Chap - 11 Non-Aqueous Emulsions

CHAPTER
11 Non-Aqueous Emulsions
Introduction
The origin of non-aqueous drilling fluids lowered fluid loss and reduced friction
can be traced to the 1920s when crude between the drillstring and wellbore.
oil was used as a drilling fluid. The These water-base “oil emulsion” sys-
advantages of oil as a drilling and com- tems are rarely used today because
pletion fluid were obvious even then: they led to the same hole problems in
• Clays do not hydrate and swell. water-sensitive shales and became con-
• Wellbore stability is improved. taminated like any other water-base
• Production is improved from mud system.
sandstones containing clays. Improvements in the performance of
• Problems are reduced when drilling non-aqueous drilling fluids (primarily
evaporites (salts, anhydrite, etc). crude oil) came with the development
• Wellbore enlargement is reduced. and use of asphaltic additives to increase
• Mud properties are more stable. viscosity and reduce fluid loss. However,
• Contamination resistance is increased. these oil muds had a poor tolerance of
water contamination.
Oils also have certain characteristics
In the 1940s, diesel-base muds were
that are undesirable. They are flamma-
developed that not only tolerated water,
ble and may contain compounds that
but used emulsified water to control and
cause the failure of rubber goods such
maintain properties. Emulsified water
as hoses, O-rings, gaskets and Blowout
droplets lowered fluid loss and raised
Preventer (BOP) elements. Oils lack gel
viscosity. The continuous oil phase of
structure and are difficult to viscosify so
these muds made them act as oil muds
they can be weighted. Many oils con-
— wetting with an oil film and prevent-
tain toxic or hazardous compounds that
ing emulsified water from interacting
cause Heath, Safety and Environmental
with water-sensitive shales and cuttings
(HSE) concerns. They have high gas sol-
to provide good wellbore stability. The
ubility for many of the gases encoun-
muds were tolerant of salt and anhy-
…an invert tered when drilling wells (natural gas,
drite contamination. These muds were
emulsion carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide).
emulsions in every sense and were
This can interfere with kick detection
mud is a and well-control procedures. Oils may
called “invert emulsion” muds to dis-
fluid with tinguish them from the water-base “oil
not degrade readily under certain con-
emulsion” muds that were in use at the
diesel oil, ditions. Oils also float on water and
time. Today, an invert emulsion mud is
can migrate a significant distance from
mineral oil their source.
a fluid with diesel oil, mineral oil or syn-
or synthetic thetic fluid as the continuous phase and
Several different approaches have
water or brine as an emulsified phase.
fluid as the been taken to use oil in drilling fluids
The emulsified water or brine is dis-
while minimizing the associated prob-
continuous lems. Water-base “oil emulsion” muds
persed within the oil (see Figure 1). This
phase and is the internal phase. Calcium chloride
were developed that contained 10 to
salt is used to increase the emulsified
water or 20% emulsified oil. Chemicals were
water phase salinity to a level where it
brine as an used to emulsify the oil in the water as
does not influence (soften or swell)
small droplets that would remain dis-
emulsified persed in the water rather than float-
water-sensitive formations and cuttings.
phase. ing to the surface. This emulsified oil
Non-Aqueous Emulsions 11.1 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

CHAPTER
Driven by the need for the perform-

ance of oil-base muds while meeting
increasingly strict environmental reg-
ulations for offshore locations, other
“synthetic” non-aqueous liquids were
introduced as alternative-base fluids.
They are referred to as “synthetic flu-
ids” because they are synthesized or
manufactured from other compounds
instead of being highly refined from
crude oil. Synthetic fluids can be
Figure 1: Dispersed water droplets in oil.
selected that have much lower tox-
Invert emulsion muds should be icity and better HSE characteristics
used when conditions justify their than either diesel oil or mineral oil.
application. Environmental accept- Esters, acetals, ethers, olefins and
ability, disposal, initial makeup cost, other synthetic solvents are among
daily maintenance cost, anticipated the compounds that have been used
hole problems, formation evaluation for synthetic-base muds. Synthetic-
and formation damage issues should base drilling fluids are more expensive
all be considered. than water-, diesel-oil- or mineral-oil-
Oil muds have shown special eco- base muds but the improved drilling
nomic advantages when used for: performance of synthetic-base muds
• Troublesome shales. usually offsets this higher cost in
• Salt, anhydrite, carnallite and offshore operations.
Diesel oil, potash zones. Diesel oil, mineral oils and the syn-
mineral • Deep, hot wells. thetic fluids are all nonpolar, non-
• Drilling and coring sensitive aqueous liquids. They will not conduct
oils and the electricity nor dissolve ionic compounds
productive zones.
synthetic • Extended-reach drilling projects. such as salt or anhydrite and are insol-
fluids are • Difficult directional wells. uble in water. They are used as the base
• Slim-hole drilling. or continuous fluid phase in invert
all nonpolar, emulsion muds. The mechanics of for-
• Corrosion control.
non-aqueous • Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and carbon mulating, building, testing and main-
liquids. dioxide (CO2) bearing formations. taining an invert emulsion mud built
• Perforating and completion fluids. with any of these base fluids is essen-
• Casing pack or packer fluids. tially the same. This chapter presents
• Workover fluids. an overview of these non-aqueous flu-
• Spotting fluids to free stuck pipe. ids, systems and the fundamentals of
emulsions. Other chapters will address
Environmental concerns during the specific products and systems.
1980s led to the use of mineral oils, The choice of which oil or syn-
highly refined oils that were less toxic thetic will be used for a specific
and more environmentally acceptable application is a matter of selecting
than diesel. Mineral oils contain lower a formulation that will provide a
concentrations of aromatic compounds reasonable balance between envi-
than diesel. Although not as toxic as ronmental acceptability, waste dis-
diesel, mineral oils still may not be posal cost, mud cost, performance
acceptable for use in certain environ- and availability.
mentally sensitive locations, depending
on local environmental regulations.

CHAPTER
Emulsion Fundamentals
Invert Invert emulsion drilling fluids are mix- is then emulsified into spherical droplets
emulsion tures of two immiscible liquids: oil (or having a radius of 1 micron, the inter-
synthetic) and water. They may con- facial contact surface area would increase
drilling tain 50% or more water. This water is to 300,000 cm2 (2.38 x 1012 spheres,
fluids are broken up into small droplets and uni- each with 1.26 x 10–7 cm2 surface area).
mixtures formly dispersed in the external non- This represents a 40,550 times increase
aqueous phase. These droplets are kept in interfacial contact area just by form-
of two suspended in the oil (or synthetic) and ing the emulsion. In an emulsion, the
immiscible prevented from coalescing by surfactants huge number of droplets cause an
liquids: that act between the two phases. increase in viscosity and act much like
Figure 2 compares two water-in-oil fine solids added to a water-base mud,
oil…and emulsions of substantially different increasing the plastic viscosity.
water. water content. Provided the droplets To adequately emulsify the water in
are equal size, the system with the oil, there must be sufficient chemical
least water would be more stable due emulsifier to form a film around each
to the greater distance between water droplet. The emulsion will be
droplets, thereby reducing the unstable if there is not sufficient emulsi-
chance of coalescence. fier. As the water content increases, the
As shown in Figure 2, simply emulsify- required concentration of emulsifier
ing the two phases causes a tremendous increases.
…the smaller increase in the contact surface area From the standpoint of stability, the
the droplet, between the two phases (oil-water inter- smaller the droplet, the more stable the
face). For example, if the containers in emulsion since large droplets will coa-
the more Figure 2 were a 2.72 cm cubes with a lesce more easily than smaller droplets
stable the volume slightly over 20 cm3, and 10 cm3 (see Figure 3). Uniform droplet size also
emulsion… of water were added to 10 cm3 of oil makes the emulsion more stable. To
then allowed to separate (as shown in obtain small droplets of uniform size,
the upper right corner of Figure 2), energy or work must be applied in the
the contact surface area of the inter- form of shear. Sufficient shear to form
face between the oil and water would a stable emulsion is often difficult to
be only 7.4 cm2. Assuming this water achieve in mud pits and in liquid mud
plants. Sufficient shear can be achieved
Oil/water ratio: 75/25 Oil/water ratio: 50/50 through turbulent agitation by special-
ized high-shear devices or when circu-
50% water
75% oil lating through the bit jets, mud guns or
50% water
25% water
Water
(internal
phase)
Oil
(external
phase)
Figure 2: Effect of water content on water-in-oil emulsion. Figure 3: Coalescence of poorly

emulsified water droplets.
CHAPTER
The impor- with some centrifugal pumps. The solid is said to be preferentially wet-
tance of suf- importance of sufficient shear and ted by that liquid. The low-contact
small droplet size and their relationship angle promotes the liquid to spread
ficient shear to mud stability cannot be overempha- out and coat the solid. A high-contact
and small sized. Small, uniform water droplets gen- angle shows that the liquid prefers to
droplet size erate viscosity and gel strengths that ball up and not spread out over the
help support weight material and aid in surface. When a solid is preferentially
and their the reduction of fluid loss by becoming wetted by a liquid, it has an affinity
relationship trapped in the filter cake. to be coated by that liquid only, even
to mud sta- Increasing water content (internal though two liquids are present in the
phase) of an invert emulsion: emulsion. In Case 1, the angle formed
bility cannot • Increases the size of water droplets. by the water and solid surface is <90°,
be overem- • Increases the chances of water showing that the solid is preferen-
phasized. droplets coalescing. tially water-wet (also indicated by the
• Increases the emulsion plastic contact angle of the oil being >90°).
viscosity. Alternatively in Case 3, the angle
• Increases the amount of emulsifier formed by the oil and solid surface is
required to form a stable emulsion. <90° making it preferentially oil-wet,
• Decreases the emulsion stability. meaning that the solids are coated
with a film of oil. For Case 2, the
When oil (continuous phase) is
contact angle of both oil and water
added, the emulsion becomes more
at the solid surface is 90° so that it
stable because the distance between
is not preferentially wetted by either
water droplets is greater and the viscosity
oil or water. If the contact angle, ever
is reduced. To obtain the desired viscos-
becomes 0°, the solid is said to be
ity, gel strength and filtration control,
totally wetted by that liquid.
the oil- (or synthetic-) to-water ratio
must be balanced to meet specific needs. le
Non-wetting liquid ng Wetting liquid
The incorporation of solids into a cta
nta
water-in-oil or synthetic emulsion can Oil Co
Water
have either a positive or negative effect θo θw
on mud properties, depending upon Solid

the manner in which they are wetted. θo > 90° θw < 90°
As long as the solids are maintained Case 1: Solid is preferentially water-wet.
in an oil-wet condition and do not
coalesce or deplete the required surfac-
Water
tant concentration, they will form a Oil θo θw
stable emulsion.
Solid
Wettability is determined by exam- θo = 90° θw = 90°
ining the angle of contact formed Case 2: Solid is non-preferential in wetting.
between each liquid and the surface
of the solid. Figure 4 illustrates the
three principal states of wetting that Non-wetting liquid
Oil wetting Wetting liquid
can occur in a three-phase system surfactant Water
(solids in a mixture of two immiscible Oil
θw
θo
liquids) such as an oil or synthetic mud. Solid
By definition, if the angle formed by
θo < 90° θw > 90°
a liquid and a solid is less than 90° the Case 3: Solid is preferentially oil-wet.
Figure 4: Contact angle and wettability.

CHAPTER
Contact angles can be used to explain The balance between the strength and
the theory of wetting. They are difficult character of the hydrophilic end and
to measure even in the laboratory, and lipophilic end can be measured using
trying to do so under field conditions is the Hydrophilic-Lipophilic Balance
impractical. Several simple tests have (HLB) range. The HLB number can
been developed that indicate whether characterize the functionality of a sur-
water-wetting is occurring. These tests factant. As shown in Figure 6, oil-in-
will be described later in this chapter. water emulsifiers have higher HLB
Surfactants Non-aqueous drilling fluids are formu- values and water-in-oil emulsifiers
have a lated using additives based on a broad have lower HLB numbers, with
group of chemicals called surface-active wetting agents in the middle.
hydrophilic agents or surfactants. These chemicals The main difference between emulsi-
polar head include emulsifiers, soaps and wetting fiers, soaps and wetting agents is the
and an agents. They act by reducing the inter- surfaces they are designed to act upon
facial tension between two liquids or and their HLB number. These differ-
organophilic between a liquid and a solid. Surfactants ences may not be sharply defined. Most
non-polar have a hydrophilic (water-loving) polar emulsifiers also have wetting properties.
tail… head and an organophilic (oil-loving or Wetting agents also act as emulsifiers
lipophilic) non-polar tail, as shown in to some degree and are categorized by
Figure 5. their primary function in a particular
formulation or by their chemistry.
Non-aqueous Oil soluble Water soluble Non-aqueous systems contain wet-
systems con- Hydrophilic ting agents that coat surfaces and solids
end to alter the contact angle (wettability)
tain wetting Organophilic end (oil-loving) (water-loving)
of the solid-liquid interfaces, as shown
agents that H2
C
H2
C
H2
C
H2
C
H2
C
H2
C
H2
C
H2
C C
O
in Figure 7. These materials allow pref-
coat surfaces H3C C C C C C C C C OH erentially wetting of solids by the oil or
H2 H2 H2 H2 H2 H2 H2 H2
synthetic. If a fluid is overtreated with
and solids to wetting agents so that solids are totally
alter the con- Carboxylic wetted, the solids may tend to settle or
tact angle… Hydrocarbon tail (non-polar) head (polar) sag. Solids must be maintained in the
preferentially oil-wet condition to
Figure 5: Surfactant structure (stearic acid).
maintain a stable fluid.
Water-in-oil Wetting Detergents

emulsifiers agents Oil-in-water emulsifiers
Lypophilic Hydrophilic
0 3 6 9 12 15 18
T E
VERSAMUL DRIL-KLEEN /KLEEN UP
VERSACOAT VERSA SWA
VERSAWET
Figure 6: HLB range, function and products.

