos[C t  sin 1t  sin 2t ]
f1 f2
 VC cos[C t  m f 1 sin 1t  m f 2 sin 2t ]...........
Summary (cont’d)-
Comparison NBFM&WBFM
ANGLE MODULATION

Part 3
Advantages

Disadvantages
 Advantages

 Wideband FM gives significant improvement in the SNR at the output

of the RX which proportional to the square of modulation index.
 Angle modulation is resistant to propagation-induced selective fading
since amplitude variations are unimportant and are removed at the
receiver using a limiting circuit.
 Angle modulation is very effective in rejecting interference. (minimizes
the effect of noise).
 Angle modulation allows the use of more efficient transmitter power in
information.
 Angle modulation is capable of handing a greater dynamic range of
modulating signal without distortion than AM.
Disadvantages

 Angle modulation requires a

transmission bandwidth much larger
than the message signal bandwidth.
 Angle modulation requires more
complex and expensive circuits than
AM.
END OF ANGLE
MODULATION
Exercise

 Determine the deviation ratio and

worst-case bandwidth for an FM signal
with a maximum frequency deviation
25 kHz and maximum modulating
signal 12.5 kHz.
Exercise 2

 For an FM modulator with 40-kHz

frequency deviation and a modulating-
signal frequency 10 kHz, determine
the bandwidth using both Carson’s rule
and Bessel table.
Exercise 3

 For an FM modulator with an

unmodulated carrier amplitude 20 V, a
modulation index, m = 1, and a load
resistance of 10-ohm, determine the
power in the modulated carrier and
each side frequency, and sketch the
power spectrum for the modulated
wave.
 Exercise 4

 A frequency modulated signal (FM) has

the following expression:
v fm (t )  38 cos(400 10 t  m f sin 10 10 t )
6 3

The frequency deviation allowed in this

system is 75 kHz. Calculate the:
 Modulation index
 Bandwidth required, using Carson’s rule