Debatabase

THE DEBATABASE BOOK
A Must-Have Guide for Successful Debate

THIRD EDITION
Debatabase_revised.indd 1 2/26/2007 12:01:08 PM

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THE DEBATABASE BOOK
A Must-Have Guide for Successful Debate
THIRD EDITION
THE EDITORS OF IDEA

Introduction by Robert Trapp

International Debate Education Association

New York * Amsterdam * Brussels

Published by
international debate education association

4 0 0 W e s t 5 9 t h S t r e e t / N e w Yo r k , N Y 1 0 0 1 9
Copyright © 2007 by international D ebate Education Association

All rights reser ved. No par t of this publication may be repro -
duced or transmitted in any form or by any means, elec tronic or
mechanical, including photocopy, or any information storage and
retrieval system, without permission from the publisher.
For permission to reproduce in whole or in par t, please contac t:
[email protected]
The topics and arguments included in The Debatabase Book rep-

resent the work of an international group of contributors with
diverse points of view. We would like to thank the following for
their contributions: James Action (UK), Heather Begg (UK), Kumar
Bekbolotov (Kyrgyzstan), Patrick Blanchfield (US), Matt But (UK),
Alex Deane (UK), Joe Devanny (UK), Thomas Dixon (UK), William
J. Driscoll (US), Alastair Endersby (UK), Peter English (UK), Cristina
Gherasimov (Moldova), Tom Hamilton (UK), Alexis Hearndon (UK),
Sebastian Isaac (UK), Nathan Ketsdever (Romania), Maryia Lahut-
sina (Belarus), Dr. Kevin J. Minch (US), Richard Mott (UK), Vikram
Nair (UK), Drew Patterson (US), Anca Pusca (Romania), Jacqueline
Rose (UK), Christopher Ruane (Ireland), Jacob Russell (US), Jona-
than Simons (UK), Andrea Stone (US), Jason Stone (US), Richard
Stupart (South Africa), Wu-Meng Tan (Singapore), Hayden Taylor
(UK), Eleanora von Dehsen (US), Bobby Webster (UK), Robert
Weekes (UK), and Marc Whitmore (UK).
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
The debatabase book : a must-have guide for successful

debate / by the
editors of IDEA ; introduction by Robert Trapp. -- 3rd ed.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-1-932716-27-6
1. Debates and debating. I. International Debate Education
Association.
PN4181.D3945 2007
808.5’3--dc22
2006039746
Design by Hernán Bonomo

Printed in the USA
IDEA Press Books
|The Debatabase Book

• Contents
Introduction 9
Abortion on Demand 23
Abortion, Parental Notification/Consent 25
Advertising, Image of Women in 27
Advertising, Targeting of Children 28
Affirmative Action 30
AIDS Drugs for Developing Countries 32
Alcohol, Banning of 34
American Culture: Should It Be Feared? 36
Animal Rights 37
Arranged Marriages 39
Arts Subsidies, Abolition of 41
Assassination of a Dictator 43
Assisted Suicide 45
Biodiversity and Endangered Species 47
Boxing, Abolition of 49
Campaign Finance Reform 50
Capital Punishment 52
Cell Phones, Banning of Use in Cars 53
Censorship of the Arts 55
Child Labor 57
Child Offenders, Stricter Punishment for 58
Children, Choosing Sex of 60
China, Fear of 62
Civil Disobedience 64
Condoms in Schools 65
Conscription and National Service 66
Corporal Punishment: Adults 67
Corporal Punishment: Children 68
Corruption, Benefits of 70
Creationism in Public Schools 72
Cuba, Dropping of US Sanctions on 74
Cultural Treasures, Return of 76
Curfew Laws 78
Democracy, Imposition of 80
Developing World Debt, Cancellation of 82
DNA Database for Criminals 84
Drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge 86
Drugs in Sports 88
Drug Testing in Schools 90
Economic Development vs. Environment 91
Economic Sanctions vs. Engagement 93
Electoral College, Abolition of 94
Environmentally Linked Aid 95
Ethical Foreign Policy 97
Factory Farming, Banning of 98
Failed States, US Intervention to Prevent Collapse of 99
Foreign-Born Presidents 102
|

Free Speech, Restrictions on 103
Free Trade and Development 105
Gay Adoption 106
Gay Clergy 107
Gay Marriage 109
Gays in the Military 110
Gene Patenting 112
Genetically Modified Food 113
Genetic Screening 116
Globalization and the Poor 117
Global Warming 118
God, Existence of 121
Greenhouse Gases: Trading Quotas 122
Gun Control 124
Hate Speech on Campus 125
Health Care, Universal 126
Home Schooling 129
Human Cloning 131
Human Organs, Sale of 133
Human Rights: Existence of 134
Human Rights: Imposition by Force? 136
Immigration Reform 138
International Criminal Court 139
Internet Censorship 141
Internment Without Trial 143
Iran’s Right to Possess Nuclear Weapons 145
Iraq, Immediate Withdrawal from 147
Islam and Democracy 149
Israel and the Palestinians, US Policy Toward 151
Israel’s Security Barrier 152
Ivory Trading 155
Just War 156
Landmines, US Production and Use of 158
Mandatory Sentencing: Three Strikes 160
Marijuana, Legalization of 162
Minority Languages 163
Minority Schools 165
Monarchy, Abolition of 166
Multiculturalism vs. Integration 168
National Testing 170
Nuclear vs. Renewable Energy 172
Nuclear Weapons, Abolition of 174
Overpopulation and Contraception 175
Overseas Manufacturing 177
Pacifism 178
Parentage, Right to Know 180
Parental Responsibility 181
Politicians and Special Interests 183
Polygamy 184
Pornography, Banning of 186
Preventive War 187
Priestly Celibacy, Abolition of 189
Privacy vs. Security 190
Prostitution, Legalization of 192

Rebuilding After Disasters, Government Role in 194
Religion: Source of Conflict or Peace? 195
Religious Belief: Rational or Irrational? 197
Russia: Strong Leadership vs. Democracy 198
School Uniforms 201
School Vouchers 202
Science: Threat to Society? 204
Sex Education in Schools 205
Sex Offenders: Publicly Naming 206
Single-Sex Schools 208
Smoking, Further Restrictions on 209
Space Exploration 211
Stem Cell Research and Therapeutic Cloning 213
Sudan: Increased Military Presence in 215
Torture in Interrogation 217
Two-Party System 218
United Nations: A Failure? 220
Vegetarianism 222
War Crimes Tribunals 224
Warrantless Wiretapping 225
Water Privatization 226
Water Resources: A Commodity? 228
Whaling, Lifting the Ban on 229
Women in Combat 232
Zero Tolerance Policing 234
Topical Index 236
|


INTRODUCTION
Debatabase is a starting point on the road to participating Communication, rhetoric, argumentation, and
in debates. The volume provides a beginning for those debate
debaters who would like to learn about important topics
being argued in the public sphere. Debaters can use this Communication, rhetoric, argumentation, and debate
volume as a method of discovering the basic issues rel- are related concepts. Starting with communication and
evant to some of the more important topics being dis- proceeding to debate, the concepts become progressively
cussed in various public forums. It will provide debaters narrowed. By beginning with the broadest concept,
a brief look at some of the claims that can be used to communication, and ending at the narrowest, debate, I
support or to oppose many of the issues argued about by intend to show how all these terms are interrelated.
persons in democratic societies; it will also provide some Communication may be defined as the process
sketches of evidence that can be used to support these whereby signs are used to convey information. Fol-
claims. This volume is, however, only a starting point. lowing this definition, communication is a very broad
Debaters interested in becoming very good debaters or concept ranging from human, symbolic processes to
excellent debaters will need to go beyond this volume if the means that animals use to relate to one another.
they intend to be able to intelligently discuss these issues Some of these means are a part of the complex biology
in depth. of both human and nonhuman animals. For instance,
This introduction is intended to provide a theoretical the behaviors of certain species of birds when strang-
framework within which information about argumen- ers approach a nest of their young are a part of the
tation and debate can be viewed; no attempt has been biology of those species. The reason we know these
made to provide a general theory of argumentation. I are biological traits is that all members of the species
begin with some basic distinctions among the terms use the same signs to indicate intrusion. Although all
communication, rhetoric, argumentation, and debate, of our communication abilities—including rhetorical
progress to a description of the elements of argument communication—are somehow built into our species
that are most central to debate, and then to a discussion biologically, all communication is not rhetorical.
of how these elements can be structured into claims to The feature that most clearly distinguishes rheto-
support debate propositions. Following the discussion ric from other forms of communication is the symbol.
of argument structures, I move to a more detailed dis- Although the ability to use symbolic forms of commu-
cussion of claims and propositions and finally discuss nication is certainly a biological trait of human beings,
the kinds of evidence needed to support claims and our ability to use symbols also allows us to use culturally
propositions. and individually specific types of symbols. The clear-
A caveat is needed before proceeding to the theoreti- est evidence that different cultures developed different
cal portion of this introduction. This introduction does symbols is the presence of different languages among
not intend to be a practical, how-to guide to the creation human beings separated geographically. Even though all
of arguments. It does intend to provide the conceptual humans are born with the ability to use language, some
groundwork needed for debaters to learn how to create of us learn Russian, others French, and others English.
arguments according to a variety of methods. The clearest example of symbolic communication is lan-
Introduction |

guage. Language is an abstract method of using signs to very useful to debaters, but they are not included in this
refer to objects. The concept of a symbol differentiates introduction because they are less central to debate than
rhetoric from other forms of communication. Symbols, is argumentation. Beyond not including several rhetori-
hence rhetoric, are abstract methods of communication. cal elements that sometimes are useful in debate, this
Still, all rhetoric is not argumentation. Rhetorical introduction also excludes many elements of argumenta-
communication can be divided into various categories, tion, choosing just the ones that are most central. Those
two of which are narrative and metaphor.1 Just to give central elements are evidence, reasoning, claims, and
a couple of examples, the narrative mode of rhetoric reservations. These elements are those that philosopher
focuses on sequential time, the metaphoric mode of Stephen Toulmin introduced in 19583 and revised 30
rhetoric focuses on comparing one thing to another, and years later.4
the argumentative mode of rhetoric focuses on giving
reasons. All of these modes of rhetoric are useful in The Elements of Argument
debate, but the mode of rhetoric that is most central to
debate is argumentation. Although in this introduction some of Toulmin’s ter-
Argumentation is the process whereby humans use minology has been modified, because of its popular
reason to communicate claims to one another. According usage the model will still be referred to as the Toulmin
to this definition, the focus on reason becomes the fea- model. Because it is only a model, the Toulmin model
ture that distinguishes argumentation from other modes is only a rough approximation of the elements and
of rhetoric.2 When people argue with one another, not their relationships to one another. The model is not
only do they assert claims but they also assert reasons intended as a descriptive diagram of actual arguments
they believe the claims to be plausible or probable. Argu- for a variety of reasons. First, it describes only those
mentation is a primary tool of debate, but it serves other elements of an argument related to reasoning. It does
activities as well. Argumentation is, for instance, an not describe other important elements such as expres-
important tool in negotiation, conflict resolution, and sions of feelings or emotions unless those expressions
persuasion. Debate is an activity that could hardly exist are directly related to reasoning. Second, the model
without argumentation. describes only the linguistic elements of reasoning. To
Argumentation is useful in activities like negotiation the extent that an argument includes significant non-
and conflict resolution because it can be used to help verbal elements, they are not covered by the model.5
people find ways to resolve their differences. But in some Third, the model applies only to the simplest of argu-
of these situations, differences cannot be resolved inter- ments. If an argument is composed of a variety of war-
nally and an outside adjudicator must be called. These rants or a cluster of evidence related to the claim in
are the situations that we call debate. Thus, according different ways, the model may not apply well, if at all.
to this view, debate is defined as the process of arguing Despite these shortcomings, this model has proven
about claims in situations where the outcome must be itself useful for describing some of the key elements
decided by an adjudicator. The focus of this introduc- of arguments and how they function together. The
tion is on those elements of argumentation that are most diagrams shown on the following pages illustrate the
often used in debate. Toulmin model.
In some regards this focus is incomplete because The basic Toulmin model identifies four basic ele-
some nonargumentative elements of communication ments of argument: claim, data (which we call evidence),
and rhetoric often are used in debate even though they warrant, and reservation. The model of argument is most
are not the most central features of debate. Some ele- easily explained by a travel analogy. The evidence is the
ments of rhetoric, namely metaphor and narrative, are argument’s starting point. The claim is the arguer’s des-
1. As far as I know, no one has successfully organized modes of rhetoric into a coherent taxonomy because the various modes overlap
so much with one another. For instance, narratives and metaphors are used in arguments as metaphors and arguments are frequently
found in narratives.
2. This is not to say that other forms of rhetoric do not involve the use of reason, just that the form of rhetoric where the focus on
reason is most clearly in the foreground is argumentation.
3. The Uses of Argument (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1958).
4. Albert R. Jonsen and Stephen Toulmin, The Abuse of Casuistry: A History of Moral Reasoning (Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1988).
5. Charles Arthur Willard, “On the Utility of Descriptive Diagrams for the Analysis and Criticism of Arguments,” Communication
Monographs 43 (November, 1976), 308–319.
10|The Debatabase Book

tination. The warrant is the means of travel, and the res- In addition to the simple argument suggested above,
ervation involves questions or concerns the arguer may other argument structures include convergent and inde-
have about arrival at the destination. Toulmin’s model pendent arguments. Although these do not even begin to
can be used to diagram the structure of relatively simple exhaust all potential argument structures, they are some
arguments. of the more common ones encountered in debate.
Structure of an Argument Convergent Arguments

A simple argument, for instance, consists of a single A convergent argument is one wherein two or more
claim supported by a piece of evidence, a single war- bits of evidence converge with one another to support a
rant, and perhaps (but not always) a single reservation. claim. In other words, when a single piece of evidence is
The following diagram illustrates Toulmin’s diagram of not sufficient, it must be combined with another piece
a simple argument: of evidence in the effort to support the claim.
Convergent Argument
Simple Argument
Warrant
Evidence
Warrant +
Evidence Claim
Evidence Claim
+
Evidence Reservation
Reservation
Consider as an illustration, the following convergent

Toulmin illustrates this diagram using a simple argument argument:
claim that Harry is a British citizen because he was born Lying is generally considered an immoral act. The use
in Bermuda. Here is how the structure of that argument of placebos in drug testing research involves lying because
was diagramed by Toulmin: some of the subjects are led falsely to believe they are being
given real drugs. Therefore, placebos should not be used in
Simple Argument drug testing unless they are the only method available to test
Warrant potentially life-saving drugs.
Persons born in Ber-
muda generally are
British citizens.
Convergent Argument
Warrant
Associations among
Evidence lying, placebos, and
Claim
Harry was born Evidence immoral acts.
Harry is a British
in Bermuda. citizen. Lying generally is
an immoral act.
Claim
+
Placebos should not
Reservation
be used in medical
Unless Harry’s parents Evidence
research.
were U.S. citizens. Using placebos in
medical research
involves lying to
Although this diagram of an argument clearly illustrates some of the Reservation
how an argument moves from evidence to a claim via a research subjects. Unless the placebo is the
warrant, very few arguments are ever quite as simple. For only method of testing
a potentially life-saving
this reason, I have adapted Toulmin and Jonsen’s model drug.
to illustrate a few different argument structures.
Introduction |11