CHAPTER
Oil • The rheology will increase.

Wetting • Barite settling will be observed in
agent
mud cup, heat cup and pits.
• The High-Temperature, High-Pressure
Solid surface or particle
(HTHP) fluid loss will increase and
Figure 7: Orientation of wetting agent may contain free water.
on surface or particle. Weight material and solids that
The preferential oil-wet condition become water-wet will aggregate or
can be disrupted by contamination cluster together and will settle or
with water, increased solids load- become separated from the system by
ing and insufficient treatments of shakers or other solids-control equip-
wetting agents. ment. Settling of water-wet solids is
When water-wet solids occur: characterized by soft deposits or “sag”
• Solids tend to adhere to shaker as it is sometimes described. Treatments
screens. with wetting agents, such as VERSACOAT,T
• The appearance of the mud becomes VERSAWET T or VERSA SWAT will restore
“grainy,” losing its glossy sheen. the oil-wet condition and disperse these
• The Electrical Stability (ES) will clusters of water-wet solids into more
decrease. easily suspended individual particles.
Additives
Emulsifiers Emulsifiers. Emulsifiers are surfactants Stable emulsified water droplet
are that reduce the surface tension between

Oil
the water droplets and oil (or synthetic).
surfactants They stabilize the mixture by being
that reduce partially soluble in water and partially
the surface soluble in oil, as shown previously in
Figure 5. They are usually long-chain
tension alcohols, fatty acids or polymers and
between can be anionic, cationic or non-ionic. Water
the water One end of the emulsifier molecule has droplet
an affinity for water while the rest of the

droplets molecule has an affinity for oil or syn-
and oil… thetic fluid. Emulsifier particles form a
coating around the water droplets to
keep them from coalescing, as shown
in Figure 8.
Oil
Soaps. Some emulsifiers are soaps that Coating of emulsifier
are formed by the reaction of a fatty
acid ester with an alkali (such as lime) Figure 8: Arrangement of emulsifier
where the hydrogen on the fatty acid around a water droplet.
is replaced by a metal, such as calcium
Water-insoluble soaps are formed when
from lime. Soaps made with sodium
metals heavier than sodium (such as cal-
are water-soluble and form oil-in-water
cium) are substituted for the hydrogen
emulsions. Sodium hydroxide is the
of the fatty acid. These water-insoluble
alkali used in many household soaps.
soaps are used in greases, gel thickeners,

CHAPTER
paints and oil-muds. Calcium soaps will aggregate and settle. Most solids
are used extensively as the primary naturally have a preferentially water-
emulsifier in invert emulsion muds. wetting tendency and require wetting
Most calcium soap emulsifiers are agents to wet them with either oil or
formed by adding fatty acid (usually synthetic fluid.
a liquid) and lime or quicklime (as an Viscosifiers. Although emulsified
alkaline source of calcium) to the base water increases viscosity, viscosifiers
oil of the mud, where they react to and gelling agents are also required.
form the calcium soap. Untreated clays cannot be used as vis-
Actually, to have a stable emulsion, cosifiers because they do not hydrate
there must not only be sufficient emulsi- and yield in oil or synthetic fluid. If the
fier to stabilize all of the water droplets, clays are first coated with an amine, so
plus wetting agent, to coat all of the that they are organophilic, then they
solids, but there must be an excess will yield and viscosify in oil and syn-
amount of emulsifier and wetting thetic fluids. VG-69T is an organophilic
agent in the formulation to coat new bentonite clay. Organophilic clay still
solids and emulsify any additional needs a polar activator (water or alco-
water which may be encountered. hol) to produce the maximum yield.
This condition of well-emulsified Therefore, their yield decreases as the
brine, coated solids and an excess of oil- or synthetic-to-water ratio increases.
treating agents is shown in Figure 9. These clays yield faster with increased
A wetting Wetting agents. A wetting agent is a shear and temperature. However, if
agent is a surface-active agent that reduces the the amine is not temperature-stable,
interfacial tension and contact angle and decomposes, the clay will become
surface-active between a liquid and a solid. This causes an inert solid. High-temperature
agent that the liquid to spread over the surface organophilic clays may be needed
reduces the of the solid, as shown previously in for high-temperature applications.
Figure 4. Wetting agents have one end Alternative non-clay viscosifiers are
interfacial that is soluble in the continuous-phase available to increase viscosity. They
tension and liquid and the other that has a strong include asphaltic materials, fatty acid
contact angle affinity for solid surfaces, as shown pre- gellants and polymers. Developing vis-
viously in Figure 7. In non-aqueous cosity is a particular problem when
between a fluids, wetting agents cause solids to be mixing new fluids in mud plants where
liquid and wet with oil or synthetic liquid. The low shear mixing and low temperatures
a solid. solids (barite, clays and drill solids) do not allow amine-treated clays to
must be wetted by the continuous liq- yield. However, freshly prepared muds
uid phase of the drilling fluid or they should not be treated with more organo-
philic clay than will be required when
Emulsifier Wetting agent drilling. Overtreatment with clay leads
to excessive viscosity once the fluid is
exposed to shear and temperature in
the well. Alternative viscosifiers such
as VERSA-HRP,T an oil-soluble polymer,
Brine
Solid should be used to provide additional
suspension while mixing and transport-
ing new muds. Many polymer viscosi-
fiers, such as VERSA-HRP, degrade with
Solid Brine increased exposure to temperature and
shear. In freshly prepared fluids this is
Figure 9: Schematic of stable emulsion.

CHAPTER
counteracted by the corresponding Gilsonite, a naturally occurring

activation or yield of organophilic clay hydrocarbon or asphaltic mineral, is
under these conditions. an efficient and cost-effective additive
Barite is Weight material. Barite is the most for controlling filtration in oil muds.
the most common weight material used in oil- Different grades are available, as distin-
and synthetic-base muds. Calcium guished by their melting points. Some
common carbonate is also used, particularly in operators prefer not to use gilsonite
weight lower-density packer fluids, where it is because of concerns regarding forma-
material easier to suspend than either barite or tion plugging and damage. Gilsonite
hematite. Hematite may be used in may contain hydrocarbons that will be
used in high-density muds where its high spe- considered contaminants in synthetic-
oil- and cific gravity helps minimize the total base muds. It should be determined if
synthetic- solids content of the mud. Alternative the use of gilsonite is forbidden by
weight materials may require different existing or impending regulations
base muds. wetting agents. before adding it to synthetic fluids.
Filtration-control additives. HTHP VERSALIG (amine-treated lignite) is
filtration control of invert emulsion often used in cases when VERSATROL I
muds is affected by the viscosity of or asphalt is not acceptable. This may
the continuous fluid phase, the oil- occur if gilsonite is not allowed due
or synthetic-to-water ratio, the tight- to concerns about formation damage,
ness of the emulsion, water-wetting when temperatures exceed the melt-
of the solids, the solids content, and ing point of gilsonite, or when asphalt
the amount of amine-treated clay in is restricted due to environmental reg-
the system. Many synthetic systems do ulations. Although often used in syn-
not require special filtration-control thetic systems, amine-treated lignite
additives in formulations designed for may be considered to be objectionable
use at temperatures less than 300°F for use in synthetic fluids because it
(149°C). At temperatures above this, will discolor the fluid. M-I’s “F”-type
most systems require a filtration-control polymeric filtration-control additive is
additive. Gilsonite (VERSATROLT I) or preferable to amine-treated lignite in
asphalt, amine-treated lignite (VERSALIGT) some synthetic muds, as it will pro-
and polymers are the most common vide good filtration control without
filtration-control additives. discoloring a mud.

CHAPTER
Systems
Oil and synthetic liquids can be than conventional invert emulsion
used to formulate three different muds. It is normal for them to
types of systems: have some water in the HTHP
1. All-oil systems. These systems do filtrate. They may also have mea-
not contain water in their formula- surable API (100 psi) filtrate. The
tion. In practice, while drilling they emulsions are loose, and the elec-
incorporate small amounts of water trical stability will be lower than
from the formation and cuttings. that of conventional invert emul-
Most will tolerate only very little sion muds. Relaxed systems use
water and rarely contain more than surfactant emulsifiers that do not
5% water. Quite often these sys- require lime. Relaxed filtrate,
tems, such VERSACOREE , are used to invert emulsion mud systems can
core productive intervals. be converted to conventional
2. Invert emulsions. These contain invert-emulsion mud systems,
oil (or synthetic) as the external or but conventional systems cannot be
continuous phase and water (brine) converted to relaxed systems. Relaxed-
as the internal phase of the emul- filtrate systems are generally used
sion. They can be subclassified in on land wells where Rates of
two separate categories: Penetration (ROP) are relatively
a) Conventional. These are “tight” low. They provide higher ROP
and very stable emulsions that with some bit types as compared
have zero API (100 psi) fluid to conventional systems.
loss. They usually have high
Synthetic electrical stability and a con-
Synthetic fluids are almost always
fluids are conventional systems. They are often
trolled HTHP fluid loss less than
formulated with the lowest synthetic-
almost 10 cm3 at 500 psi (3,447 kPa) and
to-water ratio that is consistent with
always 300°F (149°C), with no water in
stable properties to reduce the cost per
the filtrate.
conventional barrel. Most synthetic muds have low
b) Relaxed-filtrate. These are slightly
HTHP filtration rates without the use
systems. less stable emulsions purposefully
of special filtration-control additives at
run with higher HTHP filtrates
temperatures below 300°F (149°C).
The composi- Properties

tion, viscosity The composition, viscosity characteris- increased pressure. Fortunately, these
characteristics, density and properties of the base liquids also expand (reducing density)
tics, density liquid used in oil and synthetic fluids with increased temperature so that the
have a significant effect on properties, two effects (temperature and pressure)
and proper- viscosity at wellbore temperatures, somewhat counteract each other. The
ties of the and overall performance of oil and density will change with temperature
base liquid… synthetic drilling fluids. and pressure so that the equivalent
have a Density. Non-aqueous liquids used density downhole will be different
to formulate oil-base and synthetic sys- from the surface-measured density.
significant tems are much more compressible than There will even be a difference in den-
effect… water. Their density increases with sity between the Equivalent Circulating

CHAPTER
Specific Viscosity Flash Point Pour Point Aniline Point

Base Fluid Gravity (CST at 104°F) (°F) (°F) (°F)
Diesel oil 0.85 3-4 150 14 149
Ultra-low-tar mineral oil 0.81 3.5 >239 -10 ~190
Mineral oil 0.80 2-3 212 -0.4 169
Ester 0.85 5-7 354 -22 77
Poly Alpha Olefin (PAO) 0.80 5-7 347 -85 225
Ether 0.83 5-6 330 14 104
Linear Alpha Olefin (LAO) 0.78 2-3 237 - 295 10 - 32 156 - 178
Internal Olefin (IO) 0.78 2-3 279 -11 ~180
Linear Paraffin (LP) 0.77 2.5 >212 14 >200
Table 1: Typical properties oils and synthetic liquids
Density (ECD) while drilling and base fluids directly influences the Plastic
…there are Equivalent Static Density (ESD) while Viscosity (PV). Base fluids with high vis-
tripping due to these temperature and cosities make drilling fluids with higher
considerable pressure effects. An estimate of the PVs. The viscosity of all the oil and syn-
differences in downhole density can be calculated thetic fluids is temperature-sensitive —
the viscosity with M-I’s VIRTUAL HYDRAULICST soft- the viscosity decreases as the tempera-
ware. The actual density of these fluids ture increases, as shown for the funnel
and pour
is dependent on the base liquid proper- viscosity of a typical oil-base mud in
point of ties and the temperature and pressure Figure 10.
base profiles of the well being drilled. For rheology to be meaningful, it
oils and Rheology. As shown in Table 1, there must be checked at the same tempera-
are considerable differences in the vis- ture each time. A heat cup is used to
synthetic cosity and pour point of base oils and heat the sample to the desired tem-
fluids. synthetic fluids. The viscosity of the perature, usually 120 or 150°F (49 or
65.5°C), before the rheology is checked.
200 Base liquids with high pour points may
have unacceptably high viscosity at
180 cold temperatures.
18.0 lb/gal
Compression raises the viscosity of
160 the base fluid, as shown for diesel in
When a Figure 11. When a drilling fluid is com-
Funnel viscosity (sec/qt)
drilling 140 pressed, the effect on the viscosity is

even greater than the effect on the base
fluid is 120 fluid alone. The effect of compression
compressed,
100 8
the effect on 78°F
the viscosity 80 7.5 lb/gal 6
Viscosity (cP)
is even 100°F
4
greater than 60
the effect on 40 2
200°F
300°F
the base 350°F
0
fluid alone. 20
60 80 100 120 140 160 180 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Pressure (psi x 1,000)
Temperature (°F)
Figure 10: Effect of temperature on funnel viscosity Figure 11: Effect of temperature and pressure
of oil-base mud. on diesel-oil viscosity.

CHAPTER
is greatest in high-pressure wells — viscosity; water content; and with

deep wells drilled with heavyweight the concentration, size, shape and
mud and high pump pressures. distribution of the solids.
For situations where it is critical to 2. Yield point is often used as an indica-
know the exact hydrostatic and cir- tor of a drilling fluid’s shear thinning
culating pressures in the well, the characteristics and ability to suspend
rheology of these fluids should be cuttings and weight material. The
tested under temperature and pres- yield point is determined from the
sure using a Fann Model 70 HTHP viscometer 300- and 600-RPM read-
rheometer. With this information ings and may not be indicative of a
and M-I’s VIRTUAL HYDRAULICS soft- drilling fluid’s low-shear-rate rheology.
…the effect of ware, the effect of temperature and Other rheological measures may be
temperature pressure can be predicted to optimize better indicators of shear thinning
the hydraulic conditions. and low-shear-rate behavior. These
and pressure The emulsified water droplets in include the low-shear yield point (2 x
can be invert emulsions act like solids. This 3 RPM minus 6 RPM), yield stress in
predicted to causes the plastic viscosity to increase as the modified power law model and
the water concentration is increased. the “n” value of the power law model.
optimize the The oil (or synthetic) and water content The “n” value usually increases with
hydraulic may need to be changed at times to treatments of wetting agents and
conditions. help adjust the rheological properties. emulsifiers that “thin” the mud and
Acceptable ranges for the rheology of reduce the yield point. The “n” value
oil- and synthetic-base drilling fluids are can be decreased by treatments of
determined in part by the base fluid’s low-shear-rate rheology modifiers
properties. In all cases, the plastic vis- (VERSAMODE and NOVAMODE ) and
cosity should be kept as low as econom- amine-treated clay that “thicken” the
ics permit. The yield point and gels mud, thus increasing the yield point.
should then be adjusted for optimum 3. Initial gel strength above 5 lb/100 ft2
performance depending on the required is usually required to suspend weight
density, annular geometry, hole angle, material. This is not an absolute value
flow rate and well temperature. because of the effects of temperature
The basic concepts of rheology apply on oil and synthetic fluids. Oil and
to oil and synthetic drilling fluids: synthetic fluids should always be
1. Plastic viscosity is the theoretical vis- monitored for settling which can
cosity of a fluid at an infinite shear indicate either one of two different
rate. It should be kept as low as possi- serious problems: settling because
ble. It is a good approximation of the of inadequate gel strengths or
viscosity through the bit. Plastic water-wet solids.
viscosity increases with base-fluid

CHAPTER
ALKALINITY POM concentrations of carbon dioxide or

The (POM) The phenolphthalein alkalinity (POM hydrogen sulfide.
or VSA) of an oil- or synthetic-base mud NOTE: M-I bases all recommendations
of an oil- or concerning alkalinity treatments on the
is a measure of the excess lime con-
synthetic- tent. Conventional invert emulsion API VSA or POM method. If the operator
base mud is systems use the primary emulsifier and desires, we will determine the POM by
calcium from lime to form calcium both the API method and the “Back
a measure Titration” method. However, all treat-
soaps for the emulsion. The excess
of the excess lime content can be calculated by: ment recommendations will be based
lime content. Excess lime (lb/bbl) = POM x 1.295
on the API VSA (direct titration) method.
The POM of conventional systems FLUID LOSS

should be maintained above 2.5 cm3 of Although the filtrate of an oil or syn-
0.1 N sulfuric acid, with typical values thetic fluid mud will not cause hole
being 5 to 10. If the POM of a conven- and formation problems associated
tional system falls below 2.5 for an with clay swelling, filtrate should be
extended period of time, the emulsion controlled because high fluid loss
may become unstable. Generally, high may lead to differentially stuck pipe
alkalinity produces a more stable water- and formation damage in some for-
in-oil emulsion. Relaxed filtrate systems mations. The HTHP fluid loss (300°F
use surfactant emulsifiers that do not and 500 psi) of conventional formu-
require lime to maintain stable emul- lations is normally controlled at less
sions. In relaxed-filtrate systems, the than 10 cm3. The base fluid and for-
POM is normally maintained at approxi- mulation determine the amount and
…high fluid mately 1 to 2 cm3 of 0.1 N sulfuric acid type of fluid-loss-control additives.
loss may to buffer against acid gases. Generally, gilsonite (VERSATROL I) is
Lime is added to oil- and synthetic- the most widely used filtration control
lead to additive in oil-base systems although
base drilling fluids for alkalinity and
differentially calcium to treat carbon dioxide (CO2) any of the other fluid-loss additives
stuck or hydrogen sulfide (H2S) contami- can also be used. VERSALIG should
nation. Most oil- and synthetic-base be used if the operator has a policy
pipe and against using asphaltic materials and
drilling fluids have a relatively high tol-
formation erance for lime. Ester-base synthetic sys- gilsonite for filtration control.
damage… tems are an exception. Lime can react Relaxed fluid-loss systems normally
with esters and cause serious problems. do not require the use of VERSATROL I
The excess lime content of ester-base or VERSALIG, because high fluid loss is
drilling fluids must be monitored and desirable. Filtration can be reduced
controlled carefully within acceptable through the use of additional emulsi-
ranges, especially when drilling cement. fiers and wetting agents. Relaxed sys-
Ester-base drilling fluids are not the best tems may contain water in the HTHP
choice for drilling zones with high fluid loss.

CHAPTER
Synthetic fluids normally do not solids act as water droplets with

require additional additives to meet respect to electrical conductivity.
HTHP fluid-loss requirements. Clusters of water-wet solids conduct
Frequently, additional emulsifier will electricity, producing the effect of
reduce fluid loss. M-I “F,” a polymeric larger water droplets and a reduction
material, can be used in synthetic-base in electrical stability.
muds when a fluid-loss additive is 3. Emulsion strength. Water droplets
needed. VERSALIG, an amine-treated are larger and more weakly emulsified
lignite, is generally compatible with in new and unstable mud systems,
these systems, but it will discolor syn- causing these fluids to have signifi-
thetic muds. VERSATROL I and asphaltic cantly lower emulsion stability val-
materials should not be used as they ues. Increased shear and temperature
may contaminate synthetic fluid base and the incorporation of some drill
systems with hydrocarbons that reduce solids significantly increase emulsion
their environmental value to that of stability in freshly prepared fluids. In
common oil mud. existing fluids, increasing the emulsi-
fier and wetting agent concentration
ELECTRICAL STABILITY
improves emulsion strength. Water
The electrical The electrical stability is an indication of droplet size and emulsifier con-
stability is how well (or tightly) the water is emulsi- centration governs this aspect of
fied in the oil or synthetic phase. Higher emulsion stability.
an indica- values indicate a stronger emulsion and 4. Temperature. The temperature at
tion of how more stable fluid. Oil and the synthetic which the electrical stability measure-
well…the fluids do not conduct electricity. In the ment is made changes the emulsion
electrical stability test, the voltage (elec- stability and electrical conductance.
water is trical potential) is increased across elec- The electrical stability should be mea-
emulsified trodes on a fixed-width probe until the sured at the same temperature (120°F
in the oil or emulsified water droplets connect (i.e., or 49°C) to provide relevant data.
coalesce) to form a continuous bridge or
synthetic circuit. The stronger the emulsion, the
5. Salt concentration. The electrical
conductivity of water increases
phase. higher the voltage required to break with increasing salt concentration.
down the emulsion completing the Increasing the salt concentration
electrical circuit to conduct electricity. will usually cause a slight decrease
The unit of measure for recording the in electrical stability. In addition,
electrical stability is volts. adding powdered salt can cause
Some of the most important factors temporary instability until the
that influence electrical stability are: salt becomes solubilized into
1. Water content. Higher water con- the water phase.
tent decreases electrical stability 6. Saturation. When the water phase
because the distance between water becomes salt saturated, especially
droplets decreases. This allows for with calcium chloride, salt will pre-
easier electrical circuit completion cipitate from solution as a water-
through coalescence and a reduction wet solid that reduces emulsion
in the electrical stability. stability. In addition, when drilling
2. Water-wet solids. Water-wet solids salt sections careful attention to the
reduce emulsion stability. Water-wet amount and types of salts is critical

CHAPTER
to preventing this unstable situa- These values should be plotted so that

tion (see binary salt calculation). trends can be easily seen. Trends upward
Small additions of freshwater to or downward indicate changes in the
reduce saturation and dissolve system. An analysis of sequential mud
the salt will solve this problem. checks will indicate possible causes of
7. Weight material. High-density the change.
muds weighted with hematite or
CaCl2 CONTENT
other special minerals often have
lower electrical stabilities than Calcium chloride is added to increase
muds weighted with barite. the emulsified water phase salinity
to provide inhibition of shales and
The electrical Freshly mixed, invert-emulsion muds reactive solids. The range for calcium
stability of usually have low electrical stabilities chloride content is usually 25 to 35%
when shipped from the liquid mud by weight. The CaCl2 content should
an oil- or plant, even though they are adequately be determined by titration and can be
synthetic- treated with emulsifiers. The emulsions calculated by:
base fluid of these systems will tighten as they are
% CaCl2 (wt) =
exposed to downhole temperatures and
should be Ag x 1.565
used to
sheared through the bit. Sufficient shear
will actually form a “mechanical” emul-
( (Ag x 1.565) + %H2O )x 100
indicate sion with little emulsifier or wetting Where:

agent. Once drilling has commenced, Ag = cm3 0.282 N silver nitrate
trends. barite, organophilic clay and drill solids per cm3 of mud
will aid in further stabilizing the % H2O = Volume % water from retort
emulsion as these oil-wet fine solids
The concentration can be adjusted by
are adsorbed at the water interface.
adding powdered calcium chloride over
The electrical stability of an oil- or
several circulations. Powdered CaCl2 is
synthetic-base fluid should be used to
preferred over flake CaCl2, because the
indicate trends. An electrical stability
…flake of 800 in one mud may indicate a per-
larger flake particles do not readily dis-
particles do solve in oil and synthetic muds. Flaked
fectly stable emulsion if the electrical
salts must first be dissolved in water
not readily stability has remained constant for
before being added to a non-aqueous
dissolve in several days. But an electrical stability
system. The powdered form is generally
of 1,200 in another mud might indi-
oil and available as 94 to 97% active material.
cate major problems if previous values
The CaCl2 content should be main-
synthetic had been significantly higher. A well-
tained at a concentration lower than
muds. defined downward trend or a rapid
saturation (40% wt).
drop in electrical stability indicates
Alternatives to CaCl2 include
the emulsion is weakening.
sodium chloride, potassium chloride,
Electrical stability measurements
organic non-chlorides salts and other
should be made and recorded routinely.
water-soluble liquids.