This particular argument begins with two pieces of evi- Independent Arguments
dence. The first piece involves the value statement that
“lying generally is considered an immoral act.” This Warrant
piece of evidence is a statement that is consistent with Evidence
the audience’s values regarding lying. The second piece
of evidence is the factual statement that “the use of pla-
cebos in medical research involves a form of lying.” The Warrant Claim
second piece of evidence involves the fact that when a
researcher gives a placebo (e.g., a sugar pill) to a portion
of the subjects in a study of a potentially life-saving drug,
Evidence Reservation
that researcher is lying to those subjects as they are led to
believe that they are receiving a drug that may save their
lives. The warrant then combines the evidence with a
familiar pattern of reasoning—in this case, if an act in
general is immoral then any particular instance of that Take for instance the following argument against capital
act is likewise immoral. If lying is immoral in general, punishment:
then using placebos in particular is also immoral.
The claim results from a convergence of the pieces of On moral grounds, capital punishment ought to be abol-
evidence and the warrant. In some instances, an arguer ished. If a society considers a murder immoral for taking
may not wish to hold to this claim in all circumstances. a human life, how can that society then turn around and
If the arguer wishes to define specific situations in which take the life of the murderer? Beyond moral grounds, capi-
the claim does not hold, then the arguer adds a reserva- tal punishment ought to be abolished because, unlike other
tion to the argument. In this case, a reservation seems punishments, it alone is irreversible. If evidence is discovered
perfectly appropriate. Even though the arguer may after the execution, there is no way to bring the unjustly
generally object to lying and to the use of placebos, the executed person back to life.
arguer may wish to exempt situations where the use of a
placebo is the “only method of testing a potentially life- This argument about capital punishment can be rep-
saving drug.” resented in the following diagram:
The unique feature of the convergent structure of
argument is that the arguer produces a collection of evi-
Warrant
dence that, if taken together, supports the claim. The If a murder is wrong
structure of the argument is such that all of the evidence because it takes a life,
must be believed for the argument to be supported. If capital punishment is
the audience does not accept any one piece of evidence, wrong for the same
the entire argument structure falls. On the other hand, reason.
the independent argument structure is such that any Evidence
single piece of evidence can provide sufficient support Capital punish-
for the argument. ment takes a
human life. Warrant
Mistakes in Claim
judgment Capital punish-
Independent Arguments ment ought to be
should be cor-
rectable. abolished.
An arguer using an independent argument structure
presents several pieces of evidence, any one of which
Evidence
provides sufficient support for the argument. In other Capital punishment
words, a debater may present three pieces of evidence leaves no possibility
and claim that the members of the audience should for correction of an
accept the claim even if they are convinced only by a incorrect verdict.
single piece of evidence. The following diagram illus-
trates the structure of an independent argument:

ing statement is called a proposition.
This example of an independent argument structure Types of Claims and Propositions
is based on two pieces of evidence, either of which is Most authors divide claims and propositions into the
strong enough to support the claim that capital pun- traditional categories of fact, value, and policy. I have
ishment ought to be abolished. The first piece of evi- chosen not to use these traditional categories for two
dence involves the value of taking a human life, while reasons. First, the traditional categories have no place
the second involves the value of being able to correct for some important kinds of propositions that are not
a mistake. According to this argument, capital punish- facts, or values, or policy. More specifically, the tradi-
ment ought to be abolished even if only one of the items tional categories have no place for propositions that
of evidence is believed by the audience. The moral stric- seek to define concepts nor for propositions that seek
ture against taking a life is, by itself, a sufficient reason to establish relationships between or among concepts.
to oppose capital punishment as is the danger of making Second, the traditional categories separate evaluative and
an uncorrectable mistake. The strategic advantage of this policy propositions while the system used here will con-
form of argument structure is obvious. Whereas with sider propositions of policy as a specific kind of evalua-
convergent structures, the loss of one part of the argu- tive proposition. I use four main categories of proposi-
ment endangers the entire argument, in the independent tions: definition, description, relationship, and evalua-
structure, the argument can prevail even if only a part of tion. These categories, while they may not be exhaustive
it survives. or mutually exclusive, provide a coherent system for the
The Toulmin diagram of an argument is useful discussion of claims.
because it illustrates the various parts of an argument
and shows how they function together as a whole. The
modifications with regard to argument structure make it Definitions
even more useful. Still, the model has its shortcomings. Definitions answer the question, “Does it serve our pur-
One difficulty with the Toulmin diagram is that it does poses to say that Z is the proper definition of X?”6 Argu-
not provide any details regarding some of the elements. ing for a claim of definition involves two steps: positing
Some questions that the diagram leaves unanswered the definition and making an argument for that defini-
include: tion. In carrying out the first step, one simply states that
“X” is defined in this way. “Rhetoric is an action humans
• What are the different kinds of claims? perform when they use symbols for the purpose of com-
• How can different claims be combined to support municating with one another.”7 This sentence posits a
various propositions? definition of rhetoric.
• What are the different forms of evidence? Much of the time arguers perform the first step of
• What are the different kinds of argumentative positing a definition without constructing an argument
warrants? to support it. They may do this because their audience
• What distinguishes good arguments from bad does not require them to make an explicit argument in
ones? favor of the definition. The definition may, by itself,
create a frame of mind in the audience that does not
Claims and Propositions lead the audience to demand an argument in support of
the definition. For instance, antiabortion forces in the
Conceptually claims and propositions are the same kind United States succeeded in defining a procedure physi-
of argumentative elements. Both are controversial state- cians called “intact dilation and extraction” as “partial-
ments that need reason for support. Both claims and birth abortion.”8 Their definition was successful because
propositions are created by a relationship between evi- it dominated the discourse on abortion and turned the
dence and a warrant. Frequently, debaters combine sev- controversy away from the issue of choice and toward
eral of these statements to support another statement. a particular medical procedure that antiabortion forces
Each of the initial statements is a claim and the conclud- could use more successfully. On the surface, the defini-
6. Perhaps a more accurate way of stating the question is “Does it best serve our purposes to say that Z is the proper definition of
X?” This way of phrasing the question more clearly identifies the value dimensions of definitions—dimensions that will be discussed
more fully later.
7. Sonja K. Foss, Karen A. Foss, and Robert Trapp, Contemporary Perspectives on Rhetoric (Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland, 1991), 14.
8. David Zarefsky, “Definitions” (keynote address, Tenth NCA/AFA Summer Argumentation Conference, Alta, Utah, August
1997).
Introduction |13

tion of “intact dilation and extraction” as “partial-birth much controversy. But if the definition is not contested
abortion” may have seemed so sensible that no further by an audience member or by an adversary, the defini-
argument was required. tion shortcuts the argumentative process by avoiding
An argument to support a claim of definition controversy.
becomes necessary when the audience refuses to accept Definitions imply values by including terms that
the definition that was posited without a supporting are value laden. For instance, when antiabortion advo-
argument. An arguer’s opponent will frequently encour- cates define the medical procedure of intact dilation and
age the audience to demand support for a definition. extraction as “partial-birth abortion” or even as “partial-
When antiabortion advocates defined their position as birth infanticide,” the values associated with birth and
“pro-life,” some in the “pro-choice” movement objected, with infanticide are likely to be transferred to the medi-
claiming that “pro-choice” is also “pro-life.” In cases like cal procedure as well. In this case, antiabortion forces
this one, the entire argument can turn on whether or succeeded in shortcutting the argumentative process by
not the arguer is able to successfully support a claim of avoiding the value controversy that is inherent in their
definition. definition.
In those instances when an arguer chooses to con- So claims of definition are important. Ironically,
struct an argument to support a definition, the argu- they probably are less important when they are actually
ment frequently revolves around the reasonableness of completed with supporting evidence than when they are
the scope and breadth of the definition. Is the definition implicitly used as descriptive and value evidence for fur-
so narrow that it excludes instances of the concept that ther arguments.
ought to be included? Is the definition so broad that it
fails to exclude instances that do not properly belong to Descriptions
the concept? Thus, in constructing an argument for a Descriptions may characterize some feature of an object,
definition, an arguer might posit a definition, then argue concept, or event or may describe the object, concept, or
that the definition is reasonable in terms of its scope event itself. Examples of descriptive claims include:
and breadth. In fact, this is the criterion implicit in the • The rifle purported to have killed President Kennedy
objection to defining “antiabortion” as “pro-life.” Choice requires a minimum of 2.3 seconds between shots.
advocates claimed that the definition of “pro-life” was so • Affirmative action programs must, by their nature,
narrow in scope that it excluded pro-choice advocates. include hiring quotas.
So, in some cases, the arguments supporting a claim of • Jack Ruby was spotted in Parkland Hospital thirty
definition are important. In other cases, the definition minutes after President Kennedy was murdered.
becomes evidence (sometimes implicit) for further argu-
ments about whether a claim of definition was actually Each of these statements is descriptive because they
made. provide a verbal account or characterization of some-
Definitions themselves frequently are important, thing. They are claims in the argumentative sense
but they are also important to subsequent argumenta- because they are controversial9 and because they require
tive moves. Definitions are important because they often reasons for support. Because some descriptions are
do the work of argument without opening the arguer’s not controversial, all descriptions are not descriptive
position to as much controversy as would otherwise arguments. Many or even most descriptions are not
be expected. Definitions may avoid controversy in two argumentative because they are not controversial. For
ways: by implying descriptions and by implying values. instance, if a person simply describes observations of
Definitions imply descriptions by including elements the colors of flowers—roses are red; violets blue—that
in the definition that properly require evidentiary sup- person would not ordinarily give reasons to support
port. For instance, an arguer might claim that affirma- these descriptions.
tive action is unfair and might define affirmative action One kind of descriptive claim is a claim of histori-
as “racial preference quotas.” Whether affirmative action cal fact. All statements about history are not historical
programs require racial preference quotas is a matter of claims. To be a historical claim a statement must be con-
9. With regard to the first example, some people claim that this action requires closer to four seconds when one takes into account
the fact that a shooter must reacquire the subject in the scope. Regarding the second example, some supporters of affirmative action
argue that hiring quotas are required only for a company with a past record of discrimination. In the third example, the primary
source of the claim regarding Jack Ruby was AP reporter Seth Kantor; the Warren Commission claimed that Kantor was mistaken
in his report.

troversial and must require reason for its support. The A scientific description can be the final product of
statement, “O. J. Simpson won the Heisman Trophy,” an argument or can be used as evidence for the further
is not controversial and therefore not an argumentative development of another kind of argument. Whether
claim. On the other hand, the statement, “O. J. Simpson the primary determinant of homosexuality is genetic or
killed Nicole Brown Simpson,” not only is controversial, cultural is an interesting claim from a purely scientific
but also requires an arguer to present to reasons support- perspective. People can argue the facts that support the
ing or denying it. genetic explanation or the cultural one. However, this
Another kind of description is a claim of scientific claim frequently has been used in the debate about the
fact. Scientific facts are statements that command the morality of homosexuality.10 So in the case of the deter-
belief of the scientific community: “The Earth is the minants of homosexuality, the descriptive claim is both
third planet from the sun.” A claim of scientific fact is important for its own sake and for the sake of other
a controversial scientific statement believed by a scien- potential claims as well.
tist or a group of scientists, but not yet accepted by the Descriptive historical claims are interesting both
entire scientific community: “Cold fusion can be pro- because they make statements about whether or not an
duced in the laboratory.” Like other factual statements, event occurred as asserted and because they can be used
all scientific statements are not claims of scientific fact as evidence in making further arguments.
either because they are not controversial or because they • Lee Harvey Oswald killed President John Kennedy.
do not require reasons to be given in their support. To • O. J. Simpson murdered Nicole Brown Simpson
say, “The Earth is the third planet from the sun,” is not a and Ronald Goldman.
claim because it is not controversial and because a person • U.S. ships Maddox and Turner Joy were attacked by
making that statement would not be expected to give the North Vietnamese in the Gulf of Tonkin.
reasons to support it. But the statement, “Cold fusion
can be produced in a laboratory,” is a controversial state- Each of these is an interesting and controversial claim
ment, and the scientific community would challenge of historical fact. These and other claims of histori-
anyone making that statement to support it with reason cal fact also can be used as evidence for relational and
and evidence. evaluative arguments. For instance, the argument that
Illustrating different examples of descriptive claims the Maddox and Turner Joy were attacked by the North
is important in and of itself because people frequently Vietnamese was used by President Johnson to persuade
argue about descriptive claims with no goal other than to the Senate and the House of Representatives to pass the
try to settle a controversy regarding an account of science Gulf of Tonkin Resolution giving Johnson a blank check
or history. As just one example, several hundred books to pursue the war in Vietnam. Subsequently arguments
and articles have been written presenting many different that the attack was, at best, provoked and, at worse,
accounts of the assassinations of John Kennedy, Robert faked were used by opponents of the Vietnam War to
Kennedy, and Martin Luther King. But beyond being show that Johnson’s actions were improper and even
important for their own sake, descriptive claims also are immoral.
important because they are needed when arguing about
subsequent kinds of claims as well. Relationship Statements
Descriptive claims frequently are used as evidence in Descriptive claims are about the nature of reality —what
relational and evaluative arguments. A claim describing is the essence of X or Y. Claims of relationship depend
the nature of an object frequently is needed before argu- on, but go beyond, the essence of X or Y to the relation-
ing that one object is related to another object. People ship between X and Y. Claims of relationship assert a
might need to argue, for instance, that hiring quotas connection between two or more objects, events, or phe-
are essential features of affirmative action (a descriptive nomena. Like descriptive claims, claims of relationship
claim) before they can argue that affirmative action leads can be important in their own right or they can serve as
to differential treatment of persons in hiring pools (rela- evidence for the development of evaluative claims. Con-
tional claim). Similarly, people may need to describe an sider these claims:
object or phenomenon prior to evaluating that object. • Secondhand smoke contributes significantly to
In this example, they would need to describe affirmative health problems.
action before they argue that it is either good or bad.
10. Some argue, for instance, that because the tendency for homosexuality is genetic, it is not a “choice” and therefore cannot be
considered moral or immoral.
Introduction |15

• The scandals of the Clinton administration are like quite poetic language: “If the glove doesn’t fit, you must
those of the Nixon administration. acquit.” According to the prosecution’s claim, the glove
• Advertising has changed the role of women in the was a sign of Simpson’s guilt. According to the defense’s
United States. claim, the glove signaled his innocence. This was a clear
case where the argument centered around the relation-
All of these are claims of relationship because they ship between the bloody glove and Simpson’s guilt or
assert a relationship between two objects or concepts innocence.
(secondhand smoke and health, Clinton and Nixon, In the Simpson example, the claim of sign is impor-
advertising and women). The relationships asserted in tant because if it were believed, the claim alone is suf-
these examples are of two kinds: of contingency and of ficient to establish guilt (or innocence, depending on
similarity. the nature of the argument). But like other claims, a
claim of sign also can be used as evidence to establish a
Contingency different claim. Say, for instance, that a person claims
Some claims of relationship assert a relationship of con- that “Photographs from the yacht, ‘Monkey Business,’
tingency. The secondhand smoking example and the showed that presidential candidate Gary Hart was an
advertising example are of this kind. In each case, these adulterer.” The photographs are not direct evidence of
claims assert that one object or phenomenon is depen- adultery, but given their nature, they are strong signs of
dent on another in one way or another. Sign and cause infidelity. One could then use this claim of sign to sup-
are two ways objects can be dependent on one another port an evaluative argument: “Gary Hart is not worthy
via some form of contingency. of being president since he is an adulterer.” In this case,
Relationships of sign are one way to show that one the claim of sign becomes evidence to support an evalu-
thing is dependent on another thing. ative claim.
Consider these: Relationships of sign may or may not involve relation-
• The pain in your child’s abdomen probably means ships of cause. The relationship between pain and appen-
she has appendicitis. dicitis is one of both sign and cause. The pain is a sign
• The palm print on the Mannlicher-Carcano rifle of the appendicitis and the appendicitis is a cause of the
proves that Oswald handled the rifle supposedly pain. A causal relationship is not directly involved in the
used to shoot President Kennedy. example of the double murder of Goldman and Brown
Simpson or in the example about Oswald’s palm print on
Both of the previous statements are claims about rela- the rifle. Although the palm print and the bloody glove
tionships of sign. The pain in the abdomen as a sign were signs of murder, they were not causes of the murder.
11
of appendicitis is dependent on the belief that the child Thus, relationships of sign are different from relationships
actually has abdominal pain and a belief in the relation- of cause at least in terms of their focus.
ship between that pain and her appendix. The belief that Causal relationships are important in many forms
Oswald handled the rifle that supposedly was used to of argument. The kind of causal claim varies from one
shoot President Kennedy is dependent on the belief that instance to the next. A few examples include contribu-
he actually left his palm print on the murder weapon. tory causes, necessary and sufficient causes, blocking
Arguments of sign played a very important—perhaps causes, and motive or responsibility.
crucial—role in the criminal trial of O. J. Simpson for Contributory causes are special kinds of causal state-
the murders of Ron Goldman and Nicole Brown Simp- ments. In many or most cases, a single event is not the
son. The prosecution claimed that the presence of a cause of an effect. Certain conditions predispose cer-
bloody glove near Simpson’s home was a sign that he tain effects; other conditions influence the occurrence of
was the murderer. In a dramatic turn of events, Simp- those effects. Finally, some condition precipitates that
son tried on the glove in the presence of the jury; it effect. For example, consider these three possible claims
appeared to be too small to fit on his hand. This evi- about the causes of heart attacks:
dence allowed the defense to support its own claim in • Genetics are the cause of heart attacks.
• A high cholesterol diet can cause heart attack.
11. One can make a case for a causal relationship between the murder and the bloody glove in that the act of committing the
murder caused blood to get on the glove. The causal relationship between the palm print and the Kennedy murder is less direct,
although one could say that the act of murdering President Kennedy caused Oswald’s palm print to be on the murder weapon. This
last claim is a weak one since the palm print could have been on the rifle long before the assassination.

• Vigorous exercise causes heart attacks. Statements about motive are causal claims about
the effects of human agents. Many causal claims, like
We know that some people are genetically more pre- those already discussed, are related to physical or bio-
disposed to heart attacks than others. If a person who logical phenomena. The relationships among genetics,
already is predisposed to heart attacks regularly con- diet, exercise, and heart disease are biological relation-
sumes a diet high in cholesterol, that diet contributes ships. Various elements in a biological system affect
to the likelihood of heart attack. Suppose a person dies other elements in that same system. In a similar manner,
of a heart attack while on a morning jog. What was the motives are a kind of causal explanation when human
cause? Genetics? Diet? Exercise? The answer is that all choice is involved in creating effects. Why, for instance,
three factors may have been contributory causes. No do senators and representatives stall legislation for cam-
single cause may have caused the heart attack, but all paign finance reform? Why do corporations knowingly
three conditions in combination may have resulted in a produce dangerous products? The answers to these ques-
heart attack. tions involve causal claims, but causal claims of a differ-
Necessary and sufficient causes frequently deal with ent order from those discussed earlier.
singular causes rather than contributory causes. “Money In an earlier example, genetics, diet, and exercise did
is essential to happiness” is an example of a claim of nec- not “choose” to cause heart disease. But in human sys-
essary causation. To say that money is a necessary cause tems choice is frequently an important element in deter-
of happiness is not to say that the presence of money mining what actions lead to what effects. One might
automatically leads to happiness. The claim does, how- claim that “representatives’ and senators’ self-interest
ever, imply that without money happiness is impossible. motivate them to stall campaign finance reform” or that
If one wanted to make a claim of sufficient causation the “profit motive induces corporations knowingly to
using the same example, one might claim that “money produce dangerous products.” The kinds of causal ques-
is the key to happiness.” Depending on how one inter- tions that deal with motives are very useful when arguing
preted that claim, it might mean that money brings hap- about the effects of human actions.
piness regardless of other conditions. In that case, one Like other causal claims, claims about motive are
would have made a claim about a sufficient cause. useful as evidence in the construction of evaluative
Necessary and sufficient causes are useful when argu- claims. A claim based on a senator’s motive for stall-
ing about relationships between and among various phe- ing campaign finance reform might, for instance, be
nomena. They are also useful as evidence from which to used as evidence to construct a further claim relevant
construct other kinds of claims, particularly claims that to the wisdom of reelecting that senator. A claim that
evaluate a course of action. When an arguer proposes a particular corporation’s desire for profits led to the
a strategy to eliminate an undesirable effect, evidence production of unsafe products might be used as further
derived from a claim about a necessary condition of that evidence to support a claim asking for a boycott of that
effect is useful. Having made a claim about a necessary corporation.
cause, one can forward a proposal to eliminate that nec- The claims of relationship that have been discussed
essary cause and thus eliminate the effect. For instance, so far have involved relationships of contingency. In
if people believe that overeating is a necessary condition relationships of contingency, one phenomenon depends
of obesity, they could use this causal claim as evidence to on or affects another. These claims of relationships have
convince others that they need to quit overeating. Thus, generally been divided into the categories of signs and
making a claim about a necessary cause is a good way to cause. However, claims of contingency are not the only
support a plan for eliminating an effect. kind of claims of relationship. Claims of similarity are
Similarly, evidence derived from a claim about a suffi- equally important kinds of relational claims.
cient cause is a good way to support a plan for producing
an effect. If one can present a proposal that adds a suf- Similarity
ficient cause, one can then claim that the proposal will In addition to relationships based on contingency, other
produce some good effect. For instance, some diet com- statements of relationship assert a relationship of similar-
mercials claim that their products are sufficient to cause ity. A claim of similarity asserts that two or more objects
one to lose weight. This claim of a sufficient causal con- or concepts are similar in important ways. Claims of
dition can then be used as evidence to convince buyers similarity are frequently found in what is called argu-
to try their diet programs. Implied in such a claim is that ment by analogy or argument by parallel case. Examples
regardless of what else one does, following the proposed of claims of similarity include:
diet will lead to weight loss.
Introduction |17

• Abortion is virtually the same as infanticide. event, or concept. Evaluative claims are more complex
• The Clinton administration is like the Nixon kinds of claims because they ordinarily require some
administration. combination of other definitions, descriptions, and rela-
• Capital punishment is state-sanctioned murder. tional statements.
Evaluative claims bear a family resemblance to one
Each of these examples shares certain characteris- another because they attach a value to one or more
tics. First, each example includes two objects or con- objects or events. Still, evaluative claims are so vast in
cepts (Clinton and Nixon, abortion and infanticide, and number and in characteristics that they can be more
capital punishment and murder). Second, each example easily viewed in these three categories: those that evalu-
states that the two concepts or objects are similar in ate a single object, those that compare two objects with
important regards. respect to some value, and those that suggest an action
Claims of similarity are useful when an arguer wants with respect to some object.
to do nothing more than support the idea that two or
more objects and concepts are similar. Although the Claims That Evaluate a Single Object
claim focuses on the similarity between the objects, it Some evaluative claims simply argue that an object is
frequently carries another implied claim of evaluation. attached in some way (positively or negatively) with
The claim that capital punishment is state-sanctioned some value. These kinds of claims involve both an object
murder is not a value-neutral statement. When con- of evaluation and some value judgment to be applied to
fronted with such a claim, most audiences begin with the object:
the assumption that murder is a negatively valued con- • Capital punishment is immoral.
cept. An arguer who succeeds in supporting the claim of • Private property is the root of all evil.
similarity also succeeds in transferring the negative value • Capitalism is good.
associated with murder to the concept of capital punish-
ment. In all of the above examples of claims of similar- These examples of claims that attach a value to a
ity, the arguer has two different purposes: to show that single object all contain some object to be evaluated
the two concepts or objects have similar characteristics, (capital punishment, private property, capitalism) and
or to show that the two concepts or objects are evaluated some value judgment that is applied to the objects
in similar ways. (immoral, evil, good).
In some cases, the audience may not have enough Some claims, like those mentioned above, imply
familiarity with either of the two objects to understand rather broad value judgments. Others may contain
the values associated with them. In such a case, a claim more specific ones:
of similarity is sometimes the first step toward proving a • Capital punishment is unfair in its application to
claim of evaluation. Consider a hypothetical claim that minorities.
states “Senator X’s medical care plan is similar to one • Private property has led to an uncontrolled and
instituted in Canada.” If the audience knew nothing immoral ruling class.
about either Senator X’s plan or the Canadian one, the • Capitalism provides incentive for individual
arguer might establish this claim to be used as evidence enterprise.
in a later evaluative claim that “Senator X’s plan should
be accepted (or rejected).” In this case the arguer might These examples contain value judgments that are
present an evaluative claim regarding the success of the more specific than the broad ones cited earlier.
Canadian plan and then combine the two claims—one
of similarity and one regarding acceptance or rejection. Claims That Compare Two Objects
Thus, claims of relationship fall into three broad cat-
egories: sign, causation, and similarity. In some cases, Instead of evaluating a single object, some claims com-
claims of relationship are supported by evidence built on pare two objects with respect to some value to constitute
claims of fact. Likewise, relational claims can be used to a second category of evaluative claim. Unlike the previ-
establish evaluative claims. ous category of evaluative claims, claims in this category
include at least two objects of evaluation and at least one
value judgment to be applied to those objects. Consider
Claims of Evaluation these claims:
Evaluative claims go beyond descriptive claims and • Lying is more proper than hurting someone’s feelings.
claims of relationship to the evaluation of an object, • Reagan was a better president than Clinton.

Each of these examples contains two objects (lying can sometimes be used as support for another evaluative
and hurting someone’s feelings; Reagan and Clinton) claim, leading eventually to complicated claims built on
and one value judgment to be applied to each object a web of other claims.
(more proper and better president). In addition to the fact that evaluative claims are used
both as the end product of an argument and as evidence
for other evaluative claims, almost all evaluative claims
Claims of Action are dependent on earlier descriptive claims and relational
Claims of action, sometimes called claims of policy, are claims. Depending on whether or not the audience is
yet another category of evaluative claim: familiar with and accepts the arguer’s descriptive of the
• Capital punishment should be abolished. concept to be evaluated, the arguer making an evaluative
• The United States should adopt a policy of free claim may also want to explicitly make prior descriptive
trade with Cuba. claims as well. In the previous examples, for instance,
one can easily see how an arguer might need to describe
These claims evaluate a concept by suggesting that certain features of capital punishment, private prop-
action be taken with respect to that concept. Because erty, lying, Clinton, Reagan, free trade, or Cuba before
an action can be evaluated only by comparison or con- launching into an evaluation of those concepts.
trast to other possible actions, claims of action by neces- In many, but not all instances, an arguer also would
sity compare at least two objects. The claim that capital need to use a claim of relationship as evidence to sup-
punishment should be abolished compares the pres- port the evaluative claim. To illustrate instances when
ence of capital punishment with its absence. The claim a relational claim is and is not needed, consider the
regarding free trade with Cuba implies a comparison of two examples of claims evaluating a single object. The
a policy of free trade with the present policy of trade claim that “capital punishment is immoral” can be
embargo. In this regard, claims of action are similar to supported by describing a feature of capital punish-
claims that compare two objects. ment (that it is the intentional taking of a human life)
In a different regard, claims of action are different and evaluating that feature negatively (the intentional
from the other categories of evaluative claims in that they taking of a human life is an immoral act). A descrip-
rarely state the value judgment used to compare the two tion and an evaluation are all that are necessary; rela-
objects. The reason the value judgment is not ordinarily tional evidence is not needed. The second claim that
stated in the claim is that an action claim is frequently “private property is the root of all evil” is different. To
supported by a variety of other claims of evaluation each make this claim, one first might describe the concept
of which may be relying on a different value judgment. of private property, then argue that private property
The claim about the abolition of capital punishment, for leads to greed and selfishness (a relational claim), then
example, might be supported by other evaluative claims argue that greed and selfishness are evil. A significant
like difference exists between the first argument and the
• Capital punishment is immoral. second one: The first requires relational evidence and
• Capital punishment contributes to the brutaliza- the second does not. In the first instance, the argu-
tion of society. ment is evaluating an inherent feature of capital pun-
• Capital punishment is racist. ishment; in the second, the argument evaluates an
effect of private property. When arguing an inherent
To complicate matters even more, evaluative claims feature of a concept, relational evidence is unnecessary
of action inherently are comparative claims. To argue in because the evaluation is of the feature rather than of
favor of a particular action is possible only in comparison an effect of the feature. But many times, by the nature
to other actions. For instance, the previous claims imply of the claim, an arguer is forced to evaluate an effect of
that capital punishment is less moral, more brutal, and a concept. In those instances, the arguer is required to
more racist than the alternatives. Because action claims establish the effect by means of relational evidence.
usually require multiple, comparative claims as evidence In summary, four categories of evidence and claims
to support them, action claims generally are more com- include definitions, descriptions, relational statements
plicated than the other categories of claims. (of contingency and of similarity), and evaluations.
According to this category system, evaluative claims Sometimes claims are the end products of arguments; at
are generally divided into three types: claims that evaluate other times they are used as evidence for the construc-
a single object, claims that evaluate two or more objects, tion of further claims. This introduction has presented a
and action claims. As indicated, one evaluative claim category system and begun to explain how various types
Introduction |19

of claims are related to one another when one is used as claims to support propositions. Claims and evidence are
evidence for another. This introduction has done little the foundational elements of supporting propositions.
or nothing toward explaining how one constructs argu- Warrants and reservations, which are more likely to be
ments for these various types of claims. The methods individual creations than foundations, did not receive the
and processes of constructing these claims are the topics same detailed discussion.
of later chapters. When using this volume, debaters need to remember
that it is only a starting point. Good debaters, much less
Theory and Practice excellent debaters, will need to go beyond this volume.
They will need to engage in individual and perhaps collec-
This essay has provided some theoretical background rele- tive research into the details of other claims and evidence.
vant to argumentation in debating. Specifically, it has pro- Then, of course, comes the actual practice of debating
vided a discussion of the Toulmin model of argument and where debaters will be required to combine the evidence
a more detailed description of two of Toulmin’s elements: provided in this volume and from their own research
claims and evidence. The reason for focusing on these two with warrants and reservations to support claims and
elements is that the remainder of this volume provides to combine those claims into arguments supporting or
information that can be transformed into evidence and refuting propositions.
Robert Trapp
Professor of Rhetoric
Willamette University
Salem, Oregon, U.S.A.