CHAPTER
Controlled Activity
Water Water activity (AW) is a measure of the concentration of solute or salt, to

activity is a chemical potential for water to be trans- equalize the concentrations. The theory
ferred between mud and shales. Activity of controlled activity describes the oil
measure of is measured using the vapor pressure or synthetic fluid and emulsifiers sur-
the chemical (relative humidity) of shale or mud. rounding the water droplets as a semi-
potential for Activity can also be estimated based on permeable membrane. Shale control
the chemical composition of the brine using this controlled (or balanced)
water to be (salinity). Pure water has an AW of 1.0. activity is limited mainly to oil- and
transferred Calcium chloride brines used in most synthetic-emulsion muds. Water-base
between mud non-aqueous emulsion muds have an muds containing additives (such as
AW between 0.8 (22% wt) and 0.55 glycols and silicates) exhibit only
and shales. (34% wt). Lower values for activity are weak semi-permeable membrane
more inhibitive. characteristics.
Procedures for calculating the Calcium chloride (CaCl2) is normally
amount of salt or water to add to used to obtain activities from 1.0 to 0.40
adjust activity are covered in the (see Table 2 in the Calculations section
Calculations section at the end at the end of this chapter). Sodium chlo-
of this chapter. ride (NaCl) may be used to obtain activi-
Clay-containing formations and ties from 1.0 to 0.75 (saturated NaCl)
shales swell and are weakened by the (see Table 3 in the Calculations section
adsorption of water. The possibility at the end of this chapter). A wide vari-
exists that the water from an emulsion ety of alternative internal-phase chemi-
mud can alter shales if the AW of the cals can be used to reduce activity.
shale is lower than the activity of the However, many alternative materials do
mud. The key to inhibition is to “bal- not provide sufficiently low activity to
ance” the activity of the mud with that achieve adequate inhibition. When cal-
of the shale, so that the adsorption of cium chloride (CaCl2) is added to a satu-
water onto the shales is theoretically rated sodium chloride (NaCl) brine, the
reduced to zero. activity is reduced but the effect is not
The transfer of water between an cumulative. Activity is based on mutual
emulsified brine and a shale is often solubility. Since CaCl2 has a greater solu-
compared to osmosis. In osmosis, a bility than NaCl, sodium chloride will
solvent (water) diffuses through a semi- precipitate as fine solids at conditions
permeable membrane from a low con- above saturation.
centration of solute or salt, to a high

CHAPTER
Oil or Synthetic Ratio (O/W or S/W)

The oil- or synthetic-to-water (O/W or 4. Rheology. The emulsified water in
S/W) ratio relates only to the liquid por- an invert emulsion acts like a solid
tion of the mud and is not affected by and increases the plastic viscosity
the solids content. The oil- or synthetic- as the O/W or S/W ratio decreases.
to-water ratio relates the oil and water The emulsified water also helps
fractions to the total liquid fraction. organophilic clays and fatty acid
Generally, Generally, higher mud weights require rheological modifiers (VERSAMOD
higher mud higher ratios. However, different condi- and NOVAMOD) yield. Special clays
tions favor the use of different ratios, so and alternative viscosifiers may be
weights there is no ratio that must be used for required for all-oil or high-ratio
require any set of conditions. fluids (>90:10).
higher The calculation of the oil-to-water 5. Fluid loss. The emulsified water in
ratio requires retort values as follows: invert emulsions acts like a solid
ratios. and lowers the fluid loss. Muds
Oil ratio (O) =
vol % oil with low O/W or S/W ratios tend to
( vol % oil + vol % water ) x 100 have lower fluid losses than muds
with high ratios.
Water ratio (W) = 100 – oil ratio 6. Mud weight. The weight material
Factors that affect the oil-to-water or in an oil or synthetic mud must be
synthetic-to-water ratios are: wet with the oil or synthetic fluid.
1. Base fluid cost. Oils and synthetic As the density of the mud is increased,
fluids are expensive. Lower oil- and the liquid phase volume decreases
synthetic-to-water ratios reduce the and the O/W or S/W ratio must be
price of the final formulation. increased to provide additional base
2. Residual oil or synthetic fluid on fluid to wet the weight material. The
cuttings. In some offshore areas, higher the mud weight, the more
the permissible residual oil or syn- difficult it is to run low-ratio (high-
thetic fluid on discharged cuttings water) fluids.
is regulated. Low oil- and synthetic- 7. Temperature. Emulsion stability
to-water ratios reduce the amount decreases with temperature. Higher
of oil or synthetic residue on the O/W or S/W ratios are run in high-
cuttings, making it easier to meet temperature formulations to achieve
specified limits. Invert emulsions greater emulsion stability.
with O/W or S/W ratios of 50:50 Procedures for calculating the amount
have been run in the North Sea to of water or oil to add to adjust the O/W
meet these specifications. activity are covered in the Calculations
3. Residual brine on cuttings. In some section at the end of this chapter.
locations, the amount of residual The O/W ratio remains constant
brine on cuttings may be restricted when the mud is weighted up or solids
due to environmental considera- are incorporated into the mud, even
tions. All-oil or high-O/W or -S/W though the volume percent liquid is
formulations can be used to reduce decreased significantly. A rapid decrease
the amount of brine discharged on in the O/W or S/W ratio indicates an
cuttings. Alternative internal-phase influx of saltwater from the formation,
chemicals can be used to replace and a pit volume increase should have
chloride salts and still obtain a low been observed. When using oil or syn-
water-phase activity. thetic muds, all water hoses on the pits

CHAPTER
should be disconnected or plugged water should be added to the system to

to prevent accidental contamination maintain a stable oil- or synthetic-to-
with water. Heavy rains may also water ratio. If the oil- or synthetic-to-
contaminate the system with water. water ratio is allowed to increase too
Contamination with water from any high from evaporation of water, the
source will decrease the oil- or syn- salt in the water phase may reach sat-
thetic-to-water ratio and require that uration, precipitate and destabilize
chemicals and oil or synthetic fluid the emulsion.
be added to maintain the properties. The viscosity and HTHP filtrate will
An increase in the O/W or S/W ratio is change with changes in the oil- or
unusual unless base oil or synthetic is synthetic-to-water ratio. Changing the
added to the system. If this is observed, ratio is not used to alter either of these
carefully monitor pit volumes to be sure properties. What would appear to be a
that formation liquids, such as crude, relatively minor change can involve
are not intruding and contaminating significant increases in volume and
the mud system. Evaporation of the cost. For example, if the O/W ratio of a
water phase has been reported with 14.4 lb/gal mud containing 30% solids
high flow line temperatures. This will is increased from 70:30 to 75:25, the oil
increase O/W or S/W ratios. After the plus the barite required to maintain the
trend of increasing ratio is confirmed weight at 14.4 will increase the volume
with more than one retort analysis, by 19%.
Gas Solubility
Oil and 10
synthetic Oil and synthetic fluids are soluble to
Hydrogen
Diesel at 250°F
Gas/oil ratio (scf/bbl)
methane and other gases encountered 8

fluids are while drilling. They have high gas solu-
sulfide
soluble to bility to natural gas, carbon dioxide and

6
Carbon
methane and hydrogen sulfide, as shown in Figure 12. 4 dioxide
other gases This can interfere with kick detection

and well-control procedures. This solu- 2 Methane
encountered ble gas does not begin to come out of
0
while solution until the pressure is reduced as 0 2 4 6 8 10
the mud is circulated up the annulus. Pressure (psi x 1,000)
drilling.
The majority of the gas expansion Figure 12: Gas solubility in diesel oil.
occurs in the last 1,000-ft interval below
the surface. For this reason, extra care
should be taken to monitor pit levels
with these systems and when handling
the influx of wellbore fluids. It is impor-

CHAPTER
Gas Stripping of Barite

tant to be able to monitor and detect conditions, the liquefied gases down-
kicks to a level of about 5 bbl. hole become completely miscible in the
Although gas stripping of barite is not external or diesel phase. Either an intru-
common, the problem can exist and sion due to underbalance or the density
can be demonstrated in the laboratory. difference will allow these low-density
Symptoms of gas stripping may include: hydrocarbons to migrate upward, mix-
unexpected settling in a localized area of ing and diluting the mud, and reducing
the wellbore, slight to moderate flowing viscosity. The dilution from these liquids
of the well and gas-cut mud upon may sufficiently weaken gel strengths to
returning to circulation. Under static the point of causing barite to settle out.
Water-Wet Solids
When It is obvious that increasing mud den- The concentration of wetting agent
oil-wet, the sity is the only cure for this problem. in non-aqueous emulsion fluids must
When exposed to mixtures of water be maintained at adequate levels at all
solids will and oil or synthetic fluid, most solids times. Unfortunately, there are no quan-
not adhere to (drill solids, salts and weight materials) titative field tests for determining the
one another will preferentially water-wet unless sur- concentration of wetting agents. Pilot
factant wetting agents are used to make testing with added solids (clay or barite)
or to other can be done as a qualitative indication
them oil- or synthetic-wet. Water-wet
surfaces. solids in emulsion muds adhere to of reserve wetting agent. A number of
each other and aggregate so that they indications of water-wetting can be
may settle and sag, adhere to metal sur- observed along with changes in mud
faces and destabilize the emulsion. As properties to anticipate a water-wetting
discussed earlier, wetting agents coat problem. The following parameters can
the solids and cause them to oil- (or help determine the need for increasing
synthetic-) wet. When oil-wet, the wetting agent concentration before
The concen- solids will not adhere to one another problems arise.
tration of or to other surfaces. 1. Cuttings integrity. Cuttings that
The concentration of wetting agent are preferentially oil-wet are firm
wetting decreases with time and use as it is car- and possess an angular form. Water-
agent… ried off on cuttings. If the wetting agent wet cuttings are gummy, sticky (espe-
must be concentration falls below a certain level, cially to metal parts) and soft with
the solids will water-wet. When weight rounded smooth corners. Due to
maintained their gummy, sticky nature, water-
material is added to a mud, additional
at adequate wetting agent is needed to coat these wet solids tend to coalesce and
levels at high surface area solids so that they do “piggy-back” across a shaker screen.
not become water-wet. If salt (especially 2. Sticky solids or “sag.” Water-wet
all times. solids may coat or blind the shaker
calcium chloride) is precipitated from
the brine phase of an invert emulsion, it screens and prevent mud from pass-
will require large amounts of wetting ing through the screen. This should
agent to act on the tremendous surface not be confused with plugging the
area of the ultra-fine solids. screens with sand or bridging mate-
rials. Water-wet solids also settle and
sag, so a build up of settled solids in

CHAPTER
_______________________ the mud pits or barite sag observed tated. When drilling salt, the binary
_______________________ when testing the mud can be an salt titrations and calculations must
indication of water-wet solids. be done. Precipitated salt crystals are
_______________________
3. Pump pressure. “Gummy/sticky” difficult to wet and often act as water-
_______________________ water-wet solids tend to adhere to wet solids. The affinity for water is
_______________________ metal parts. When water-wet solids stronger if the salt is divalent such
adhere and build up in the bore of the as calcium or magnesium chloride.
_______________________
drillstring, the restriction in flow will The salt concentration should be
_______________________ quickly increase the pump pressure. kept below saturation for the lowest
_______________________ 4. Fine cuttings. The surface of the cut- temperature in the circulating system.
_______________________
tings must be oil-wet. The amount of If the salt saturation level is exceeded,
wetting agent required to oil-wet the the mud should be treated with water
_______________________ surface of the cuttings increases as the to reduce brine salinity. Increased
_______________________ surface area of the cuttings increases. treatments of wetting agent will be
_______________________
Finely ground cuttings have a greater required any time saturated brine
surface area than coarse cuttings. conditions are encountered.
_______________________
Cuttings when drilling siltstone, lig- 8. Red rag test. The wet “red rag” test
_______________________ nite, salt and limestone are naturally may appear unscientific, but it can
_______________________ small. The cuttings when drilling provide a simple confirmation of
with conventional diamond bits are water wetting. In the test, an oil or
very fine. Formations and bits that synthetic mud covered spatula is
produce fine cuttings will increase the wiped on a water-wet red shop rag.
requirements for wetting agents. If the mud (solids) stay on top of
5. Dull, grainy appearance. Much the rag, the mud solids are water-
can be determined by observing the wet. If the solids soak into and pass
appearance of invert-emulsion fluids. through the rag surface leaving
Systems that are stable, well emulsi- only a dark stain, the fluid is oil-
fied and oil-wet are shiny and glossy. or synthetic-wet.
Water-wet solids will give an oil mud 19. Mixer impeller test. Stir a sample of
a dull, flat, grainy appearance. In the oil mud in a Hamilton Beach-
extreme cases, free water may collect type mixer for a period of 30 min
on the surface of the fluid. at 2,000 to 4,000 RPM. Raise the
6. Water in HTHP filtrate. One of the blade out of the sample and spin
first indications of instability is an dry (do not wipe dry). If gummy
increase in the HTHP fluid loss and solids adhere to the blades, the
“free” water in the filtrate. Relaxed sample is water-wet. The mixer
systems that normally contain blade should always appear to be
water in the HTHP filtrate cannot clean and oil-wet.
be diagnosed using this technique. 10. Glass jar tests. There are two vari-
7. Saturated brine phase. Salt solubil- ations of this test, one using a
ity varies with temperature changes Hamilton Beach-type mud mixer
so that when a fluid is cooled, salt and one a Waring-type blender.
may precipitate as fine, troublesome The mud mixer test uses a glass jar
solids. All emulsion muds should be and the blender method uses the
monitored for saturation and treated glass blender jar. Both tests use the
to limit salt precipitation. In addi- appearance of the glass after mix-
tion, when drilling salt, the calcium ing the mud for a period of time.
chloride brine becomes saturated so Water-wet solids will adhere to the
that salt is constantly being precipi- glass and form an opaque film if