 DEBATE TOPICS


ABORTION ON DEMAND
Whether a woman has the right to terminate a pregnancy, and, if so, under what conditions, is one of the most contentious issues facing
modern societies. For some, the question is even more fundamental: At what stage is the fetus to be regarded as a child? The battle lines
are drawn between “pro-life” supporters, who argue that abortion is never permissible, and “pro-choice” adherents, who emphasize the
mother’s right to choose. In 1973 the US Supreme Court ruled that abortion was legal in its landmark decision Roe v. Wade. Since
then antiabortion groups have pressed to have the ruling overturned and have succeeded in having several states pass laws limiting the
conditions under which abortion is permitted. Pro-choice groups have opposed these efforts and made support of Roe the litmus test for
political and judicial candidates wanting their backing.
PROS CONS
Women should have control over their own bodies—they Of course, human rights should be respected, but no one
have to carry the child during pregnancy and undergo has a right to make a decision with no reference to the
childbirth. No one else carries the child for her; it will rights and wishes of others. In this case, does the father
be her responsibility alone, and thus she should have the have any rights in regard to the fate of the fetus? More
sole right to decide. If a woman does not want to go important, though, pro-choice groups actively ignore the
through the full nine months and subsequent birth, then most important right—the child’s right to life. What is
she should have the right to choose not to do so. There more important than life? All other rights, including the
are few—if any—other cases where something with such mother’s right to choice, surely stem from a prior right
profound consequences is forced upon a human being to life; if you have no right to any life, then how do you
against her or his will. To appeal to the child’s right to have a right to an autonomous one? A woman may ordi-
life is just circular—whether a fetus has rights or not, or narily have a reasonable right to control her own body,
can really be called a “child,” is exactly what is at issue. but this does not confer on her the entirely separate (and
Everyone agrees that children have rights and shouldn’t insupportable) right to decide whether another human
be killed. Not everyone agrees that fetuses of two, four, lives or dies.
eight, or even twenty weeks are children.
Not only is banning abortion a problem in theory, Unborn children cannot articulate their right to life; they
offending against a woman’s right to choose, it is also a are vulnerable and must be protected. Many laws are
practical problem. A ban would not stop abortion but difficult to implement, but degree of difficulty does not
would drive it once again underground and into con- diminish the validity and underlying principle. People
ditions where the health and safety of the woman are will kill other people, regardless of the law, but it does
almost certainly at risk. Women would also circumvent not follow that you shouldn’t legislate against murder.
the ban by traveling to countries where abortion is legal. Whether the state should restrain women from travel-
Either the state would have to take the draconian mea- ing for abortions is a separate question, but one that can
sure of restricting freedom of movement, or it would be answered in the affirmative given what is at stake.
have to admit that its law is unworkable in practice and Restricting someone’s freedom is a small price to pay for
abolish it. protecting an innocent life.
Are we really taking about a “life?” At what point does a The question of what life is can certainly be answered: It
life begin? Is terminating a fetus, which can neither feel is sacred, inviolable, and absolute. The fetus, at whatever
nor think and is not conscious of its own “existence,” stage of development, will inevitably develop the human
really commensurate with the killing of a person? If you abilities to think, feel, and be aware of itself. The unborn
affirm that human life is a quality independent of, and child will have every ability and every opportunity that
prior to, thought and feeling, you leave yourself the awk- you yourself have, given the chance to be born.
ward task of explaining what truly “human” life is.
|23

PROS CONS
In cases where terminating a pregnancy is necessary to While emergencies are tragic, it is by no means obvi-
save a mother’s life, surely abortion is permissible. ous that abortion is permissible. The “mother vs. child”
dilemma is one that defies solution, and aborting to
preserve one of the lives sets a dangerous precedent that
killing one person to save another is acceptable. This is a
clear, and unpalatable, case of treating a human being as
a means to an end.
Not only medical emergencies present compelling While rape is an appalling crime, is it the fault of the
grounds for termination. Women who have been raped unborn child? The answer is no. Denying someone life
should not have to suffer the additional torment of because of the circumstances of conception is as unfair as
being pregnant with the product of that ordeal. To force anything else imaginable.
a woman to produce a living, constant reminder of that
act is unfair to both mother and child.
Finally, advances in medical technology have enabled us What right does anyone have to deprive another of life
to determine during pregnancy whether the child will be on the grounds that he deems that life not worth living?
disabled. In cases of severe disability, in which the child This arrogant and sinister presumption is impossible to
would have a very short, very painful and tragic life, it justify, given that many people with disabilities lead ful-
is surely right to allow parents to choose a termination. filling lives. What disabilities would be regarded as the
This avoids both the suffering of the parents and of the watershed between life and termination? All civilized
child. countries roundly condemn the practice of eugenics.
Sample Motions:
This House would forbid abortion on demand.
This House believes in a woman’s right to choose.
Web Links:
• American Civil Liberties Union: Reproductive Freedom. <http://www.aclu.org/reproductiverights/index.html> Provides informa-
tion on the status of reproductive issues and reproductive rights from a pro-choice perspective.
• The National Right to Life Committee. <http://www.nrlc.org/> Presents information on the status of issues like abortion, human
cloning, euthanasia, and RU-486.
• ReligiousTolerance.org: Abortion. <http://www.religioustolerance.org/abortion.htm> Offers information on both the pro-life and
pro-choice positions.
Further Reading:
Dombrowski, Daniel A., and Robert Deltete. A Brief, Liberal, Catholic Defense of Abortion. University of Illinois Press, 2006.
Hendershott, Anne. The Politics of Abortion. Encounter Books, 2006.
Jacob, Krista, ed. Abortion Under Attack: Women on the Challenges Facing Choice. Seal Press, 2006.
Rose, Molody. Safe, Legal, and Unavailable?: Abortion Politics in the United States. CQ Press, 2006.


ABORTION, PARENTAL NOTIFICATION/CONSENT
Whether a teenager should have to notify or get the permission of her parents before having an abortion is one of the contentious issues
surrounding abortion. Parental notification or consent laws exist in 32 US states, although in many states courts have stopped implementa-
tion. Some of the statutes provide for a court bypass procedure should a teenager be unable to involve her parents. Many include excep-
tions for medical emergencies. In 2005, the U.S. Supreme Court agreed to hear a challenge to a New Hampshire law requiring parental
notification, but the following year avoided a major decision by returning the case to the lower court.
PROS CONS
Children under 16 need parental consent for medical Parental consent is not legally necessary to have a baby
treatment and surgery: abortion should not be an ex- nor should it be. The mother, not the grandparents,
ception. Children need parental consent for many ac- should have the ultimate authority over whether to
tivities—from participating in extracurricular sports or have a baby. To say that someone is old enough to
school trips to marrying. Abortion is at least as impor- have a baby but not old enough to have an abortion
tant a decision as any of these. is absurd. In any case, parental consent for surgery is
a legal sham because physicians can get a court order
to override a parent’s refusal. The proposition has not
presented a good example.
Parents have a right to know what their children are do- Children have good reasons for not telling parents of a
ing. They are legally responsible for their care, and, as pregnancy. Parents who are opposed to abortion may
parents, they have a proper interest. Good parents would force their daughter to continue a pregnancy against her
want to help their daughter make her decision. wishes, even at a risk to her health or life. Disclosing
that a girl is pregnant confirms that she is sexually ac-
tive. Some parents may be so opposed to premarital sex
that they disown their daughter or physically or mentally
abuse her.
Parental notification helps ensure that pregnant teen- This measure is unnecessary for stable and supportive
agers get support and guidance from their parents in families, in which daughters may well choose to discuss
deciding whether to continue the pregnancy. This deci- their pregnancy with their parents. It is ineffective and
sion has a major long-term effect on a woman’s psycho- cruel in unstable and troubled families, where telling
logical and emotional well-being, her ability to con- parents that their daughter is pregnant may make the
tinue formal education, and her future financial status. family situation worse.
She needs the guidance of adults in helping make this
decision.
We appreciate that in some exceptional cases notify- Obtaining parental consent necessarily imposes a de-
ing parents may be inappropriate—for example, if lay into the abortion process, which increases the like-
a daughter is estranged from them, if she has been lihood of complications. Judicial waivers introduce
abused, or if telling her parents would present a seri- even more delays—on average at least 22 days in the
ous foreseeable threat to her safety. In such cases, the U.S. For the sake of the mother’s health, it is better
courts could allow a waiver. In normal circumstances, not to require parental consent.
however, parents should be informed. That unusual
|25

PROS CONS
circumstances may arise does not affect the principle
that this is a sensible law.
Requiring parental consent will lead to a fall in the num- Requiring parental consent does not limit abortions.
ber of abortions. In Minnesota, for example, the number Teens go to states that do not have such requirements.
of legal teenage abortions fell by 25% when this measure
was introduced. Both pro-choice advocates and abortion
opponents agree that lowering the number of abortions
is good.
When the “quick-fix” of abortion is no longer eas- We should encourage campaigns for sexual abstinence
ily available, attitudes change. Teenagers are less likely and contraceptive awareness, but we must remember
to have sex or are more likely to use contraception if that they are not alternatives to abortion. No sensible
they do. Abstention and practicing safe sex have positive person would choose abortion as an alternative to con-
effects on health by diminishing the risk of unwanted traception. Abortion is a last resort. If sexual abstinence
pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases. is not a sensible reaction to making abortion more inac-
cessible, then making abortion more inaccessible is not a
sensible way of increasing sexual abstinence.
Sample Motions:
This House would require parental consent for abortion.
This House would look after its children.
This House believes that parental consent is in the best interest of the teen.
Web Links:
• Center for Reproductive Rights. <http://www.crlp.org/pub_fac_mandconsent.html> Essay on the issue from a pro-choice
group.
• Family.org. Focus on Social Issues. <http://www.family.org/cforum/fosi/bioethics/faqs/a0027733.cfm> Q & A in support of
parental notification.
• ReligiousTolerance.org. <http://www.religioustolerance.org/abo_pare.htm> Summary of pros and cons of parental notification
laws.


ADVERTISING, IMAGE OF WOMEN IN
In the fall of 2006 Spain banned too-thin models from the Madrid Fashion Week, reigniting the discussion of how fashion’s—and adver-
tising’s—unrealistic beauty standards influence women’s body image, their actual bodies, their aspirations, and their health.
PROS CONS
Consumer advertising projects an unrealistic ideal of Advertising allows a form of escapism that many wom-
the female body shape. The vast majority of advertising en welcome and, indeed, pursue. As with most artistic
uses female models whose key features (e.g., thinness, media, an implicit understanding exists that what is
particular figure, unblemished complexion) do not cor- depicted does not necessarily mirror real life—and to
respond to most women’s bodies. This can create false many viewers this is the very attraction of the images.
expectations on the part of women and their partners, Models reflect how many women want to be,
as well as society at large. The portrayal of women in which is why they are used to advertise fashion in the
advertising is also highly stylized and can significantly first place. Women welcome such pictures as a way
distort the connection viewers make between what they of affirming their own focus on certain elements of
see in an advertisement and what women actually look aesthetic attractiveness. The glamour of the fashion
like and experience in daily life. industry in general and its advertising campaigns in
particular is a welcome antidote to the humdrum ex-
istence many women lead. Women are grateful for the
chance to fantasize about a glamorous, fashionable
lifestyle.
Much advertising is filtered through a male lens and, Arguing that advertisers must choose between por-
even if targeted at women, can reinforce an unbalanced, traying women either as aesthetically perfect, sexu-
male chauvinistic view of women as sex objects. We see ally attractive objects or as thinking human beings is
this in the fact that most advertising uses young, attrac- a false choice. Models’ beauty in no way undermines
tive female models—even for products both men and their intellectual capacity. The use of female models
women use (e.g., cars). in consumer advertising actually empowers women.
The successful models who attract media attention
are role models for many women. Women are impor-
tant consumers; media focus on portraying them in a
certain light because advertisers are trying to cater to
their interests.
Advertising featuring beautiful women plays on female The use of female models in advertising aimed at
insecurities, linking beauty and success with consump- women is the inevitable response to market demand.
tion. Through its near-relentless focus on “ideal” body- Women want to see other women in ads. Through
type models, advertising also pressures women into con- their ongoing consumption of and demand for pic-
forming to a “perfect” body. This increases the likelihood tures of “perfect” bodies, women effectively signal a
of eating disorders, as well as the pursuit of unnecessary tacit acceptance of such images. If enough women ob-
cosmetic surgery, anti-ageing treatments, etc. jected, advertisers would change their approach rather
than alienate their target consumers.
Consumer advertising negatively objectifies women, Advertising and the fashion industry vary the kind of
conforming to a misogynist perception of women as images they use to suit different markets. Advertising
commodifiable sexual objects. Most advertising also follows social norms; it does not set them. The fashion
uses models with a fairly homogenous set of physical industry is innocent of the charge of homogeneity as
|27

PROS CONS
characteristics and styles them so that they are often it draws models from ethnic minorities, thus promot-
interchangeable. This approach emphasizes the view of ing a more diverse view of beauty. Also, advertisers are
women as objects. beginning to use models with more “natural” bodies;
as we saw in fall 2006, a backlash has begun against
ultra-thin models.
Sample Motions:
This House believes that thin models are poor role models.
This House abhors the male chauvinistic consumer culture.
This House believes that advertising and fashion must “get real.”
Web Links:
• CommonSensemedia. <http://www.commonsensemedia.org/news/press-releases.php?id=28> Quick summary of relationship be-
tween body image and fashion.
• EDReferral.com. <http://www.edreferral.com/body_image.htm> Links to articles on body image.
• HealthyPlace.com. <http://www.healthyplace.com/communities/eating_Disorders/body_image_advertising.asp> Discussion of
eating disorders and advertising.
• USAToday.com <http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2006-09-25-thin-models_x.htm> Newspaper article on the debate en-
gendered by Spain’s ban on ultra-thin models.
Further Reading:
Bordo, Susan, and Leslie Heyword. Unbearable Weight: Feminism, Western Culture, and the Body, 10th ed. University of California
Press, 2004.
Wolf, Naomi. The Beauty Myth: How Images of Beauty Are Used Against Women. Harper Perennial, 2002.
Wykes, Maggie, and Barrie Gunter. The Media and Body Image: If Looks Could Kill. Sage, 2005.

ADVERTISING, TARGETING OF CHILDREN

Much television advertising is aimed at children, promoting not only toys and candy but also food, drink, music, films, and clothing.
Increasingly this practice is coming under attack. Sweden, Ireland, Greece, Italy, Denmark, and Belgium impose restrictions on advertis-
ing that targets children. Recent campaigns in the United States and Britain have concentrated on banning advertising to children under 5
years of age.
PROS CONS
Targeting TV advertisements to children is unethical. Children are not naïve innocents but canny consumers
Children cannot distinguish advertising from program- who can distinguish between advertisements and pro-
ming and cannot judge whether an advertisement is mis- grams at a very early age. Moreover, they can learn to
leading. Moreover, they are not yet able to resist sales evaluate advertising only by being exposed to it. Respon-
pitches. sible parents should teach children how to be good con-

PROS CONS
sumers by watching television with them and discussing
what they have seen.
Advertising specifically to children is unethical because Advertising does not create unnatural desires for mate-
they have little or no money of their own and have to rial possessions. Children who nag are badly brought up.
persuade their parents to buy the products for them. Moreover, advertising is not the only force stimulating
Rather than advertising directly to parents, companies the desire for toys, etc. Children frequently want things
encourage children to nag and whine for what they see; because their friends have them. Also, many children
such behavior inevitably leads to bad feeling between have money, either through allowances or, in the case
parents and children. Advertising that presents prod- of teenagers, through jobs. Learning how to manage
ucts to children as “must-have” is also socially divisive. It finances is part of growing up, and advertisements help
makes children whose parents cannot afford the newest children and teenagers make spending decisions.
fads feel inferior. These parents often go into debt to sat-
isfy their children.
Advertising aimed at children has negative social conse- Children naturally like foods that are rich in fats, carbo-
quences. Encouraging gullible children to consume junk hydrates, and sugar; they give them the energy they need
food creates obese, unhealthy youngsters. Society pays a to play and grow. Yes, eating only junk food is bad, but
high price in terms of the extra medical care such chil- parents should take responsibility for teaching children
dren will eventually require. Consequently, government proper eating habits.
has a direct interest in banning advertisements that con-
tribute to this problem.
Exploitative advertising brainwashes children into Banning advertisements is a severe restriction on free-
becoming eager consumers. Companies deliberately dom of speech. Companies should be able to tell the
encourage them to be materialistic so that they associate public about any legal products because advertising helps
happiness with purchasing power and the possession of companies succeed and innovate. Children also have a
particular goods. A study recently found that children in human right to receive and evaluate information from
Sweden, where marketing campaigns to under-12s are a wide range of sources. They are far from being brain-
banned, wanted significantly fewer toys than children in washed by advertisements, which form only a small part
Britain, where there are no restrictions. of their experiences; family, friends, school, and other
television programs are much more important in shap-
ing their views of the world.
Restricting advertising to children will not affect broad- Advertisements are the major source of television sta-
cast revenues significantly. It will lead to better pro- tion revenues. If government restricts or bans advertis-
gramming. Much of children’s television centers around ing to children, broadcasters will stop showing children’s
product placement and advertising tie-ins, which result programs or greatly reduce their quality and quantity.
in poor programs and unimaginative formats. Clearly, this is not in the public interest. Consumers also
benefit from children’s advertising. In Greece, children
have a limited selection of toys because of a government
ban on toy advertisements.
Sample Motions:
This House would ban television advertising to children.
This House would restrict advertising aimed at children.
This House would protect children.
This House believes children have a right to their childhood.
|29

Web Links:
• The Center for the New American Dream. <http://www.newdream.org/kids/facts.php> Facts about advertising and marketing
targeted at children.
• The Children’s Advertising Review Unit. <http://www.ftc.gov/privacy/safeharbor/caruselfreg.pdf> Self-regulatory guidelines for
children’s advertising.
• Young Media Australia. <http://www.youngmedia.org.au/mediachildren/03_advertising.htm> Information on the effects of ad-
vertising and specifically the impact of advertising food, clothes, and toys on children.
Further Reading:
Fox, Roy F. Harvesting Minds: How TV Commercials Control Kids. Praeger, 2000.
Gunter, Barry, and Adrian Furnham. Children as Consumers. Butterworth-Heinemann, 1997.
Macklin, M. Carole, and Les Carlson, eds. Advertising to Children: Concepts and Controversies. Sage, 1999.

AFFIRMATIVE ACTION
Affirmative action in the United States was born of the civil rights and women’s movements of the 1960s and 1970s. It is designed to pro-
vide historically disadvantaged groups—minorities and women—special consideration in education, housing, and employment. Those insti-
tutions with affirmative action policies generally set goals for increased diversity, although the courts have ruled quotas unconstitutional. By
the end of the twentieth century, Supreme Court decisions had limited affirmative action, and a vocal opposition movement was arguing
that it was no longer necessary. In June 2003, however, the Supreme Court ruled that universities could use race as one factor in making
admission decisions, although the deeply divided Court seemed to put limits on the weight race should receive.
PROS CONS
Women and minorities have frequently faced obstacles All discrimination is negative. It is always wrong to select
and difficulties in access to education and employment on any basis other than merit and ability. Affirmative
that white males did not. Affirmative action levels the action leads to able applicants being unfairly passed
playing field. over.
Affirmative action unlocks the unrealized potential of Affirmative action results in less able applicants fill-
millions. Minority applicants are just as skilled as those ing positions. Employers must have the flexibility to
from the majority but their talents are untapped because employ the best candidates to ensure efficiency and
of lack of opportunity. The country gains enormously by productivity.
using the talents of all our citizens.
Successful minority members are role models who will Affirmative action undermines the achievements of
encourage the development of minority youngsters. minority members by creating the impression that suc-
cess was unearned. Some members of minorities see
affirmative action as patronizing and as tokenism on the
part of the majority.

PROS CONS
Bringing more minority applicants into the workplace Affirmative action causes resentment among those who
will change racist and sexist attitudes because workers do not benefit from it and creates a backlash against
will begin to know each other as individuals rather than minorities.
stereotypes.
The proportion of minorities in particular jobs should Granted, we should aim for improving minority repre-
mirror that of the minority in the general population. sentation in high-profile positions, but we should not
The underrepresentation of minorities and women in sacrifice our emphasis on merit and ability. Instead we
certain fields leads to perceptions of institutional racism should give everyone better access to education so that
and sexism. we can choose on merit and without discrimination.
Getting minority candidates into top jobs will enable Educational institutions are becoming more diverse.
them to change the system “from the inside” to make it This diversity ultimately will lead to increasing minority
fairer for all. representation in senior positions in business, education,
and government. Although the pace of change is not as
fast as it might be, we have seen improvement. Contin-
ued implementation of affirmative action could lead to a
backlash that stops progress.
Sample Motions:
This House believes in affirmative action.
This House believes race does matter.
This House would act affirmatively.
Web Links:
• Affirmative Action and Diversity Project. <http://aad.english.ucsb.edu/> Site maintained by the University of California, Santa
Barbara, offering articles and theoretical analysis, public documents, current legislative initiatives, and resources on affirmative
action.
• Affirmative Action Special Report. <http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/affirm/affirm.htm> Washington Post
site offering overview of issue, key stories from the Post, and links to other resources.
Further Reading:
Anderson, Terry H. The Pursuit of Fairness: A History of Affirmative Action. Oxford University Press, 2004.
Cahn, Steven M., ed. The Affirmative Action Debates. Routledge, 2002.
Kellough, J. Edward. Understanding Affirmative Action: Politics, Discrimination, and the Search for Justice. Georgetown University
Press, 2006.
Kranz, Rachel. Affirmative Action. Facts On File, 2002.

|31

AIDS DRUGS FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
The vast majority of people infected with HIV/AIDS live in Africa, more specifically, sub-Saharan Africa. These typically poorer and
developing countries are confronting the issue of the cost of drugs for treating the disease. Some nations say that they cannot afford the
drugs and that drug companies are making an immoral profit; some nations have threatened to ignore the patents of pharmaceutical compa-
nies and to manufacture generic forms of HIV/AIDS drugs unless the companies agree to lower their prices for poorer markets. Bending
to international pressure, in the opening years of the 21st century, some of the world’s largest drug companies announced that they planned
to cut the cost of HIV/AIDS drugs in the world’s poorest countries.
PROS CONS
Without a doubt many of the world’s pharmaceutical Just like any business, the pharmaceutical compa-
companies are making large profits by selling drugs to nies need to recoup significant financial investment in
poor nations that have a great portion of their popu- research and development. The development of AIDS
lation infected with HIV/AIDS. This is an immoral drugs is highly technical, and a measurable return on
exploitation of those AIDS sufferers who can least afford initial financial investment is needed if companies are to
to pay for treatment and who have the least power inter- continue drug research and development.
nationally to negotiate cheaper prices.
The countries with the biggest AIDS problems are a Drug companies are as much subject to the forces of the
captive market and are forced to pay whatever the drug free market as any other business. The threat of illegally
companies demand for their products. Poor nations are producing generic drugs only further serves to discourage
thus justified in using the threat of producing generic drug companies from creating new and more effective
drugs to force drug companies to lower prices. medicines because the developing nations have shown
them that patent protections will be ignored.
Generic drugs would be far cheaper to produce and Because most of the drug companies are based in richer,
would avoid the shipping costs from factories in Europe First World nations, they have both the technology to
or America. Generic drugs have no research and devel- produce effective medicines and the funding to ensure
opment costs to recoup, so they could be sold for a price that no corners are cut in the process. Poorer nations
greatly reduced from current levels. The cost of keeping would almost certainly cut chemical corners in manu-
a person on AZT or other drug cocktails is exorbitant; facturing generic drugs should the technology for large-
such cost would be greatly reduced through the use of scale manufacture even be available. In addition, by con-
generic drugs. travening international treaties covering patents, they
would not benefit from the next generation of AIDS
drugs because companies would be reluctant to supply
the newer drugs to a country that steals a drug formula
to manufacture generic drugs.
Millions of people will continue to suffer while drug Is it right that those infected with HIV in the Third
companies refuse to make AIDS medication available to World get huge discounts while those in the First World
poorer nations at a price they can afford. Are they trying pay full price? Developed nations may even have to pay
to use the millions of HIV sufferers as hostages in their more if the drug companies decide to subsidize their
battle to get the prices they want? “charity sales” to poor countries. Are not poor countries
themselves using sufferers as hostages? Many developing
nations could realize significant long-term savings by
buying and using preventive medicines to stop mother-
to-child transmission, etc.

PROS CONS
Drug companies will not lose money by reducing prices; The majority of Third World countries would be unable
their market will expand. If prices are reduced, the drugs to afford the drugs even at a breakeven price. One-off
will become affordable to millions of sufferers, many of treatments to prevent mother-to-child transmission, for
whom will be using products like AZT for the rest of example, would be expensive enough. The cost for com-
their lives. plex drug cocktails would still be completely out of reach
of developing nations. Drug companies would have to
sell their medications at a loss to make them affordable
to most developing nations.
HIV/AIDS treatments are as cheap as they can be at No matter how low the drug companies price HIV/
present. By buying the medicines now, especially for AIDS treatments, they are unlikely to ever be cheap
preventive purposes, developing nations can reduce the enough: As the number of HIV infected people in Africa
chance of future HIV infection in their populations and grows, the strain on national health budgets will become
thus not need to buy the next generation of (inevitably unbearable. Developing countries are better off pursuing
more expensive) drugs. preventative measures and education. Governments will
need to use their health care funds carefully—producing
generic medicines offers significant savings.
Sample Motions:
This House would insist on cheaper drugs.
This House believes that capitalism lets the sick suffer.
This House wants the First World to help.
This House needs help with AIDS.
This House would fight AIDS.
Web Links:
• HEALTH: Cheaper AIDS Drugs a Myth, Says Medical Aid Agency. <http://www.aegis.com/news/ips/2000/IP000505.html>
International Press Service article on the controversy surrounding pharmaceutical company agreements to supply inexpensive
HIV/AIDS drugs to poor countries.
• USAID. <http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/global_health/aids/index.html#> Summary of US initiatives to fight AIDS in foreign
nations.
Further Reading:
Hope, Kempe R. AIDS and Development in Africa: A Social Science Perspective. Haworth, 1999.
Intensifying Action Against Hiv/AIDS in Africa: Responding to a Development Crisis. World Bank, 2000.
Webb, Douglas. HIV and AIDS in Africa. Pluto Press, 1997.

|33

ALCOHOL, BANNING OF
In almost all countries of the world, adults are allowed to buy and consume alcohol with few restrictions (although the times and places
that alcohol can be sold are often limited). This is a marked contrast to the legal situation of other mind-altering drugs such as marijuana,
cocaine, ecstasy, and heroin. Yet alcohol abuse has a serious impact on society. In 2004 alcohol-related traffic accidents were responsible for
almost 17,000 deaths (39% of all traffic-related deaths) and hundreds of thousands of injuries in the United States. Each year alcohol-
related crashes cost the US economy $51 billion in lost productivity. Despite the far-reaching impact of alcohol abuse, the failure of Prohi-
bition in the United States during 1920s and early 1930s makes most people very wary of trying a ban again.
PROS CONS
Alcohol is just as potentially addictive as many illegal The perfect society might prohibit the production and
drugs. Those who become addicted often lose their mar- sale of alcohol. However, in most cultures, alcohol,
riages, jobs, families, and even their lives. A large propor- unlike other drugs, is an integral part of social life and
tion of homeless people were made so because of alco- culture. To ban it is completely impractical. Doing so
holism. Any drug this addictive and destructive should would make criminals of billions of people and create
be illegal. the biggest black market the world has ever seen.
In many countries alcohol is a contributory factor in 60– Human beings are naturally inclined to violence and
70% of violent crimes, including child abuse, domestic conflict. Sex and violence are primal parts of our genetic
violence, sexual assault, and murder. In addition, alcohol make-up, and we do not need alcohol to bring them to
is far and away the leading cause of public disorder, street the surface. At worst, alcohol may slightly exaggerate
fights, etc. In short, alcohol is one of the prime causes these tendencies—but that makes it the occasion, not
of violence and crime in modern society, and its ban- the underlying cause, of violent crimes. The underly-
ning would immediately reduce the incidence of these ing causes are biological and social. Making rape and
crimes. murder illegal does not eradicate rape and murder, so it
is unlikely that making alcohol consumption illegal will
do so either.
Although organizations like Mothers Against Drunk The progress made against drunk driving in recent
Driving have successfully reduced the number of drunk- decades has been very encouraging. We should continue
driving deaths in the United States, deaths and serious to campaign against it and have every reason to hope that
injuries caused by drunk drivers still run to the thou- campaigns to restrict drinking and driving will eventu-
sands each year. This is unacceptable. Alcohol should ally eradicate the problem. Injuries and deaths, while
simply be banned. tragic, are not a good enough reason to take away the
civil liberties of the vast majority of law-abiding citizens
by depriving them of the pleasure of drinking alcohol.
We need consistency in our drug laws. If marijuana, Yes, we should have consistent drug laws, which is why it
which is not very addictive and which results in virtually is absurd for marijuana to be illegal. Marijuana and alco-
no violent crime or public disorder, needs to be banned hol should both be legal drugs because the vast majority
because of its mind-altering effects, then how much of people know how to use them safely and responsibly.
more so should alcohol be banned?
Currently thousands of people are employed by the alco- The alcohol industry is an enormous global industry.
hol industry. However, the fact that an immoral industry Thus, not only would banning alcohol infringe on peo-

PROS CONS
employs a lot of people is never a good argument to keep ple’s civil liberties to a unacceptable degree, it would also
that immoral industry going. Instead, the government put thousands of people out of work.
should fund programs to retrain workers.
Tax revenues would be lost if alcohol were banned. Currently governments raise large amounts of revenue
Again, however, this is not a principled reason to reject from taxes and duties payable on alcohol. To ban alcohol
the proposition, simply a practical problem. Govern- would take away a major source of funding for public
ments could significantly reduce spending on police services. In addition, enforcing the ban would call for
and health through the reduction in crime and alcohol- much additional policing. It would also create a new
related illness resulting from an alcohol ban. class of illegal drug users, traffickers, and dealers that
would be unprecedented in size.
Sample Motions:
This House would ban alcohol.
This House would hit the bottle.
This House believes that alcohol is the root of all evil.
Web Links:
• Alcoholics Anonymous. < http://www.alcoholics-anonymous.org> Offers information on the organization’s program and services.
• Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD). < http://www.madd.org> Good source for statistics, laws, and initiatives on drunk
driving and underage drinking.
• The National Clearing House for Alcohol and Drug Information. <http://www.ncadi.samhsa.gov> Excellent source for links to a
large number of articles on alcohol, alcoholism, and the social and economic impact of problem drinking.
Further Reading:
Plant, Martin, and Douglas Cameron, eds. The Alcohol Report. Free Association Books, 2000.

|35

AMERICAN CULTURE: SHOULD IT BE FEARED?
The United States has the strongest economy in the world—and through that economy has exported its culture around the globe: Ameri-
can manufactured goods are ubiquitous; American television shows are familiar fare as far away as eastern Europe and India; American
fast food chains have planted restaurants in cities from Dublin to Tokyo. In addition, American films dominate the movie screens of every
continent. The Internet itself is an American invention, populated largely by American sites. In short, people around the world are con-
stantly exposed to the American way of life—and have, to varying degrees, adopted American customs and values. The world’s peoples,
however, have shown some resistance and resentment. One striking example came in 1999 when French farmers vandalized a McDon-
ald’s franchise. They are not alone: Political and cultural leaders in many countries have denounced the insidious influence of American
culture, which may weaken traditional and indigenous cultures.
PROS CONS
American culture is materialistic and individualistic. Democracy has functioned in America longer than any-
Americans are concerned primarily with their own per- where else in the world. American society is founded on
sonal wealth and well-being, and give insufficient regard the importance of individual liberty and is devoted to
to the good of society as a whole. protecting individual rights and freedoms.
American culture has a strong component of violence— The United States offers real opportunities for its citizens
evidenced by widespread gun ownership, the death pen- to improve their lives. Americans are not bound to stay
alty, and the focus on crime and violence in American in the same social and economic class as their parents
entertainment. European cultures, in particular, are or grandparents. With universal public education, and a
more peaceful and humane. system of higher education that accommodates millions
of students, many of them from foreign lands, America
helps hard workers to get ahead.
American society is driven by consumption—not just of America prizes and rewards creativity and leads the
goods and services, but also of food. The American diet, world in innovation. America continually develops new
fast food for the most part, is unhealthy and accounts for products and new technologies; American advances in
the epidemic of obesity in America. By copying Amer- medicine and pharmaceuticals have improved health
ica, other countries are jeopardizing the health of their and lengthened lives the world over.
citizens.
American culture is ignorant and arrogant. Americans The United States is one of the world’s most diverse and
have little understanding of other parts of the world, tolerant societies. The nation was founded by people
but reflexively assume that American culture is superior who came from different countries and practiced differ-
to everything else. Americans are intent upon imposing ent religions; throughout its history, America has wel-
their culture on the world. comed immigrants from all over the world. American
identity is not based on ethnicity.
America seeks to dominate the world, but it does not The American commitment to improving the world
recognize its responsibilities to the world; America has began with the Marshall Plan, which rebuilt Europe
not done enough to protect the environment or to elimi- after World War II. The United States has been a leader
nate disease and poverty in other countries. in helping to develop the economies of poorer nations.