CHAPTER
severe water-wetting is occurring. problem. However, it is recommended

A slight film will be observed if to begin with a treatment of 0.5- to
minor wetting problem is present. 1.0-lb/bbl wetting agent. NOTE: The
Mud mixer test: Place 350 ml most important thing is to begin treat-
mud in a 16-ounce jar and stir at ments immediately once the problem
70 volts (using a rheostat) for 1 hr. has been identified!
Pour out mud and rinse (by hand When possible, pilot testing can indi-
or with slight shake) first with the cate a need for wetting agent before it
base liquid (oil or synthetic) then becomes apparent. Five samples should
with an emulsion breaking solvent be hot rolled for 16 hr at 160°F. One
(like xylene/IPA). Turn the jar upside sample should be hot rolled without
down on a rag and allow to dry. being treated with additional wetting
Observe film on jar. Blender test: agent. The remaining four samples
Stir 350 ml of mud at high speed in should be treated with 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and
a glass blender jar for 30 min. Pour 2.0 lb/bbl of wetting agent. If the base
the mud out and rinse the blender sample has adequate wetting agent,
jar with xylene/IPA or a similar there should be only very small incre-
solvent. Air-dry the jar without mental differences in the electrical
wiping. Observe film on glass. stability, rheology and HTHP of the
11. Electrical stability test. A single samples with increased concentration
electrical stability reading (numeri- of wetting agent. If the base fluid needs
cal value) of an oil mud will not wetting agent, there will be a signifi-
indicate if a fluid has oil-wet or cant difference in the properties of the
water-wet solids. However, a plot untreated base and the other samples.
of the electrical stability readings Another pilot-testing method for
over several days can reveal fluctu- water-wetting and overall mud sta-
ations that suggest a decline in the bility involves a similar method incre-
stability of the system and the pos- mentally weighting up samples 2 or
sibility of the onset of a water-wet more lb/gal.
solids problem. Whenever oil- or synthetic-fluid muds
are hot rolled, adequate ventilation,
These tests should be used with
safety equipment and fire extinguishers
observed trends in the other mud
should be available. To minimize the
properties to determine the need
likelihood of leaking or breaking, the
for additional wetting agent.
bombs/jars should be tightly sealed and
Treatment: There is no exact method
the sample should be given “head”
to determine the quantity of wetting
room for expansion (see Pilot Testing
agent that will be required to com-
section of Testing chapter).
pletely correct any given water-wet

CHAPTER
Hydrogen Sulfide
Hydrogen Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a poisonous

sulfide is a and dangerous acidic gas encountered
in many formations and produced flu-
poisonous ids. It can quickly deaden senses and
and can be fatal even at low concentrations.
dangerous Personal protection and the appropriate
safety measures should be taken any
acidic gas… time hydrogen sulfide is suspected.
Oil and synthetic muds provide good
protection from hydrogen sulfide corro-
sion and hydrogen embrittlement. The
continuous oil or synthetic phase of the
mud is non-conductive and does not
provide an electrolyte for the corrosion
process. If the mud has adequate wet-
ting agents, the drill pipe will be prefer-
entially oil- or synthetic-wet. However,
if the emulsion becomes unstable, and
the mud water-wets the drillstring and
casing, the corrosion protection pro-
vided by oil and synthetic muds will
be lost.
High lime Hydrogen sulfide is an acid gas. High
content lime content emulsion muds are best
for drilling in known hydrogen sulfide
emulsion formations. Hydrogen sulfide contami-
muds are nation can reduce alkalinity (POM) and
best for destabilize the emulsion of oil and
synthetic muds. This can lead to water-
drilling in wetting of the drill pipe, sulfide corro-
known sion and hydrogen embrittlement.
hydrogen Oil- and synthetic-fluid muds offer
corrosion protection from hydrogen
sulfide sulfide, but no increase in protection
formations. for personnel. Hydrogen sulfide is just
as toxic and dangerous to personnel
when oil and synthetic muds are used
as when water-base muds are used.
Use personal safety protection and
the utmost caution if hydrogen sulfide
is encountered. NOTE: When hydrogen
sulfide is expected or encountered, the oil
mud alkalinity (POM) should be main-
tained at >5.0 cm3 of 0.1 N H2SO4 at the
flow line with additions of lime. In addi-
tion to forming calcium soaps that
are essential for a stable emulsion in

CHAPTER
Lost Circulation
Lost conventional oil muds, lime reacts Lost circulation with oil and synthetic
circulation… with hydrogen sulfide to form calcium muds can quickly become intolerable
sulfide and convert hydrogen sulfide due to the high cost of the fluids. The
can quickly gas to soluble sulfides. compressibility of these fluids makes
become Although lime is essential to safely the density and rheological properties
intolerable drilling zones that contain hydrogen of the mud higher downhole. This
sulfide, it does not render the sulfides makes the likelihood of losing circu-
due to the completely inert. A zinc-base scavenger, lation with oil and synthetic muds
high cost of like SULF-X,T should be used to precipi- greater than with water-base mud hav-
the fluids. tate the sulfides as zinc sulfide. Lime, ing similar density and rheology. To
SULF-X and adequate mud weight pro- minimize lost circulation, the mud
vide the basis for safely drilling zones density and rheological properties
containing hydrogen sulfide. These should be kept at the minimum values
precautions can still be overwhelmed consistent with safety and good drill-
by a large “bubble” or hydrogen sulfide ing practices. M-I’s VIRTUAL HYDRAULICS
kick. NOTE: When drilling hydrogen computer program can model and
sulfide zones, no drilling fluid product optimize the performance of oil and
or system is an adequate substitute for synthetic fluids under downhole con-
training, preparation and caution on the ditions to minimize the possibility of
part of all personnel involved with the lost circulation.
drilling operation. Another reason for the increased
When hydrogen sulfide is encoun- risk of losing returns with oil and syn-
tered, the mud may require large addi- thetic muds is their low leak-off (fluid-
tions of lime, emulsifier and wetting loss) values. The properties of these
agents to stabilize its properties. The fluids make them excellent fracturing
mud should be watched for indications fluids, as they tend to propagate frac-
of water-wetting. tures better than water-base fluids. This
Hydrogen sulfide may turn the mud characteristic, combined with the fact
black. It may be detectable by its rotten that they oil- or synthetic-wet the frac-
egg odor and through the use of “snif- tured formation, prevents it from soft-
fers” or detectors. The alkalinity (POM) ening and healing as readily as with
will decrease, but this can be an indica- water-base. For this reason, oil and
tion of carbon dioxide (CO2) contami- synthetic muds are not recommended
nation as well as hydrogen sulfide (H2S) for testing casing shoes and fracture
contamination. The electrical stability pressures. Because of their compress-
and rheology may drop. The modified ibility, the actual hydrostatic pressure
The buildup garrett gas train is the most reliable cannot be known with certainty, and
of solids is test method for determining if an oil or even Formation Integrity Tests (FIT)
unacceptable synthetic mud is contaminated with can pose a significant risk of fracturing
hydrogen sulfide. The procedure for the formation.
and the this test can be found in the Testing In the event of lost circulation, the
increase in chapter of this manual. When hydro- procedures used to regain circulation
viscosity may gen sulfide is expected, the gas from are similar to those used with water-
drilling breaks, connections and trips base mud systems. A more thorough
increase the should be tested with the modified discussion of lost circulation and reme-
ECD… garrett gas train in addition to the dies is covered in the Lost Circulation
regularly scheduled mud checks. chapter. Lost circulation can be divided

CHAPTER
into two basic situations: (1) losses into to be applied according to the suspected
an active fracture (usually in a shale mode of loss.
near the last casing shoe), and (2) whole Lost-Circulation Material (LCM) pills
mud losses to porous and permeable containing from 30 to 50 lb/bbl (86
zones (that can range from matrix to 143 kg/m3) of LCM is a recommended
sandstones to vugular and cavernous standard. These pills should be spotted at
carbonate formations). The types of the thief zone and should be left undis-
materials and techniques used need turbed for a period of time. Generally,
Solids Control
High drill a blend of several different types of squeezes are often more effective than
solids LCM works better than a single prod- LCM pills. Again, the materials and
uct. For instance, a blend of granular, techniques should be matched to the
increase fibrous and flake materials often works rate of mud loss. In the most severe
plastic best. The particle size of the LCM used cases of lost circulation where the nor-
viscosity by should be matched with the rate of mal procedures have failed to bring
mud losses. Medium or fine grades of about total returns and cost is a prob-
crowding. mica or NUT PLUGT are recommended lem, oil and synthetic systems should be
for LCM pills. A blend of sized calcium displaced with a water-base mud system.
carbonate particles has been used suc- Efficient solids control is essential to the
cessfully in many areas, especially where economic use of oil and synthetic sys-
losses are to high-permeability-matrix tems due to their relatively high cost
formations. Losses to active fractures and disposal considerations. Although
have been shown to be slowed or drill solids do not hydrate in oil and
stopped with an adequate concentra- synthetic muds as they do in water-base
tion of larger-granule LCM additives. Be muds, solids control is critical in these
aware that flake cellophane, cedar bark, muds. High drill solids increase plastic
cane fiber, saw dust, cotton seed hulls, viscosity by crowding. Drill solids must
grain hulls, shredded newspaper and be treated with wetting agents to keep
other shredded fibrous materials can them from destabilizing the emulsion.
destabilize emulsions. These materials Excessive solids in oil- and synthetic-
Shale shakers should not be used in oil or synthetic base muds not only reduce hydraulic
are the muds, if there are other options. efficiency, but they may reduce the sta-
primary While it is a common practice with bility of the emulsion as well. The cost
water-base muds containing LCM to of the base fluid and chemicals in these
method bypass the shale shakers, this should systems make correcting solids contam-
of controlling not be done with oil- and synthetic- ination through dilution more expen-
drill solids base muds. The buildup of solids is sive than using adequate solids-control
unacceptable and the increase in vis- equipment to minimize drill solids
in oil- and cosity may increase the ECD and may accumulation.
synthetic- actually increase mud losses. A well-designed solids-control pro-
base muds. In instances of severe lost circulation, gram is preferred to relying on dilution
specially formulated high-fluid-loss to keep drill solids at an acceptable
diatomaceous earth slurry squeezes level. Dilution creates a second prob-
(DIASEALE M type), reverse gunk squeezes lem in addition to cost, because the
(200 to 250 lb/bbl of VG-69 per barrel increased volume generated must be
of water with no cement) or cement transported, stored and/or disposed of.

CHAPTER
The solution is to mechanically remove cuttings. The underflow of the scalp-

Dilution and the solids before they have the oppor- ing shakers should then be routed to
tunity to accumulate and degrade in high capacity fine-screen shakers capa-
centrifuges size. Proper solids-control management ble of handling the highest flow rate.
are the only and maintenance allows oil and syn- Ideally, the screens on these shakers
effective thetic muds to be reused almost indefi- should be 200 mesh or finer.
nitely. If drill solids accumulate in an Wet cuttings from the primary shale
means of oil or synthetic mud they will cause shakers are often passed over “drying”
reducing the problems on subsequent wells. shakers to reduce the residual fluid
fine solids Good primary solids-control equip- on the cuttings to a minimum. These
content… ment (shale shakers and centrifuges) drying shakers tend to mechanically
is critical to the success of oil- and degrade the cuttings and return liquids
synthetic-base mud systems. Their high in fine solids. If a centrifuge is
importance increases in direct pro- being used, the underflow from the
portion to the cost of the base fluid. drying shakers should be centrifuged
before it is returned to the active system.
SHALE SHAKERS
Although the value of the synthetic
Shale shakers are the primary method fluid recovered by drying shakers can
of controlling drill solids in oil- and be significant, the primary use of these
synthetic-base muds. The shakers shakers is to reduce the quantity of
should use the finest mesh screens that waste that must be disposed of and
will not discharge liquid mud off the the residual liquid discharged with
end of the shaker or discard excessive the waste.
amounts of weight material. In practice,
this means mud should travel 2⁄3 to 3⁄4 MUD CLEANERS
the length of the shale shaker. With Mud cleaners have been used to control
good shakers, the screen mesh may be solids in oil muds with limited success.
limited by the amount of barite they The mud cleaner is designed to remove
discard. Three percent of recently added large particles from the mud system by
For API grade barite may be large enough processing the underflow from a desil-
weighted to be discarded by a 200-mesh screen. ter through a shaker screen. Thus, the
muds, It is more economical to screen out cut from a mud cleaner is governed by
small amounts of barite than it is to the screen size. High capacity, high
a dual- dilute the drilled solids that would G-force shale shakers can process the
centrifuge accumulate if larger mesh screens were entire mud flow over the fine mesh
(tandem) used. Mud should never be allowed screens, making a mud cleaner unnec-
system is to bypass the screens, since the cuttings essary. Even if the mud cleaner used
will be ground finer and finer with each ultrafine-mesh screens, the mechanical
often used. subsequent circulation to a point where degradation of the particles through its
they can not be removed mechanically. centrifugal feed pump would be detri-
Also, the increased concentration of mental and the unit would most likely
larger particles will reduce the effi- be removing more barite than drill
ciency of any additional solids- solids. There is little or no justification
control equipment. for using mud cleaners on rigs equipped
Shale shakers are critical for econom- with efficient shale shakers.
ically maintaining oil and synthetic
CENTRIFUGES
systems. If high penetration and flow
rates are anticipated, scalping shakers Dilution and centrifuges are the only
should be used to remove the larger effective means of reducing the fine