Sample Motions:
This House rejects the American way of life.
This House regrets American cultural hegemony.
This House would resist American cultural imperialism.
Web Links:
• Project for the New American Century. <http://www.newamericancentury.org/> Conservative site advancing the idea that Ameri-
can leadership is good for the world.
• Cultural Imperialism: An American Tradition. <http://www.thehumanist.org/humanist/articles/essay3mayjune04.pdf> Overview
essay on the topic.
Further Reading:
Barber, Benjamin. Jihad vs. McWorld: How Globalism and Tribalism Are Reshaping the World. Ballantine, 1996.
Bell, Bernard Iddings. Crowd Culture: An Examination of the American Way of Life. ISI Books, 2001.
Hertsgaard, Mark. The Eagle’s Shadow: Why America Fascinates and Infuriates the World. Picador USA, 2003.
Hollander, Paul, ed. Understanding Anti-Americanism: Its Origins and Impact at Home and Abroad. Ivan R. Dee, 2004.

ANIMAL RIGHTS
In the nineteenth century reformers began urging the more humane treatment of animals and founded groups like the American Society
for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals to improve the conditions first of working animals and then of domestic and farm animals as
well. In the 1970s Australian philosopher Peter Singer became one of the first to argue that animals have rights. While most people agree
that humans have an obligation to care for animals and treat them humanely, the idea that they have rights remains contentious.
PROS CONS
Human beings are accorded rights on the basis that they Human beings are infinitely more complex than any
are able to think and to feel pain. Many other animals other living creatures. Their abilities to think and talk, to
are also able to think (to some extent) and are certainly form social systems with rights and responsibilities, and
able to feel pain. Therefore nonhuman animals should to feel emotions are developed well beyond any other
also be accorded rights, e.g., to a free and healthy life. animals. Trying to prevent the most obvious cases of
unnecessary suffering or torture of animals is reasonable,
but beyond that, nonhuman animals do not deserve to
be given “rights.”
Ever since the publication of Charles Darwin’s Origin That we are (incredibly distantly) related to other ani-
of Species in 1859 we have known that human beings mals does not mean that they have “rights.” This sort of
are related by common ancestry to all other animals. We thinking would lead to absurdities. Should we respect
owe a duty of care to our animal cousins. the “right” to life of bacteria? We might wish to reduce
unnecessary animal suffering, but not because all crea-
tures to which we are distantly related have rights.
We should err on the side of caution in ascribing rights Only human beings who are members of society have
to human or nonhuman creatures. If we place high stan- rights. Rights are privileges that come with certain social
|37

PROS CONS
dards (such as the ability to think, speak, or even to enter duties and moral responsibilities. Animals are not capa-
into a social contract) on the ascription of rights, there ble of entering into this sort of “social contract”—they
is a danger that not only animals but also human infants are neither moral nor immoral, they are amoral. They
and mentally handicapped adults will be considered to do not respect our “rights,” and they are irrational and
have no rights. entirely instinctual. Amoral and irrational creatures have
neither rights nor duties—they are more like robots than
people. All human beings or potential human beings
(e.g., unborn children) can potentially be given rights,
but nonhuman animals do not fall into that category.
Cruelty to animals is the sign of an uncivilized society; it Using animals for our own nutrition and pleasure is
encourages violence and barbarism in society more gen- completely natural. In the wild animals struggle to sur-
erally. A society that respects animals and restrains base vive, are hunted by predators, and compete for food and
and violent instincts is a more civilized one. resources. Human beings have been successful in this
struggle for existence and do not need to feel ashamed
of exploiting their position as a successful species in the
evolutionary process.
That a small number of extremists and criminals have Animal rights activists are hypocrites, extremists, and ter-
attached themselves to the animal rights movement does rorists who don’t care about human life. Organizations
not invalidate the cause. Why shouldn’t animal rights like the Animal Liberation Front use terrorist tactics
supporters and activists take medicine? They are morally and death threats; People for the Ethical Treatment of
obligated to take care of themselves in the best way they Animals is also an extremist organization. These extrem-
can until more humane research methods are developed ists still avail themselves of modern medicine, however,
and implemented. which could not have been developed without experi-
ments and tests on animals. Animal welfare is a reason-
able concern, but talking of animal “rights” is a sign of
extremism and irrationality.
Sample Motions:
This House believes that animals have rights too.
This House would respect animals’ rights.
This House condemns the exploitation of animals.
Web Links:
• Animal Rights FAQ. <http://www.animal-rights.com/arpage.htm> Includes about 100 FAQs, biographies of animal rights activ-
ists, lists of US and UK organizations, bibliography, and links to other animal rights groups.
• Ethics Update. <http://ethics.sandiego.edu/Applied/Animals/index.asp> Links to surveys and resources on the moral status of
animals.
• People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. <http://www.peta-online.org/> Home page for radical animal rights organization
includes news stories on animals and animal rights.
Further Reading:
Scully, Matthew. Dominion: The Power of Man, the Suffering of Animals, and the Call to Mercy. St. Martin’s Griffin, 2003.
Singer, Peter. Animal Liberation. Reprint. Harper Perennial, 2001.
Wise, Steven M., and Jane Goodall. Rattling the Cage: Toward Legal Rights for Animals. Perseus, 2000.


ARRANGED MARRIAGES
In the Western world, people usually choose their own marriage partners, but arranged marriages are still common in Middle Eastern and
Asian cultures. The practice can cause culture clash when immigrants maintain this tradition in the West. For Westerners, the practice
rouses concern about the rights of women and brings up the question of assimilation vs. cultural identity.
PROS CONS
Arranging marriage is an insult to the very nature of mar- Arranged marriages are often very successful; only a
riage, which should be about creating a loving and last- very small number end in divorce. Millions of people
ing partnership and family. It reduces marriage to a com- marry for the “wrong” reasons: financial security, desire
mercial transaction and, therefore, undermines family for children, parental pressure, and lack of choice among
values. It becomes even more of an issue when it occurs potential partners. To claim that all marriages must be
in a Western society that values freedom of choice. love matches is pure romanticism.
Parents and the community often put unacceptable pres- Arranged marriages do involve choice. The difference
sure on their children to accept an arranged marriage. is merely that whole families are involved in the deci-
Moreover, the line between an arranged and a forced sion. Many of what we would call arranged marriages
marriage is so hazy that it cannot be policed. We must are either parents introducing their children to poten-
stop the former to prevent the latter. tial partners or engaging in the negotiations necessary
for marriage after their children have chosen a partner.
Moreover, it is totally illogical for the government to
intervene to stop people having the marriages that they
and their families have chosen in the name of freedom
of choice. We must stop forced marriages, but in a free
society, people have the right to choose an arranged
marriage.
Arranged marriages are bad both for the individual Arranged marriages in Europe and North America have
women concerned and for women generally. Immi- low levels of abuse and marital violence. Vulnerability of
grant women often are very vulnerable: they are far from those without language skills is a problem for all immi-
home, do not speak the local language or dialect, and grants, not just those in arranged marriages. Finally,
are totally reliant on the husband’s house and family. most marriage organizers are women, who gain prestige
The lack of a support network, the language to appeal and authority through their role. What you are really
for help, or knowledge of their rights makes women in saying is that Islamic societies are patriarchal and that
arranged marriages disproportionately likely to suffer Muslims have arranged marriages.
abuse. Arranged marriages commodify women, who are
bartered between the male heads of houses. This is not
acceptable in an egalitarian society that emphasizes indi-
vidual rights.
Arranged marriage separates immigrant communities Groups practicing arranged marriage are not the only
and the wider society. It leads to cultural ghettoization ones set on maintaining cohesive communities; many
and distrust in the wider community, which emphasizes groups retain a distinct cultural life while fully taking
individual rights and freedom of choice. part in the life of this country. Their cultural contribu-
tions are one of the most valuable additions to modern
|39

PROS CONS
multicultural societies. A multicultural society values
people with different perspectives and traditions.
Arranged marriage is not an inviolate cultural value. Every Arranged marriage is a cultural tradition confirmed by
major religion, including Islam, guarantees freedom of ethnographic data. There is no conflict between arrange-
choice in marriage. Further, the custom is a product of a ment and a guarantee of free choice; the two are entirely
patriarchal culture that oppresses women. Although we consistent. Western societies cannot dictate what is cul-
cannot intervene in countries with such value systems, turally valid for ethnic minorities. To do so would be
we can stop the importation of such systems. True mul- ethnocentrism writ large. Furthermore, how can immi-
ticulturalism relies on shared commitment to a tolerant grants understand the importance we place on toleration
and fair society. if we deny them cultural freedom?
Arranged marriage provides a cover for illegal immigra- Most arranged marriages last beyond the time required
tion. Authorities will challenge marriages of convenience for citizenship, so they would be legitimate under any
between citizens and aliens but are reluctant to investi- circumstances.
gate arranged marriages because of the danger of being
seen as culturally insensitive.
Sample Motions:
This House would ban arranged marriages.
This House believes a true marriage is a free marriage.
This House believes marriage should be for love.
Web Links:
• Aunts and Arranged Marriages in India. <http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Lab/3550/aunt.htm> Humorous essay on
the role of family members in arranging marriages.
• First Comes Marriage, Then Comes Love. <http://www.geocities.com/Wellesley/3321/win4a.htm> Essay describing how a mar-
riage is arranged.
• NPR: Arranged Marriage. <http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1054253> Discussion of the pros and cons of
arranged marriage.
Further Reading:
Schwartz, Mary Ann, and Barbara Marliene Scott. Marriages and Families: Diversity and Change. 4th ed. Prentice Hall, 2003.


ARTS SUBSIDIES, ABOLITION OF
Government support for the arts has a long history, with members of the aristocracy having acted as patrons for artists, including
Beethoven, Mozart, and Shakespeare. Now, artists, including poets, playwrights, painters and sculptors, and performance artists, receive
subsidies or grants from governmental and nongovernmental organizations. Much of the funding these organizations receive is provided by
the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA), which was founded in 1965. In the mid-1990s, the NEA came under fire for supporting
artists who produced and exhibited what many considered objectionable, even pornographic, work masquerading under the rubric of “art.”
Since then, the NEA has focused more on supporting mainstream efforts like community theater and arts education. The cry to abolish
the NEA has subsided and Congress has expressed its approval of the NEA. Although the NEA is again on firm footing, the legitimacy
of government subsidies for artists is still in question.
PROS CONS
The financial struggle that artists experience is one way The creative process needs time. If artists must work to
to weed the good artists from the bad. Only those who make ends meet, when will they have the time and the
are truly dedicated will make the sacrifices needed to creative energy to complete their projects? Without fed-
succeed. Others will enter other occupations where their eral funding for grants, few artists will be able to con-
creativity and talents can be rewarded. Artists could also tinue their work and maintain a reasonable standard of
find paid employment that will enable them to continue living. Artists will be forced to enter the workforce and
working on their art. If an artist’s work is worthy of abandon art.
financial support, that artist will find a patron from the
private sector who will support him or her.
Government subsidies for art simply take money away The NEA costs each American only 36 cents a year.
from middle-class and low-income people to subsidize a Although some NEA money is used to support arts that
self-indulgent hobby for the rich. The kind of art that the are traditionally supported by individuals with higher
majority of Americans are interested in, popular movies incomes, much of the NEA budget supports artists who
and music, for example, is not subsidized. Just as a rock work with programs like art education in schools and
band should not receive government funds to make ticket community theater. Projects like these benefit all chil-
prices lower, neither should operas or ballets. Let the rich dren and give people across the country ways to contrib-
who want to attend these kinds of performances pay full ute to making their community a better place.
price; why should taxpayers underwrite bargain prices for
entertainment for the wealthy?
Subsidies could function as a way to reward artists Arts in America are a unifying experience. People from
who are creating what the government prefers. In this different backgrounds can communicate through art and
way, subsidies could lead to government censorship of share experiences and talents. Artistic expression is cen-
art to silence critics. Communist dictatorships subsi- tral to who we are as Americans and as human beings.
dized “patriotic art” but squelched independent artists. Supporting artists is crucial to preserving our values and
Having artists rely on the government for their “daily transmitting our American heritage to future genera-
bread” risks their artistic integrity; how could they be tions. In addition, federal support of artists is patriotic
social critics and advocate for change in the system, because art builds and preserves American traditions.
when it is the system that is putting food on the table? The grant process, because it is run by artists, ensures
The strings attached to subsidies make them potential the independence of the NEA and reduces the danger
weapons against democracy. of censorship.
|41

PROS CONS
Historically, patrons did not support unknown and Tradition is on the side of those in power supporting the
unproven talent. Artists gained patronage only after prov- arts. Since the Renaissance, composers and artists have
ing their worth. In the current system of subsidies, new, been supported by popes, kings, and other patrons. In
unproven, and often substandard artists receive grants. our democracy, this burden falls to government to ensure
Artists who are already successful generally do not need that the next Mozart or Beethoven will not forgo his or
the grants to meet their living expenses. Mozart and her artistic vision for lack of funds.
Beethoven, if they were living today, would find many
opportunities in the private sector and would not need
to rely on government subsidies.
Subsidies usually support artists who have created art The Mapplethorpe and Serrano cases are isolated inci-
that most people object to. Robert Mapplethorpe with dents. The vast majority of art that is produced through
his homoerotic photographs and Andres Serrano with subsidies is art that most taxpayers would support. The
his photograph of a crucifix submerged in his own urine NEA has made many changes in the way it awards grants
are specific examples of artists who taxpayers have sup- since those incidents. In fact, many of the same mem-
ported. Artists should have the freedom to create any bers of Congress who called for an abolition of the NEA
type of art they want, but taxpayer money should not be over this issue voted for an increase in funding in July
used to fund projects that are indecent. If private funds of 2002. Congress mandates that the criteria of decency
are used, then the American people cannot claim they and respect be used in evaluating grant proposals. Over-
have involuntarily supported the creation of perverse all, the artwork supported by subsidies would make most
and vile works. Americans proud.
Sample Motions:
This House would tell Congress to stop funding the NEA’s artist subsidy programs.
This House believes that subsidizing artists is detrimental to democracy.
This House would increase subsidies for artists.
This House believes that stopping subsidies would harm art in America.
Web Links:
• Libertarian Party Position on Subsidies. <http://www.lp.org/lpnews/printer_611.shtml> Libertarian Party argues against govern-
ment funding of the arts.
• National Endowment for the Arts. <http://arts.endow.gov> Site maintained by the agency in charge of distributing federal grants
to the arts contains useful information about how the process works and about the benefits of art in America.
• NPR’s Talk of the Nation Archive. <http://www.npr.org/ramarchives/ne091901-2.ram> Audio recording of a debate on NPR’s
Talk of the Nation offers multiple arguments on both sides of the funding debate.
Further Reading:
Levy, Alan Howard. Government and the Arts: Debate over Federal Support of the Arts in America from George Washington to Jesse Helms.
University Press of America, 1997.
Netzer, Dick, and Dick Mietzer. The Subsidized Muse: Public Support for the Arts in the United States. Ashgate, 1993.
Zeigler, Joseph Wesley, et al. Arts in Crisis: The National Endowment for the Arts Versus America. A Cappella Books, 1994.


ASSASSINATION OF A DICTATOR
Often considered in the context of Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin, the issue regained topicality in the 1990s as leaders such as Saddam
Hussein in Iraq and Slobodan Milosevic in Yugoslavia pursued bloody policies that led to war, ethnic cleansing, and genocide.
PROS CONS
Deaths and much suffering could be prevented if one Murder can never be justified. If we assume the role of
man is killed. The greater good demands a single evil executioner without the backing of law, we are sinking to
act, especially if it would avert the immediate and certain the level of the dictators. Any new government founded
danger of much worse evil. upon such an arbitrary act will lack moral legitimacy,
undermining its popular support and making its failure
likely.
Dictatorial systems are highly personal, so removing the Killing the individual will achieve nothing. Dictators are
driving force behind such a regime will result in its col- part of a wider ruling elite from which someone sharing
lapse, allowing a more popular and liberal government the same autocratic values will emerge to take the assas-
to replace it. sinated leader’s place. This successor is likely to use the
assassination as the excuse for further repression.
Assassination of a dictator may be the only way to effect Assassination is likely to be counterproductive, rally-
change in a country where a repressive police state pre- ing popular feeling around a repressive regime as exter-
vents any possibility of internal opposition. Cowed nal enemies or internal minorities are blamed, rightly
populaces need a signal in order to find the courage to or wrongly, for the act. An unsuccessful assassination
campaign for change. attempt is even more likely to bring about such a result.
Dictators are a threat to international peace, not just to Sometimes dictatorship is preferable to the alternatives,
their own people. They tend to attack other countries to especially for those outside the country itself. Great
divert attention from their unpopular actions at home, powers have often supported autocrats who promote
thus assassination is justified as a means of preventing a such powers’ geopolitical interests in a way that a demo-
war that might rapidly become regional or global. cratic regime would not. Sometimes dictators have suc-
cessfully held together countries that otherwise might
have descended into civil war and ethnic strife.
If scruples over the morality of our actions prevent us By assuming the power to take life arbitrarily, even in an
from pursuing a greater good, effectively opposing evil apparently good cause, we cheapen the value of life itself.
will never be possible. Dictators themselves ignore most Many terrorists, criminals, and dictators could and have
ethical standards and international conventions, thereby claimed similar legitimacy for their violent actions. Only
effectively placing themselves beyond the protection of if we respect human rights absolutely will our promotion
the law. of these values seem valid to others.
The alternatives to assassination would all leave a dicta- Alternatives such as constructive engagement or eco-
tor in power for many years. In that time not only will nomic sanctions are preferable and much more likely
many more people suffer under a repressive system, but to result in eventual liberalization of the regime, albeit
also the policies pursued by an out-of-touch and unrep- slowly. The examples of Eastern Europe in 1989 and
resentative regime are likely to do serious harm to the Yugoslavia in 2000 show that even in apparently hope-
|43

PROS CONS
whole nation and its economy, making eventual rebuild- less cases, change can come through popular action,
ing much more costly in both human and economic often quickly and without great violence.
terms.
Tyranny and oppression are obvious wherever they take Who decides who deserves to be assassinated? Politics
place. Tyrants use their power to inflict great suffering, is not a black-and-white affair, and states viewed as dic-
ignoring universally accepted human rights. If leaders tatorships by some are seen quite differently by others.
guilty of crimes against humanity can be brought to For example, Slobodan Milosevic could claim a popular
account through the normal democratic process or the mandate for many of his actions in the former Yugosla-
courts, fine; if they cannot, their people have the moral via. General Augusto Pinochet in Chile seized power by
right to take up arms against them. Sometimes this will force but later gave it up, allowing the emergence of a
mean assassination. democratic state. Even if we had the right to make judg-
ments as to which leaders deserve to die, our decisions
would be arbitrary and without widespread support.
Sample Motions:
This House would assassinate a dictator.
This House would assassinate . . . (supply name of current dictator).
This House believes that murder isn’t always wrong.
Further Reading:
Boesche, Robert. Theories of Tyranny: From Plato to Arendt. Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995.
Brooker, Paul. Non-Democratic Regimes: Theory, Government & Politics. St. Martin’s Press, 2000.
Lee, Stephen. European Dictatorships, 1918–1945. Routledge, 2000.


ASSISTED SUICIDE
Assisted suicide is currently being discussed and debated in many countries. The central question is: If a terminally ill person decides that he
or she wishes to end his or her life, is it acceptable for others, primarily physicians, to assist them? For many years assisted suicide was illegal
in all US states, but in the past decades organizations such as the Compassion and Choices have campaigned for a change in the law. They
argue that terminally ill patients should not have to suffer needlessly and should be able to die with dignity. In 1997 Oregon became the
first state to legalize physician-assisted suicide. Four years later conservative Attorney General John Ashcroft ordered federal drug agents to
punish doctors who used federally controlled drugs to help the terminally ill die. In 2002 a district judge ruled that Ashcroft had overstepped
his authority; in 2006 the Supreme Court let the Oregon law stand. In 2001 the Netherlands became the first country to legalize euthana-
sia and physician-assisted suicide.
PROS CONS
Every human being has a right to life, perhaps the most There is no comparison between the right to life and
basic and fundamental of all our rights. However, with other rights. When you choose to remain silent, you may
every right comes a choice. The right to speech does not change your mind at a later date; when you choose to
remove the option to remain silent; the right to vote die, you have no such second chance. Participating in
brings with it the right to abstain. In the same way, the someone’s death is to participate in depriving them of all
right to choose to die is implicit in the right to life. choices they might make in the future and is therefore
immoral.
Those in the late stages of a terminal disease have a hor- It is always wrong to give up on life. Modern pallia-
rific future: the gradual decline of the body, the failure of tive care is immensely flexible and effective, and helps
organs, and the need for artificial life support. In some to preserve quality of life as far as possible. Terminally
cases, the illness will slowly destroy their minds, the ill patients need never be in pain, even at the very end.
essence of themselves. Even when this is not the case, the Society’s role is to help them live their lives as well as they
huge amounts of medication required to “control” pain can. Counseling, which helps patients come to terms
will often leave them in a delirious and incapable state. with their condition, can help.
Faced with this, it is surely more humane that these indi-
viduals be allowed to choose the manner of their own
end and die with dignity.
Society recognizes that suicide is unfortunate but accept- Those who commit suicide are not evil, and those who
able in some circumstances. Those who end their own attempt to take their own lives are not prosecuted. How-
lives are not seen as evil. The illegality of assisted suicide ever, if someone is threatening to kill himself or herself,
is therefore particularly cruel for those who are disabled your moral duty is to try to stop them. You would not,
and are unable to die without assistance. for example, simply ignore a man standing on a ledge
and threatening to jump simply because it is his choice;
and you would definitely not assist in his suicide by
pushing him. In the same way, you should try to help a
person with a terminal illness, not help him to die.
Suicide is a lonely, desperate act, carried out in secrecy Demanding that family members take part in such a
and often is a cry for help. The impact on the family can decision can be an unbearable burden. Many may resent
be catastrophic. By legalizing assisted suicide, the process a loved one’s decision to die and would be either emo-
can be brought out into the open. In some cases, families tionally scarred or estranged by the prospect of being in
might have been unaware of the true feelings of their any way involved with the death. Assisted suicide also
loved one. Being forced to confront the issue of a family introduces a new danger, that the terminally ill may be
|45

PROS CONS
member’s illness may do great good, perhaps even allow- pressured into ending their lives by others who are not
ing the family to persuade the patient not to end his life. prepared to support them through their illness. Even the
In other cases, it makes the family part of the process. most well regulated system would have no way to ensure
They can understand the reasons behind a patient’s deci- that this did not happen.
sion without feelings of guilt and recrimination, and the
terminally ill patient can speak openly to them about her
feelings before her death.
At the moment, doctors are often put into an impos- A doctor’s role must remain clear. The guiding principle
sible position. A good doctor will form close bonds of medical ethics is to do no harm: A physician must
with patients and will want to give them the best qual- not be involved in deliberately harming her patient.
ity of life possible. However, when a patient has lost or Without this principle, the medical profession would
is losing his ability to live with dignity and expresses a lose a great deal of trust; admitting that killing is an
strong desire to die, doctors are legally unable to help. acceptable part of a doctor’s role would likely increase
To say that modern medicine can totally eradicate pain the danger of involuntary euthanasia, not reduce it.
is a tragic oversimplification of suffering. While physi- Legalizing assisted suicide also places an unreasonable
cal pain may be alleviated, the emotional pain of a slow burden on doctors. The daily decisions made to pre-
and lingering death, of the loss of the ability to live a serve life can be difficult enough. To require them to
meaningful life, can be horrific. A doctor’s duty is to also carry the immense moral responsibility of deciding
address his or her patient’s suffering, be it physical or who can and cannot die, and the further responsibil-
emotional. As a result, doctors are already helping their ity of actually killing patients, is unacceptable. This is
patients to die—although it is not legal, assisted suicide why the vast majority of medical professionals oppose
does happen. It would be far better to recognize this and the legalization of assisted suicide: Ending the life of a
bring the process into the open, where it can be regu- patient goes against all they stand for.
lated. True abuses of the doctor-patient relationship and
incidents of involuntary euthanasia would then be far
easier to limit.
Sample Motions:
This House would legalize assisted suicide.
This House would die with dignity.
Web Links:
• Doctor-Assisted Suicide: A Guide to Websites and the Literature. <http://www.longwood.edu/library/suic.htm> Links to general
information and sites, pro and con, on physician-assisted suicide. Contains an excellent chronology of the issue.
• End of Life Choices. <http://www.hemlock.org/> Right-to-die group provides information on organization services and the
progress of legislation legalizing assisted suicide.
• Euthanasia.Com. <http://www.euthanasia.com/> Provides medical and legal information from those opposed to assisted suicide.
• FinalExit.Org. <http://www.finalexit.org/> General site containing information on legislation, euthanasia in practice, and indi-
viduals prominent in the campaign to legalize assisted suicide.
Further Reading:
Dworkin, Gerald, R. G. Fry, and Sissela Bok. Euthanasia and Physician-Assisted Suicide. Cambridge University Press, 1998.
Gorsuch, Neil M. The Future of Assisted Suicide and Euthanasia. Princeton University Press, 2006.
Shavelson, Lonny. A Chosen Death: The Dying Confront Assisted Suicide. University of California Press, 1998.


BIODIVERSITY AND ENDANGERED SPECIES
“Biodiversity” refers to the variety of bacteria, plants, and animals that live on our planet and the unique behavioral patterns and activities
of each species. Scientists believe that biodiversity is essential to human life on Earth. In recent years environmentalists have become con-
cerned about the decline in the number of species. International agreements such as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) aim to protect biodiversity. Nevertheless, current research suggests that species are disappear-
ing at an alarming rate and that approximately one-quarter of all species will be extinct within the next few decades. Environmentalists
are particularly concerned about endangered species in developing nations, where the economic needs of a poor population may threaten the
existence of other life.
PROS CONS
The species Homo sapiens is unprecedented and unique The idea that extinctions will lead to ecological disaster is
among all life on Earth. Human sentience and intel- an exaggeration. Fossil evidence shows that mass extinc-
ligence far surpass those of other creatures. These gifts tions have occurred many times throughout the history
have allowed human beings to populate the Earth, con- of life on Earth, one of the most recent being the die-out
struct civilizations and build industry, and affect the of the dinosaurs. After every collapse of biodiversity, it
environment in a way that no other species can. This has rebounded, with Earth coming to no lasting harm.
great power comes with great responsibility, and we Extinctions are simply part of the natural evolutionary
should avoid abusing our planet, lest we cause irrepa- process.
rable damage—damage like the extinction of species
and the consequent reduction in biodiversity caused by
deforestation, over-fishing, hunting, and the illegal trade
in animal products and exotic animals.
Protecting endangered species is an extension of our No species on Earth would put the interest of another
existing system of ethics. Just as modern civilization species above its own, so why should human beings?
protects its weaker and less able members, so human- Furthermore, since the very beginnings of life, nature
ity should safeguard the welfare of other, less-privileged has operated by the Darwinian principle of “survival of
species. Animals are sentient creatures whose welfare we the fittest.” Life forms will always risk extinction unless
should protect (even if they may not have the same full they adapt to new challenges. Humans have no obliga-
“rights” that we accord to human beings). tion to save the weaker species; if they cannot match
our pace, they deserve to die out and be supplanted by
others.
The most successful pharmaceuticals have often used Modern science has advanced to the point where inspi-
nature as a starting point. Antibiotics were first discov- ration from nature is no longer required. Today, medi-
ered through the study of fungi, and many anti-cancer cines derived from natural products are in the minority.
drugs are derived from the bark of Amazon trees. Every In any case, the upcoming era of genetic engineering
time a species becomes extinct, scientists forever lose an will allow humankind to rid itself of disease without
opportunity to make a new discovery. resorting to medicines.
As occupants of this planet, we must have respect for Even if this respect was justified, its expression comes
other life forms, especially since life on Earth may be at a significant cost. Biodiversity policies are costly and
the only life in the universe. We can show this respect by spend taxpayers’ money that could better be used on
making every effort to prevent the extinction of existing health care and social services. It does not make sense for
species, thereby preserving biodiversity. us to concentrate on other species when humanity has
not yet sorted out its own welfare.
|47

PROS CONS
Maintaining biodiversity is a global problem and Environmental protection and the protection of biodi-
demands a global solution. The developed world should versity are very much a luxury of developed nations (First
apply pressure on the developing world to adopt more World). Many of these policies are beyond the financial
environmentally friendly policies. means of developing nations, and implementing them
would stunt economic growth and disenfranchise their
citizens. It is hypocritical for developed nations to criti-
cize the lack of environmental protection in the develop-
ing world, considering that the First World got to its
current position through an Industrial Revolution that
paid no heed to biodiversity, pollution, and other such
concerns.
Sample Motions:
This House believes in biodiversity.
This House fears the way of the dodo.
Web Links:
• Bagheera. <http://www.bagheera.com/inthewild/vanishing.htm> Presents information on approximately 30 endangered animals,
the problems they face and what can be done to save them from extinction.
• The Born Free Foundation. <http://www.bornfree.org.uk/> Site dedicated to the conservation of rare species in their natural
habitat and the phasing out of traditional zoos.
• EELink.Net: Endangered Species. <http://eelink.net/EndSpp> Offers information on endangered and extinct species, laws and
policies on endangered species, and organizations involved in supporting biodiversity.
• The Natural History Museum, London: Biodiversity and World Map. <http://www.nhm.ac.uk/science/projects/worldmap/>
Contains map of global biodiversity as well as information on biogeography and conservation priorities.
• Tom Lovejoy’s Reith Lecture on Biodiversity. <http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/events/reith_2000/lecture2.stm> Lecture
supporting ecosystem management to sustain biodiversity.
• The Virtual Library of Ecology & Biodiversity. <http://conbio.net/vl/> Provides links to hundreds of sites on ecology and biodi-
versity.
Further Reading:
Dobson, Andrew. Conservation and Biodiversity. W. H. Freeman, 1998.
Eldredge, Niles. Life in the Balance: Humanity and the Biodiversity Crisis. Princeton University Press, 2000.
Novacek, Michael J. The Biodiversity Crisis: Losing What Counts. New Press, 2001.