CHAPTER
solids content of oil and synthetic being returned to the system. If this
muds. Centrifuges reduce the amount occurs, adjustments should be made
of dilution needed to control mud to the centrifuge to lower its cut point.
properties. For weighted muds, a dual-centrifuge
Centrifuges can be used on unweighted (tandem) system is often used. The sys-
oil and synthetic muds to remove fine tem is designed to remove only the
drill solids and recover the expensive undesirable solids and retain both the
fluid phase. In this process, the discharge expensive fluid phase and the weight
containing drill solids is discarded while material. A primary low-G-force cen-
the effluent is returned to the active trifuge is used to recover most of the
system. The weight of the fluid being weight material, returning it directly
returned to the active system should to the active system. The overflow or
be monitored daily. If the returning fluid effluent (liquid with fine solids) is then
weight exceeds liquid phase density, processed through a secondary higher-
usually ~7.0 lb/gal, by an appreciable G-force centrifuge that makes a finer
amount, too many ultrafine solids are cut, removing as many of the fine solids
Cementing in Non-Aqueous Muds
Cementing… as is possible. The solids removed by used. The efficiency of centrifuges is

requires the secondary centrifuge are discarded decreased because of the increased vis-
and the expensive liquid effluent is cosity of the emulsion as compared to
the use of either returned to the active system or water-base mud. Therefore, a series of
specially used for dilution on the primary cen- high-G-force shakers with fine mesh
designed trifuge. The weight of the effluent from screens continue to be the most effec-
the secondary centrifuge must be mon- tive means of controlling drilled solids
spacer fluids itored regularly to determine if fine in oil and synthetic muds.
to prevent solids are accumulating and if it will Solids control is a major concern
mixing… be detrimental to the active system. in maintaining optimum mud per-
A rule of thumb can be used to evalu- formance and minimizing downtime.
ate the efficiency of the dual-centrifuge Correct use of solids-control equipment
system. A sample of the effluent from can minimize the expensive process of
the second centrifuge should be dilution by controlling the build-up of
weighted up to that of the active mud undesirable solids while minimizing
system. The mud rheology should then the loss of expensive fluid.
be measured and evaluated against the Cementing in oil and synthetic muds
desired properties of the drilling fluid. requires the use of specially designed
If the rheology is not acceptable, adjust- spacer fluids to prevent mixing of the
ments should be made in the proc- cement and oil or synthetic mud.
essing system to decrease the weight These spacers are designed to be com-
of the effluent. patible with both the cement and the
Unfortunately, no mechanical proc- mud while providing other necessary
essing system will eliminate the need for functions for cementing. In addition to
fresh dilution of oil or synthetic liquids obtaining a good displacement of oil or
while drilling. Downhole filtration, synthetic muds, spacers also need to
weight material additions and fine solids contain surfactants that will return the
accumulation require fresh oil additions, oil- or synthetic-wet surfaces back to a
regardless of the mechanical equipment water-wet condition so that an effective

CHAPTER
Packer Muds
cement bond can be achieved. Most placed fluid out of the hole in the
cement companies will provide their most efficient manner.
own spacers for this purpose.
Mixtures of oil or synthetic mud and
cement may form a viscous mass that
cannot be pumped, resulting in cement
channeling, lost circulation and poor
cement bonding. In addition, an oil or
synthetic mud will wet the casing and
the borehole, causing poor cement
bonding. The use of specially designed
spacers not only eliminates the prob-
lems associated with mixing, but can
also effect a change in the wettability of
the casing and borehole. Water-wetting
…packer the casing and borehole will lead to
fluids proper bonding of the cement. If spe-
cially designed spacers are not available,
should be the use of multiple spacers will be
formulated required. These consist of water and oil
so that they or synthetic fluid placed so they are in
contact with the fluid with which they
do not settle. are compatible (i.e., cement/water, diesel
oil/mud, synthetic fluid/mud). It is rec-
ommended that specially designed spac-
ers be used when possible due to their
added advantages.
The formulation of spacers varies
widely. The formulation used is depen-
dent on the personal preference of who-
ever is specifying or designing the spacer
and cement job. However, there is one
philosophy or technique common to all
spacer design — The fluid being dis-
placed should be as thin as possible,
while the displacing fluid should be as
thick as possible.
This approach promotes thinning of
the fluid in the hole so that it does not
channel, improves filter-cake removal
and generates a “piston-type” action of
the displacing fluid, forcing the dis-

CHAPTER
A packer fluid is the fluid that is left base muds do not offer the same level
above the packer in the annular space of performance as packer fluids.
between the tubing and casing or liner The following procedures can be
when a well is completed and ready used to formulate a stable oil or syn-
for production. Packer fluids are usu- thetic packer fluid without a specific
ally designed to provide hydrostatic formula or test procedure.
pressure equal to the pressure of the 1. The fluid to be used should be for-
producing formation. Most wells expe- mulated from an existing used mud
rience tubing failures or packer failures or should contain as much previ-
during their producing life and require ously used fluid as possible. Muds
remedial operations or stimulation. that have been used for drilling are
These procedures become unnecessar- more stable due to the previous
ily expensive and complicated if the heat cycling and shear through the
weight material from the packer fluid bit. These actions reduce and stabi-
settles on the packer. Consequently, lize the water droplet size and possi-
packer fluids should be formulated so bly reduce the size of the solids.
that they do not settle. Packer fluids Some colloidal solids are beneficial
should be thermally stable at the bot- in packer fluids as they help pre-
tom-hole temperature. They should vent sag. If new mud must be used,
also protect tubing OD and casing ID it should be circulated and sheared
from corrosion. through the well and a bit for 2 to
VERSADRILT and VERSACLEAN T systems 3 circulations or more, if possible.
can be formulated to be excellent 2. The mud system should be screened
packer muds. These packer muds pro- to remove large particles that are diffi-
vide (1) excellent temperature stability cult to suspend. This is a critical step
over long periods of time, (2) excellent in the proper construction of a packer
weight-material suspension characteris- mud and should be done without
tics and (3) lasting protection of the exception. Screen size should be as
metal goods from corrosion. Water- small as possible, up to 200 mesh.
Casing-Pack Fluids
It is common
3. Another critical issue is to be sure that must be taken not to overtreat with
practice the fluid does not contain any water- wetting agent, as this can thin the
to use the wet solids. Water-wet solids tend to fluid and cause barite settling from
drilling fluid form large conglomerates that settle insufficient viscosity.
as the more easily. Severe water-wetting may 4. The mud system MUST be treated
also prevent organophilic clays from with lime until the alkalinity (POM)
casing-pack building adequate gel strengths. stabilizes in the proper range. A min-
fluid. Before an oil or synthetic mud is used imum of 2 lb/bbl of excess lime is
for a packer fluid, it should be pilot required for ALL oil and synthetic
tested with suitable wetting agents packer muds. A new mud system
and emulsifiers to assure that water- will require large additions of lime
wetting does not exist. However, care to accomplish this because they

CHAPTER
consume lime during the calcium rheology must be high enough to

soap formation process before they prevent weight material from set-
become completely stable. Large tling for extended periods, years in
treatments of lime may cause water some cases. The rheological require-
wetting, that MUST be avoided and ments for this will vary with the oil-
corrected. It is recommended that or synthetic-to-water ratio of the
treatments of VERSACOAT or VERSAMULT packer fluid, its density, the spe-
accompany any large treatment cific gravity of the weight material
with lime. used and the bottom-hole tempera-
5. Packer fluids must be designed to ture of the well. The 10-min gel
meet different specifications from strength of weighted packer fluids
drilling fluids. The packer fluid’s will generally need to be in a range
Workover Fluids
of 25 to 60 lb/100 ft2. Packer fluids perature of the well. Check the static
weighing 10 to 13 lb/gal do not shear and properties of two samples
contain sufficient weight material after being static aged for one, seven
to gain suspension from particle and 30 or more days. Check the sam-
crowding. They will need higher ples for settling after the static shear
gel strengths than heavier-weight rates are taken. If both samples fail
packer fluids, and may need to be because of settling, excessive shear
formulated with bentonite or a rates, or instability of the mud prop-
low-yield clay to build body with erties, the other samples should be
colloidal-size solids. discarded and a new formulation
6. When pilot testing packer fluids, mix should be developed and tested.
enough volume of each formulation A casing pack is the fluid that is
to static age at least six samples. pumped ahead of the cement and left
Depending on the size of the static in the annulus above the cement on the
aging bombs, this will probably outside of the casing being cemented. It
Oil mud is require more than six-barrel equiv- is common practice to use the drilling
the fluid of alents. Use a sample of the actual fluid as the casing-pack fluid. When an
liquid mud that will be used in the oil or synthetic fluid casing pack is
choice for packer fluid to mix these samples. needed, the hole should be drilled with
“washing The properties of the packer fluid the system to eliminate the time needed
over” and should be checked and recorded for displacing and stabilizing the well
before static aging. Six samples of the with the casing pack. The purpose of oil
retrieving packer fluid should be pressured and or synthetic casing packs is:
casing. static aged at the bottom-hole tem- • To stabilize the wellbore.

CHAPTER
Troubleshooting Oil Muds

_______________________
Primary Emulsifier Wetting Agent
_______________________
Conventional system VERSAMUL VERSACOAT
_______________________ Relaxed system VERSACOAT VERSAWET
_______________________
A. PROBLEM: INSUFFICIENT VISCOSITY
_______________________
Cause Treatment
_______________________ Undertreatment of viscosifier Add organophilic clay, VG-69
Lack of proper particle size distribution Add VERSA-HRP
_______________________ Add VERSAMOD
_______________________ Low water content Add water (brine)
New mud, lack of shear Shear through bit or shear unit
_______________________
Gas stripping Increase mud weight
_______________________ Add wetting agent
Add primary emulsifier and lime
_______________________
_______________________
B. PROBLEM: EXCESSIVE VISCOSITY
Cause Treatment
_______________________
High water content (saltwater flow) Dilute with oil
_______________________ Add primary emulsifier and lime
Add wetting agent*
_______________________ Add VERSATHIN T
Incorporated drill solids
1. High solids (% volume) Centrifuge/solids control
Use dilution
Add wetting agent*
Add VERSATHIN*
2. Fines solids problem Centrifuge/solids control
Use dilution
Add wetting agent*
Add VERSATHIN*
3. Water-wet solids Add wetting agent and primary emulsifier
Add VERSA SWA*
High-temperature instability Add wetting agent and primary emulsifier
Decrease water content
Reduce solids content
Acid gases Add lime (conventional system)
Add primary emulsifier and wetting agent
Increase mud weight
Overtreatment Dilute with oil
C. PROBLEM: INCREASE IN HTHP FILTRATION

Cause Treatment
Weak emulsion Add primary emulsifier
Add lime (conventional system)
Lack of proper particle size distribution Add VERSATROL I
Add VERSALIG
Add VG-69
Add weight material or bridging agent
High-temperature instability Add primary emulsifier and wetting agent
Add VERSATROL I or VERSALIG

CHAPTER
D. PROBLEM: WATER IN HTHP FILTRATE (IF UNDESIRABLE)

_______________________ Cause Treatment
Weak emulsion Add primary emulsifier and wetting agent
_______________________ Add lime (conventional system)
_______________________ High-temperature instability Add primary emulsifier
_______________________ Add VERSATROL I or VERSALIG
_______________________
E. PROBLEM: WATER-WET SOLIDS
_______________________ Cause Treatment
_______________________ Super-saturation Add emulsifier and wetting agent
Add VERSA SWA*
_______________________ Add water sparingly
Excessive solids Use solids control and dilution
_______________________ Add wetting agent
Add VERSA SWA*
_______________________
Undertreatment Add primary emulsifier and wetting agent
_______________________ Add VERSA SWA*
*VERSA SWA should be used sparingly and only when other treatments and methods are ineffective.
_______________________
_______________________ F. PROBLEM: SHALE SHAKER SCREEN BLINDING

_______________________ Cause Treatment
Water-wet solids Add wetting agent
_______________________
Add primary emulsifier
Add VERSA SWA*
*VERSA SWA should be used sparingly and only when other treatments and methods are ineffective.
G. PROBLEM: WATER FLOW

Indicator Treatment
Decrease in O/W ratio (water intrusion) Increase mud weight
Decrease in mud weight Increase mud weight
Add oil to adjust O/W ratio
Add salt to adjust brine salinity
H. PROBLEM: CO2 CONTAMINATION

Indicator Treatment
POM decrease Increase mud weight
Add lime
Rheology increase Add primary emulsifier and wetting agent
Add oil for dilution
Increase mud weight
Add lime

CHAPTER
I. PROBLEM: HYDROGEN SULFIDE CONTAMINATION

_______________________ Indicator Treatment
POM decrease Increase mud weight
_______________________ Add lime
_______________________ Add zinc-base hydrogen sulfide scavenger, SULF-X
_______________________ Foul odor Increase mud weight
Add lime
_______________________ Add primary emulsifier and wetting agent
Add zinc-base hydrogen sulfide scavenger, SULF-X
_______________________ Mud turns black Increase mud weight
Add lime
_______________________ Add primary emulsifier and wetting agent
Add zinc hydrogen sulfide scavenger, SULF-X
_______________________
Drill pipe turns black Increase mud weight
_______________________ Add lime
_______________________ Add zinc-base hydrogen sulfide scavenger, SULF-X
_______________________
J. PROBLEM: LOST CIRCULATION
_______________________
Cause Treatment
_______________________ Overbalanced hydrostatic pressure Reduce mud weight (if possible)
Use LCM pills
_______________________ Set casing
_______________________ Excessive annular pressure loss Decrease rheology and gel strengths
Decrease circulation rates
Surge pressures Decrease rheology and gel strengths
Stage and circulate tripping in/out of hole
Reduce tripping speed
Use LCM pills spotted in hole

CHAPTER
Calculations
_______________________ • To provide a stable fluid with good suspension over long periods of time.
_______________________ • To keep the casing from sticking
if there are plans to salvage it at a later date.
_______________________
_______________________ BRINE TABLES

% Weight Density Density Cl– CaCl2 Water Brine Activity
_______________________
CaCl2 (kg/l) (lb/gal) (mg/l) (lb/bbl) (bbl) (AW)
_______________________ 2 1.015 8.46 12,969 7.1 0.995 0.989
4 1.032 8.60 26,385 14.5 0.990 0.980
_______________________
6 1.049 8.75 40,185 22.0 0.986 0.971
_______________________ 8 1.066 8.89 54,496 29.9 0.981 0.960
_______________________ 10 1.084 9.04 69,190 37.9 0.975 0.948
12 1.101 9.19 84,459 46.3 0.969 0.932
_______________________ 14 1.120 9.34 100,175 54.9 0.963 0.914
_______________________ 16 1.139 9.50 116,403 63.8 0.957 0.892
18 1.158 9.66 133,141 72.9 0.950 0.867
_______________________
20 1.178 9.82 150,455 82.4 0.942 0.837
_______________________ 22 1.198 9.99 168,343 92.2 0.934 0.804
24 1.218 10.16 186,743 102.3 0.926 0.767
_______________________
26 1.239 10.33 205,781 112.7 0.917 0.726
_______________________ 28 1.260 10.51 225,395 123.5 0.907 0.683
30 1.282 10.69 245,647 134.6 0.897 0.637
32 1.304 10.87 266,474 146.0 0.886 0.590
34 1.326 11.06 288,004 157.8 0.875 0.541
36 1.349 11.25 310,237 170.0 0.863 0.492
38 1.372 11.44 333,109 182.5 0.851 0.443
40 1.396 11.64 356,683 195.4 0.837 0.395
% volume salt = 100 x (1.0 - bbl water).
Properties based on 20°C and 100% purity.
Table 2: Calcium chloride brine.
The calcium chloride concentration needed for the internal phase is dependent
on the activity of the actual formation being drilled. Most muds use 25 to 35% by
weight calcium chloride.

CHAPTER
_______________________
% Weight Density Density Cl– NaCl Water Brine Activity
_______________________ NaCl2 (kg/l) (lb/gal) (mg/l) (lb/bbl) (bbl) (AW)
_______________________ 2 1.013 8.44 12,254 7.1 0.992 0.989
4 1.027 8.56 24,932 14.4 0.986 0.977
_______________________
6 1.041 8.68 37,914 21.9 0.979 0.964
_______________________ 8 1.056 8.81 51,260 29.6 0.971 0.950
10 1.071 8.93 64,970 37.5 0.964 0.935
_______________________
12 1.086 9.05 79,044 45.6 0.955 0.919
_______________________ 14 1.101 9.18 93,481 53.9 0.947 0.902
_______________________ 16 1.116 9.31 108,344 62.5 0.938 0.883
18 1.132 9.44 123,570 71.3 0.928 0.862
_______________________ 20 1.148 9.57 139,282 80.4 0.918 0.839
_______________________ 22 1.164 9.71 155,357 89.6 0.908 0.815
24 1.180 9.84 171,858 99.2 0.897 0.788
_______________________
26 1.197 9.98 188,843 109.0 0.886 0.759
_______________________ % volume salt = 100 x (1.0 - bbl water).
Properties based on 20°C and 100% purity.
_______________________
Table 3: Sodium chloride brine.
_______________________
• To isolate the casing from corrosive formation fluids.
_______________________
• To provide a non-conductive environment if cathodic protection will be used
to protect the casing.
The properties recommended for casing packs are similar to those recommended
for packer fluids. Somewhat higher rheologies may be recommended for casing
packs than for packer fluids, in order to sweep the annulus. Casing packs will be
exposed to formation
fluids for the life of the well. To
compensate for this, casing packs are often treated with additional emulsifiers and
wetting agents. The steps recommended earlier for formulating and testing a
packer fluid can be used to formulate casing packs.
Most oil or synthetic systems can be conditioned to meet even the most
demanding properties required of casing packs and packer fluids. As with packer
muds, the fluid must be stabilized by circulating it through the well, exposing it
to heat andSalt
shear before final treatments and conditioning as
Salt Constant (C)
aCalcium
casingchloride
pack fluid. 1.565
IfSodium
an oil- or synthetic-base fluid
chloride 1.648 was used as the packer fluid, a similar fluid will
probably
Magnesium be used as the workover
chloride 1.343 fluid. Oil and synthetic fluids may be used in
extremely corrosive environments and as perforating fluids to prevent formation
Potassium chloride 2.103
damage. Because of their good lubricity and low sticking tendencies, these fluids
are especially suited for “wash over” operations where there is a high likelihood
of sticking the wash pipe.
The preparation of wells in depleted fields for gas storage is an excellent appli-
cation for oil muds containing VERSATROL I. If the existing wells’ casing is corroded
and leaking, it will usually be replaced rather than repaired. The casing strings
must be washed over. Oil mud is the fluid of choice for “washing over” and retriev-
ing casing. The oil muds used in these applications will require closer attention
and more treating chemicals than a drilling operation. After working over the
wells in a gas storage project with oil-base fluids, the fluids are usually used as the
casing pack and packer fluids for completing the wells.
If the wells were originally drilled and completed with water-base fluids, the
water-base mud and solids behind the casing will be incorporated in the oil mud as

CHAPTER
they are “drilled” with the wash pipe. The exposed shales will probably slough into
the hole and add to the problem. Preparations should be made on each of these
_______________________ wells to deal with large quantities of water-wet solids. The volume of workover fluid
required may be substantially greater than estimated based on the original hole
_______________________
diameter. Large quantities of base oil, emulsifiers and wetting agents will be
_______________________ required to treat the water and water-wet solids that will be incorporated into
_______________________ the workover fluid.
_______________________
NOTE: In the following equations, % CaCl2 and % NaCl stand for weight % unless
_______________________
labeled as % CaCl2 (vol). Liquids like % H2O and % Oil stand for volume % unless
_______________________ labeled otherwise.
_______________________ BRINE CONVERSIONS
_______________________ Density (lb/gal) = SG x 8.34
_______________________
CaCl2 (ppm) = % CaCl2 x 10,000
Chlorides (ppm) = % CaCl2 x 6,390
_______________________
NaCl (ppm) = % NaCl x 10,000
_______________________ Chlorides (ppm) = % NaCl x 6,065
_______________________ Any salt % by weight calculation:
(Ag x C)
_______________________
_______________________
Weight % salt =
(
(Ag x C) + % H2O )
x 100
Where:
Ag = cm3 of 0.282 silver nitrate used in chlorides determination/cm3 mud
C = Salt constant
% H2O = Volume % water from retort
BRINE ACTIVITY (AW) CURVE FIT EQUATIONS:

The following equations can be used to determine the water activity (AW):
CALCIUM CHLORIDE:
AW = 1 + 0.001264834 (% CaCl2) – 0.0006366891 (% CaCl2)2 + 5.877758 x 10–6 (% CaCl2)3
SODIUM CHLORIDE:
AW = 1 – 0.004767582 (% NaCl) – 0.0001694205 (% NaCl)2
MAGNESIUM CHLORIDE:
AW = 1 – 0.002444242 (% MgCl2) – 0.0004608654 (% MgCl2)2
POTASSIUM CHLORIDE:
AW = 1 – 0.003973135 (% KCl) – 7.47175 x 10–5 (% KCl)2
ADJUSTMENT OF WATER ACTIVITY

CHAPTER
_______________________ The following technique should be used to determine the quantity of calcium
_______________________ chloride required to adjust (decrease) the water activity to a desired value by
increasing brine salinity.
_______________________
_______________________
Increasing brine salinity:
1. Titrate chlorides and calculate initial salt concentration, weight % CaCl2.
_______________________ 2. Estimate present AW of the fluid using Table 2: Calcium chloride brine, relating
_______________________ activity to the salt concentration (% by weight) or use the curve-fit equations.
_______________________
3. Using a retort, determine the water content, volume % water.
4. Calculate the initial concentration of CaCl21 (lb/bbl whole mud).
_______________________
Initial weight % CaCl2: % CaCl2
_______________________
Volume % water: % H2O
_______________________
% CaCl2 x % H2O x 3.5
_______________________ CaCl21 (lb/bbl whole mud) =
100 – % CaCl2
_______________________
5. From a measurement or value for shale activity, determine the desired salt con-
_______________________ centration, % CaCl22, using the brine table or curve-fit equation. Using the
_______________________ equation listed below, determine the CaCl2 required to reduce the AW to the
_______________________
desired value.
Desired weight % CaCl2: % CaCl22
% purity CaCl2: % purity
CaCl2 (lb/bbl whole mud) to add =
% CaCl22 % CaCl21 350 x % H2O
[
100 – % CaCl22
–
100 – % CaCl21 ] x
% purity
Example:
Initial weight % CaCl2: 10
Volume % water: 20
Desired weight % CaCl2: 25
% purity: 78
From 4. Initial CaCl21 (lb/bbl whole mud): 7.78
From 5. CaCl22 (lb/bbl whole mud) to add: 19.9
Occasionally, an increase in the activity (a decrease in the salt content) is desirable.
This is most often done when drilling salt, when the salt concentration increases due
to evaporation or when overtreatment has occurred. The following procedure can
be used to determine the amount of water to add to adjust (increase) the water
activity to the desired value.
Decreasing brine salinity
1. Titrate chlorides and calculate initial salt concentration, weight % CaCl2.
2. Estimate present AW of the fluid using Table 2: Calcium chloride brine, relating
activity to the salt concentration (% by weight) or the curve-fit equation.
3. Using a retort, determine the water content, volume % water.
4. Calculate the initial concentration of CaCl21 (lb/bbl whole mud).

CHAPTER
_______________________ Initial weight % CaCl2: % CaCl2

_______________________ Volume % water: % H2O
_______________________ % CaCl2 x % H2O x 3.5
CaCl21 (lb/bbl whole mud) =
_______________________
100 – % CaCl2
_______________________ 5. Using the desired value for fluid activity, determine the desired salt concentra-
tion, % CaCl22, using the brine table or curve-fit equation. Using the equation
_______________________
listed below, determine the amount of water required to increase the AW to
_______________________ the desired value.
_______________________
Desired weight % CaCl2: % CaCl22
_______________________
Water to add (bbl/bbl) =
_______________________ (100 x CaCl21) – (% CaCl22 x CaCl21) – (% CaCl22 x % H2O x 3.5)
_______________________ % CaCl22 x 350
_______________________ Example:
_______________________
Initial weight % CaCl2: 22
Volume % water: 10
_______________________
Desired weight % CaCl22: 15
_______________________
From 4. Initial CaCl21 (lb/bbl whole mud): 9.87
From 5. Water to add (bbl/bbl): 0.0598
Oil-to-water ratios (O/W)
The calculation of oil-to-water and synthetic-to-water ratio requires
retort values as follows:
% oil
Oil ratio (O) =
( % oil + % H2O ) x 100
Water ratio (W) = 100 – oil ratio

or
% H2O
Water ratio (W) =
(% H2O + % oil ) x 100
NOTE: Adding the oil ratio and the water ratio always equals 100.
Example:
Volume % oil: 56
Volume % water: 24
Volume % solids: 20
56
Oil ratio =
(
56 + 24 ) x 100 = 70% oil
24
Water ratio =
(
24 + 56 ) x 100 = 30% water
Oil:water ratio (O/W) = 70:30 or 70/30

CHAPTER
_______________________ ADJUSTING O/W OR S/W RATIOS

_______________________ Through simple calculations involving current retort data, a calculated increase or
_______________________
decrease in the oil- or synthetic-to-water ratio may be made. For a weighted mud,
changing the oil- or synthetic-to-water ratio reduces mud weight. The added liquid
_______________________
and barite for reweighting will increase the system volume.
_______________________
INCREASING OIL-TO-WATER RATIO
_______________________
Oil or synthetic fluid must be added to the mud to raise the oil- or synthetic-to-
_______________________ water ratio. No water will be added to the system when this is done and the actual
_______________________ volume of water does not change.
To calculate the barrels of oil required to increase the O/W ratio:
_______________________
A. Record the retort volume % oil as % oil.
_______________________ B. Record the retort volume % water as % H2O.
_______________________ C. Record the water ratio of the desired O/W ratio as WR.
_______________________
D. Calculate the barrels of oil or synthetic fluid to add:
_______________________ % H2O (% oil + % H2O)

Oil to add (bbl/bbl mud) = –
WR 100
_______________________
_______________________
In this equation;
% H2O
New liquid volume (bbl/bbl mud) =
WR
(% oil + % H2O)
Original liquid volume (bbl/bbl mud) =
100
New liquid volume = Original liquid volume + oil to add
Example:
Volume % oil (retort): 51%
Volume % water (retort): 9%
Original O/W ratio: 85/15
Desired O/W ratio: 90/10 (OR = 90, WR = 10)
To increase the O/W ratio from 85/15 to 90/10, calculate how much oil must
be added:
% H2O (% oil + % H2O)
Oil to add (bbl/bbl mud) = –
WR 100
9 (51 + 9)
Oil to add (bbl/bbl mud) = – = 0.9 – 0.6 = 0.30 bbl oil per bbl of mud
10 100
Therefore, to increase the O/W ratio from 85/15 to 90/10, 0.30 bbl of oil must
be added for every barrel of mud.
DECREASING OIL-TO-WATER RATIO
Either water or brine must be added to the mud to lower the oil- or synthetic-to-
water ratio. No oil or synthetic fluid will be added to the system and the oil or
synthetic volume will not change.
DECREASING O/W RATIO USING WATER
To calculate the barrels of water (not brine) required to decrease the O/W ratio:
A. Record the retort volume % oil as % oil.
B. Record the retort volume % water as % H2O.

CHAPTER
C. Record the water ratio of the desired O/W ratio as OR.

D. Calculate the barrels of water to add:
_______________________ % oil (% oil + % H2O)
Water to add (bbl/bbl mud) = –
OR 100
_______________________
_______________________ DECREASING O/W RATIO USING BRINE
_______________________
To calculate the barrels of brine (not water) required to decrease the O/W
ratio, the volume of salt in the brine must be compensated for because it
_______________________ is a dissolved solid:
_______________________ A. Record the retort volume % oil as % oil.
_______________________
B. Record the retort volume % water as % H2O.
_______________________ SGWTMATL SGOIL
_______________________
[ MWt x 100
][
–
0.12
x % Cor. Solids
] [
–
0.12
x % oil
] [
– Brine wt x (% H2O + % CaCl2 (vol))
]
(8.34 x SGWTMATL) – 21.67
_______________________
C. Record the water ratio of the desired O/W ratio as OR.
_______________________
D. Determine the brine volume % water (not decimal) % H2O (brine). This is
_______________________ determined by taking the fractional number from the column listed as “Water
_______________________ (bbl)” in Tables 2 or 3 and multiplying by 100.
E. Calculate the volume of brine to add:
_______________________
100 x % oil (% oil + % H2O)
_______________________ Brine (bbl/bbl mud) = –
Brine Salinity
% H2O (brine) x OR % H2O (brine)

NOTE: Raising or lowering the O/W ratio of a mud will change the mud density.
Reweighting will not change the O/W ratio. Also note that in each of the above calculations,
the values OR and WR must satisfy the following equation: OR + WR = 100.
SOLIDS ANALYSIS
Nomenclature:
MWt = Mud weight (lb/gal)
OR = Oil ratio
WR = Water ratio
Brine wt = Brine weight (lb/gal)
Ag = ml of AgNO3 (0.282N) per cm3 mud
% H2O = Retort % H2O
% oil = Retort % oil
% Cor. Solids = % Corrected Solids
% LGS = % Low-Gravity Solids (drill solids + VG-69)
% HGS = % High-Gravity Solids (weight material)
% CaCl2 = % by weight calcium chloride
SGWTMATL = Specific Gravity weight material
SGOIL = Specific Gravity oil

CHAPTER
% oil
( )
_______________________
11) OR = x 100
_______________________ % oil + % H2O
_______________________ 12) WR = 100 – OR
_______________________ Ag x 1.565
_______________________
13) % CaCl2 (wt) =
((Ag x 1.565) + % H2O )
x 100
_______________________ 14) CaCl2 (lb/bbl whole mud) = Ag x 5.4775

_______________________ 15) Brine wt (lb/gal) =
_______________________ 8.34 x {1 + [8.09 x 10–3 x (% CaCl2)] + [4.095 x 10–5 x (% CaCl2)2] + …
_______________________
[1.422 x 10–7 x (% CaCl2)3]}
_______________________ 16) SGBR = Brine wt ÷ 8.34

834
_______________________
_______________________
17) % CaCl2 by volume =
[((SGBR x 8.34)(100 – % CaCl2) ) ]
–1 x % H2O
_______________________ 18) % Cor. Solids = 100 – % H2O – % oil – % CaCl2 (vol)

_______________________ 19) % LGS =
_______________________ 10) % HGS = % Cor. Solids – % LGS
11) LGS (lb/bbl) = 9.1 x % LGS
12) HGS (lb/bbl) = % HGS x SGWTMATL x 3.5
NOTE: Equations 6 through 12 also apply to fluids containing sodium chloride;
substitute the NaCl values for the CaCl2 values.
NOTE: The API RP 13B-2 uses different calculations for some of the following situations.
Refer to section 7 of the latest RP 13B-2 for an alternate calculation.
SINGLE-SALT SYSTEMS
If the brine phase of the oil mud contains only one salt, either CaCl2 or NaCl, then
the following equations will apply to determine percent (%) by weight, lb/bbl, spe-
cific gravity of the brine, mg/l, and ppm of the water phase of the respective salt.
Also included are the total chlorides in the water phase. For salt systems, percent (%)
by weight is the most common and most useful value for the conversion to various
other concentration equivalents.
Brine salinity calculations require the following:
% H2O = Retort % H2O
Ag = ml of 0.282N AgNO3 per cm3 mud
From this data, we can calculate other concentration values using the
following equations:
A) Calcium chloride
(Assuming that all the salt content is composed of calcium chloride.)
Ag x 1.565
1) % CaCl2 (wt) = x 100

CHAPTER
_______________________
_______________________ (
(Ag x 1.565) + % H20 )
_______________________ 2) CaCl2 (lb/bbl whole mud) = Ag x 5.4775
_______________________ 3) SGBR = 1.000318525 + (8.0899459 x 10–3 x % CaCl2) + …
_______________________ (4.0944872 x 10–5 x [% CaCl2]2) + (1.4220309 x 10–7 x [% CaCl2]3)
_______________________ 4) Brine wt (lb/gal) = SGBR x 8.34
_______________________ 5) CaCl2 (mg/l) = 10,000 x % CaCl2 x SGBR
_______________________ 6) CaCl2 (ppm) = % CaCl2 x 10,000
_______________________
7) Chlorides (mg/l) = % CaCl2 x SGBR x 6,393
_______________________
Example:
_______________________ % H2O = 10
_______________________ Ag = 2 ml of 0.282 N AgNO3 per cm3 mud
_______________________ % CaCl2 (wt) = 23.84
CaCl2 (lb/bbl whole mud) = 11.0
_______________________
SG CaCl2 brine = 1.218
_______________________ Brine weight (lb/gal) = 10.16
CaCl2 (mg/l) = 290,440
CaCl2 (ppm) = 238,385
Chlorides (mg/l) = 185,679
B) Sodium chloride
(Assuming that all the salt content is composed of sodium chloride.)
Ag x 1.649
1) % NaCl (wt) =
(
(Ag x 1.649) + % H20 )
x 100
2) NaCl (lb/bbl whole mud) = Ag x 5.775

3) SGNaCl = 1.000002116 + (7.1014067 x 10–3 x % NaCl) + …
(1.1917074 x 10–5 x [% NaCl]2) + (3.7654743 x 10–7 x [% NaCl]3)
4) Brine wt (lb/gal) = SGNaCl x 8.34
5) NaCl (mg/l) = 10,000 x % NaCl x SGNaCl
6) NaCl (ppm) = % NaCl x 10,000
7) Chlorides (mg/l) = % NaCl x SGNaCl x 6,065
Example:
% H2O = 15
Ag = 1.2 ml of 0.282 N AgNO3 per cm3 mud
% NaCl (wt) = 11.65
NaCl (lb/bbl whole mud) = 6.93
SG NaCl brine = 1.085
Brine weight (lb/gal) = 9.05
NaCl (mg/l) = 126,523
NaCl (ppm) = 116,608
Chlorides (mg/l) = 76,736

CHAPTER
TWO-SALT (BINARY) SYSTEMS (CaCl2/NaCl)

To determine the exact amounts of each salt present in an emulsion system con-
taining both calcium chloride and sodium chloride, the calcium content must be
titrated and a special calculation must be used as described below. The testing pro-
cedure for the whole mud calcium on an emulsion mud is described in the oil-base
section of the Testing chapter.
Calcium content calculation
The calcium content can be determined from a calcium titration on the whole
mud. It includes calcium from both lime and calcium chloride:
4,000 (ml of 0.1m EDTA (Strong Versenate or equivalent)
Camud =
ml mud titrated
NOTE: Calcium determination utilizing 8N NaOH and Calcon Indicator.
BINARY SALT (CaCl2/NaCl) CALCULATIONS
These calculations take into consideration the alkalinity effects of lime and deter-
mine how much, if any, sodium chloride is present. In the following procedure
and equations, two possible situations can occur:
Situation 1: The fluid contains no measurable NaCl.
Situation 2: NaCl is present in significant quantities.
For Situation 1 use the single-salt calculations described previously for calcium
chloride. For Situation 2 use the binary (two-salt) calculation that follows:
“A” % CaCl2 (wt) (using CaMUD and POM) =
[CaMUD – (0.5 x POM)] x 11.1
(
[(CaMUD – (0.5 x POM)) x 11.1] + (10 x % H2O) ) x 100
Ag x 1.565
“B” % CaCl2 (wt) (using ClMUD) =
( (Ag x 1.565) + % H20 )
x 100
Situation 1: If A is greater than B, then no sodium chloride is present. Use

the calculations given above for single-salt calcium chloride fluids.
Situation 2: If A is less than B, sodium chloride is present in significant
amounts. Use the following calculations:
11) CaCl2 (lb/bbl) = (CaMUD x 3.885) – (1.95 x POM)
CaCl2 (lb/bbl) x 100
12) % CaCl2 (wt) =
[CaCl2 (lb/bbl) + (% H2O x 3.5)]
13) SGCACL2 = 1.000318525 + (8.0899459 x 10–3 x % CaCl2) +
(4.0944872 x 10–5 x [% CaCl2]2) + (1.4220309 x 10–7 x [% CaCl2]3)
14) CaCl2 (mg/l) = 10,000 x % CaCl2 x SGCACL2
15) CaCl2 (ppm) = % CaCl2 x 10,000
16) Cl– from CaCl2 (mg/l) = % CaCl2 x SG CaCl2 x 6,393
17) NaCl (lb/bbl) = (5.775 x ClMUD) – (1.054 x CaCl2 (lb/bbl))
NaCl (lb/bbl) x 100
18) % NaCl (wt) =
[NaCl (lb/bbl) + (% H2O x 3.5)]

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CHAPTER

Non-Aqueous Emulsions 11.1 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

Driven by the need for the perform-

Non-Aqueous Emulsions 11.2 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

Figure 2: Effect of water content on water-in-oil emulsion. Figure 3: Coalescence of poorly

on mud properties, depending upon Solid

Figure 4: Contact angle and wettability.

Non-Aqueous Emulsions 11.4 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

Water-in-oil Wetting Detergents

VERSACOAT VERSA SWA

Figure 6: HLB range, function and products.

Non-Aqueous Emulsions 11.5 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

Oil • The rheology will increase.

Emulsifiers Emulsifiers. Emulsifiers are surfactants Stable emulsified water droplet

are that reduce the surface tension between

an affinity for water while the rest of the

Non-Aqueous Emulsions 11.6 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

Non-Aqueous Emulsions 11.7 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

counteracted by the corresponding Gilsonite, a naturally occurring

Non-Aqueous Emulsions 11.8 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

The composi- Properties

Non-Aqueous Emulsions 11.9 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

Specific Viscosity Flash Point Pour Point Aniline Point

Table 1: Typical properties oils and synthetic liquids

drilling 140 pressed, the effect on the viscosity is

Non-Aqueous Emulsions 11.10 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

is greatest in high-pressure wells — viscosity; water content; and with

Non-Aqueous Emulsions 11.11 Revision No: A-1 / Revision Date: 07·17·98

ALKALINITY POM concentrations of carbon dioxide or

The POM of conventional systems FLUID LOSS

Non-Aqueous Emulsions 11.12 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

Synthetic fluids normally do not solids act as water droplets with

Non-Aqueous Emulsions 11.13 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

to preventing this unstable situa- These values should be plotted so that

indicate sion with little emulsifier or wetting Where:

Non-Aqueous Emulsions 11.14 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

Water Water activity (AW) is a measure of the concentration of solute or salt, to

Non-Aqueous Emulsions 11.15 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

Oil or Synthetic Ratio (O/W or S/W)

Non-Aqueous Emulsions 11.16 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

should be disconnected or plugged water should be added to the system to

methane and other gases encountered 8

soluble to bility to natural gas, carbon dioxide and

other gases This can interfere with kick detection

Non-Aqueous Emulsions 11.17 Revision No: A-1 / Revision Date: 07·17·98

Gas Stripping of Barite

Non-Aqueous Emulsions 11.18 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

Non-Aqueous Emulsions 11.19 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

severe water-wetting is occurring. problem. However, it is recommended

Non-Aqueous Emulsions 11.20 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

Hydrogen Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a poisonous

Non-Aqueous Emulsions 11.21 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

Non-Aqueous Emulsions 11.22 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

Non-Aqueous Emulsions 11.23 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

The solution is to mechanically remove cuttings. The underflow of the scalp-

Non-Aqueous Emulsions 11.24 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

Cementing in Non-Aqueous Muds

Cementing… as is possible. The solids removed by used. The efficiency of centrifuges is

Non-Aqueous Emulsions 11.25 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98