BOXING, ABOLITION OF
During the last century, hundreds of boxers died in the ring or shortly afterward—the youngest recorded victim was just 12 years old.
Thousands more, including one of the greatest fighters of all time, Mohammad Ali, suffered permanent disfigurement, detached retinas,
and a whole host of neurological complaints. Despite a tightening of safety regulations, these injuries have continued. Yet efforts to ban the
sport have failed.
PROS CONS
Medical evidence suggests that even if a boxer survives Boxers are aware of the significant risks of their sport
individual bouts relatively unmarked, the cumulative and are paid well for accepting them. We allow indi-
effect of a career in boxing can lead to a greater suscepti- viduals to engage in known risk behaviors—smoking
bility to diseases such as Parkinson’s. Although the inci- and hang gliding, for example. Why should we single
dence of injury is much higher in sports such as basket- out boxing for abolition? Boxing authorities have made
ball, the risk of serious injury in boxing is far greater. In every attempt to minimize injury. Doctors and medical
fact, that risk is so great that boxing should be banned. equipment are present at ringside, and referees intervene
A ban, quite simply, would mean fewer people dead, to stop fights if necessary.
injured, or permanently brain damaged.
Boxing is the only sport in which combatants intention- Most people who call for a ban on boxing have no
ally injure each other. In the 21st century it is barbaric that understanding of the sport beyond a gut disapproval of
we allow people to intentionally inflict injuries on others it. Boxing’s appeal lies in its simplicity, the distillation
for the sake of public entertainment and private profit. of the sporting contest to its most basic form—a physi-
People under 16 should also be banned from amateur cal battle between two egos. To say that boxing is the
fights because of the sport’s health risks. It seems curious only sport where opponents intend to injure one another
that in many countries you can start boxing before you ignores the reality of sports like hockey. Introducing an
are legally able to drive. age or fight limit may well be sensible, but there is no
compelling argument for a ban.
Boxing is exploitative. An average boxer will compete A ban on boxing would rob many talented poor and
in 30 to 40 professional bouts before his (or even her) working-class individuals of an opportunity to become
health and skills deteriorate dramatically. While it may rich and successful. Mohammad Ali was a sanitation
well be in a fighter’s interest to hang up his gloves, those worker who used his talent to become a global legend.
around him have a financial incentive to push him into When asked in a recent interview if he would do any-
more fights. thing differently or if he had any regrets, his answer was
a resolute, “No.” Many fighters accept their injuries as
the flip side of the coin of success.
The celebrity awarded boxers glamorizes and legitimizes Boxing is one of the least culpable in promoting negative
violence in society. Boxers are not role models of whom stereotypes. Far more dangerous is the “sport” of wres-
we should be proud. tling where the violence is not part of a contest but a
macho soap opera. Most boxing is on late in the evening
anyway, and therefore its impact on children is less dam-
aging than that of other sports.
Asserting that boxing would just “go underground” is A ban on boxing would drive it underground, where
not a valid argument. Dog fighting and cockfighting fights would be unregulated, with no medical super-
were banned to protect the welfare of the (admittedly vision. The safety of boxers should be paramount; to
|49

PROS CONS
nonconsenting) combatants. When these fights come to minimize the risk of injuries, it should remain legal but
the attention of the police, the perpetrators receive hefty regulated.
penalties. These penalties are an effective deterrent and
would be for boxing also if implemented.
Sample Motions:
This House would ban boxing.
This House would ban contact sports.
This House would end the fight game.
This House believes violence is unacceptable.
Web Links:
• Athletes at Risk: Second Impact Syndrome in Sports. <http://www.firmani.com/SIS-case/incidents.htm> Essay on head injuries
in sports.
• Death under the Spotlight: The Manuel Velasquez Boxing Fatality Collection. <http://ejmas.com/jcs/jcsart_svinth_a_0700.htm>
Information on ring fatalities.
• Journal of Combative Sports: Boxing Injury Bibliography. <http://ejmas.com/jcs/jcsart_svinth_0901.htm> Print and electronic
bibliography.
• The World Medical Association Statement on Boxing. <http://www.wma.net/e/policy/b6.htm> Policy recommendations on
boxing.
Further Reading:
Calder-Smith, Dominic. Tarnished Armour. Trafalgar Square, 2001.
Hotten, Jon. Unlicensed: Random Notes from Boxing’s Underbelly. Mainstream Publishing, 1999.
McRae, Donald. Dark Trade: Lost in Boxing. Mainstream Publishing, 1998.

CAMPAIGN FINANCE REFORM
Political campaigns have changed in nature in the modern era. Two centuries ago, political campaigning was thought to be “ungentle-
manly”; today, cross-country trips and expensive television advertisements have become both necessary and the norm. The need for ever-
larger sums of money has created a crisis in the political system because donors of large sums can attain positions of tremendous influence.
Recognizing the natural link between money and political corruption, Congress took steps to limit personal donations to candidates during
the 1970s. The huge sums, however, continued to flow: Major donors made contributions to the political parties, rather than to the can-
didates directly—and the parties offered indirect support to the candidates (e.g., through issue ads that supported a candidate’s position,
but not the candidate by name). Many politicians argued that the system was being corrupted by money and by the need to raise it, and
pushed for radical reforms. Others defended the system as it stood, arguing that citizens should be free to use their money to advance their
political ideas. In 2002 Congress passed the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act, prohibiting unlimited donations to political parties—“soft
money.” The Supreme Court declared the law constitutional the following year.
PROS CONS
With contributions to a candidate, donors effectively Donors give money to a candidate because they agree
buy influence (or at least access, which may be the same with the candidate’s positions. The donation is, in effect,
thing), so that their interests are represented when laws a form of speech and should be protected by the First
are made. The result is inequality: The wealthy have Amendment.
more influence than the poor.

PROS CONS
More often than not, television campaigns are superfi- Candidates cannot convey their ideas to the voting
cial and distorted. Advertisements should be replaced by populace without expensive advertising campaigns in
publicly financed forums that would allow candidates to the electronic and print media. Finance reform impedes
discuss political issues in a substantive way. their ability to communicate with voters.
The cost of running political campaigns has gotten so As no limit is placed on how much can be spent by
high that ordinary citizens cannot run for office; candi- wealthy candidates to finance their own campaigns,
dates need to be personally wealthy or well connected to finance reform will put poorer candidates, who depend
sources of funds. Finance reform would level the playing on contributions, at a disadvantage.
field.
The cost of political campaigns has forced legislators to Experience has shown that incumbents usually have
spend much of their time raising money for their reelec- an advantage in elections, largely because they are well
tion campaigns. Limiting campaign expenses would known. Finance reform will hurt the ability of challeng-
eliminate this distraction. ers to overcome that advantage.
Large contributions are made by large organizations: Legislators pass laws that have direct and immediate
corporations, unions, trade associations and the like. effects on organizations. These organizations should be
The size of these contributions means that legislators pay free to support candidates who are sympathetic to their
more attention to the organizations and less attention to interests.
individual voters.
Although Congress passed laws limiting campaign con- Any restrictions are doomed to fail because individu-
tributions almost 30 years ago, the emergence of politi- als and organizations will never surrender their right to
cal action committees and “soft money” (given to parties, express themselves politically. No restrictions should be
rather than candidates) has made the original restrictions placed on contributions, which should, however, be fully
useless. Reform is needed to close loopholes. disclosed to the public.
Sample Motions:
This House would make all political campaigns publicly financed.
This House would ban paid political advertising on television.
Web Links:
• The Cato Institute: Money and Politics. <http://www.cato.org/campaignfinance/> Members of the institute offer arguments on
why campaign finance reform is unconstitutional.
• Hoover Institution, Public Policy Inquiry: Campaign Finance. <http://www.campaignfinancesite.org/> The Hoover Institution at
Stanford University offers history, Supreme Court rulings, proposals, and current legislation.
• Public Campaign: Clean Money, Clean Elections. <http://www.publicampaign.org> Web site of an advocacy group that supports
sweeping reforms.
Further Reading:
Corrado, Anthony, et al. The New Campaign Finance Sourcebook. Brookings Institution Press, 2005.
Donnelly, David, et al. Money and Politics: Financing Our Elections Democratically. Beacon Press, 1999.
Smith, Bradley A. Unfree Speech: The Folly of Campaign Finance Reform. Princeton University Press, 2001.

|51

CAPITAL PUNISHMENT
Approximately 90 countries have the death penalty, but nowhere is it debated so often as in the United States where, under the Constitu-
tion, each state can formulate its own policy. Thirty-eight of the 50 states allow death penalties. In 2000, Gov. George Ryan of Illinois
imposed a moratorium on executions in response to the high number of death row inmates found to be innocent of the crime for which they
were incarcerated, frequently because new scientific techniques proved their innocence. He ordered a review of the death penalty system,
asserting that it was so riddled with error that it came close to taking innocent life. Nine other states followed Illinois’ lead. Before Ryan
left office in early 2003, he pardoned four death row inmates and commuted the death sentences of all other inmates to life in prison
without parole. In a speech justifying his action he said that the state’s death penalty system was “arbitrary and capricious—and, therefore,
immoral.”
PROS CONS
The principle of capital punishment is that certain Execution is, in simplest terms, state-sanctioned killing.
crimes deserve nothing less than death as a just, propor- It devalues the respect we place on human life. How
tionate, and effective response. The problems associated can we say that killing is wrong if we sanction killing
with the death penalty are concerned with its implemen- criminals? More important is the proven risk of execut-
tation rather than its principle. Murderers forgo their ing innocent people. At least 23 innocent people were
rights as humans the moment they take away the rights executed in the US in the twentieth century. The execu-
of another human. By wielding such a powerful punish- tion of an innocent person can never be justified.
ment as the response to murder, society is affirming the
value that is placed on the right to life of the innocent
person. Many more innocent people have been killed by
released, paroled, or escaped murderers than innocent
people executed.
Capital punishment is 100% effective as a deterrent to Higher execution rates can actually increase violent
the criminal being executed; that killer cannot commit crime rates. California averaged six executions annu-
any more crimes. As a deterrent to others, it depends on ally from 1952 to 1967 and had twice the murder rate
how often the death penalty is applied. In the US, where of the period from 1968 until 1991, when there were
less than 1% of murderers are executed, it is difficult to no executions. In New York, from 1907 to 1964, the
assess the true effect of deterrence. But a 1985 study (Ste- months immediately following an execution saw mur-
phen K. Layson, University of North Carolina) showed ders increase by an average of two.
that one execution deterred 18 murders.
If and when discrimination occurs, it should be cor- Implementation of the death penalty, particularly in
rected. Consistent application of the death penalty America, can suffer from social or racial bias and can be
against murderers of all races would abolish the idea that used as a weapon against a certain section of society. In
it can be a racist tool. Make the death penalty mandatory the US nearly 90% of those executed were convicted of
in all capital cases. killing whites, despite the fact that non-whites make up
more than 50% of all murder victims.
Opponents of the death penalty prefer to ignore the fact Capital punishment costs more than life without parole.
that they themselves are responsible for its high costs by Studies in the US show that capital cases, from arrest to
filing a never-ending succession of appeals. Prisons in execution, cost between $1 million and $7 million. A case
many countries are overcrowded and underfunded. This resulting in life imprisonment costs around $500,000.
problem is made worse by life sentences or delayed death
sentences for murderers. Why should the taxpayer bear
the cost of supporting a murderer for an entire lifetime?
Different countries and societies can have different Defendants who are mentally incompetent will often
attitudes toward the justifiability of executing mentally answer “Yes” to questions in the desire to please others.

PROS CONS
incompetent or teenaged murderers. If society opposes This can lead to false confessions. Over 30 mentally
such executions, then implementation of the death pen- retarded people have been executed in the US since
alty in these cases is a problem. For opponents to seize 1976.
on such cases is to cloud the issue; this is not an argu-
ment against the principle.
Some criminals are beyond rehabilitation. Perhaps capi- By executing criminals you are ruling out the possibil-
tal punishment should be reserved for serial killers, ter- ity of rehabilitation. You have to consider that they may
rorists, murderers of policemen, and so on. repent of their crime, serve a sentence as punishment,
and emerge as useful members of society.
Sample Motions:
This House supports the death penalty.
This House would take an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth, and a life for a life.
Web Links:
• Amnesty International and the Death Penalty. <http://www.web.amnesty.org/rmp/dplibrary.nsf/index?openview> Presents facts
and figures on the death penalty as well as current developments on the issue.
• Derechos Human Rights: Death Penalty Links. <http://www.derechos.org/dp/> Links to hundreds of sites on all aspects of the
death penalty, both pro and con.
• Pro-Death Penalty.com. <http://www.prodeathpenalty.com> Offers information from a pro-death-penalty point of view; also
contains good statistical information.
Further Reading:
Costanzo, Mark. Just Revenge: Costs and Consequences of the Death Penalty. St. Martin’s Press, 1997.
Hanks, Gardner. Against the Death Penalty: Christian and Secular Arguments Against Capital Punishment. Herald Press, 1997.
Pojman, Louis, and Jeffrey Reiman. The Death Penalty: For and Against. Rowman and Littlefield, 1998.

CELL PHONES, BANNING OF USE IN CARS

Safety experts have blamed the use of cell phones while driving for causing a considerable number of traffic accidents. As a result, many
countries and a number of US states, following the lead of Ireland and New York State, are seriously considering prohibiting drivers from
using them. Although polls indicate that Americans overwhelmingly favor banning the use of handheld cell phones in cars, some contend
that such prohibition will not solve the problem of distracted drivers.
PROS CONS
Using a cell phone while driving is very dangerous. Clearly, using a cell phone while driving can be danger-
Physically holding a handset removes one hand from ous in some circumstances, but such use is not risky in
the controls, making accidents more likely, while dial- many situations, for example while the car is at a stand-
ing is even worse, as it also requires users to divert still in gridlocked traffic, while waiting at traffic lights, or
attention from the road. Research shows that drivers while driving on a quiet road with good visibility. Other
speaking on a cell phone have much slower reactions in actions in a car can be at least as distracting—eating,
braking tests than nonusers; such drivers have reaction changing tapes, retuning the radio, arguing with passen-
times that are worse even than the reaction times of gers about directions, trying to stop children squabbling,
drunk drivers. etc. We should not introduce a law that victimizes cell
|53

PROS CONS
phone users under all conditions, while ignoring many
other causes of accidents.
Research shows very little difference between using Hands-free cell phone sets, with earpieces and voice-
a handheld and a hands-free cell phone, in terms of automated dialing, are the answer. These allow drivers to
impaired concentration and slower reaction times in communicate freely without taking their hands off the
braking tests. For some reason the brain treats a tele- controls or their eyes off the road. Effectively there is no
phone conversation differently from talking to a passen- difference between talking to someone on a hands-free
ger, perhaps because the passenger is also aware of pos- cell phone and holding a conversation with a passenger
sible road hazards in a way the telephone caller cannot next to you; in fact, the latter is more dangerous as you
be and, accordingly, stops talking when the driver needs may be tempted to turn your head to directly address
to concentrate. In any case, voice-activated technol- the passenger.
ogy is often unreliable, thus frustrating drivers, who
lose concentration as a result. Banning one kind of cell
phone while allowing the use of another kind would be
inconsistent. In addition, hands-free cell phones cause
just as many accidents.
Existing laws are inadequate; driving without due care Society has no need for a specific law relating to cell
and attention is a limited charge that can be very dif- phone use; almost every country has laws against driving
ficult to prove. In any case, every time a driver of a without due care and attention. Thus if someone is driv-
moving vehicle uses a cell phone, a potentially danger- ing dangerously because of inappropriate use of a cell
ous situation is created. This justifies a specific offense phone, the laws to prosecute are already on the books.
being introduced. The police should enforce the existing rules more con-
sistently. Such enforcement could be coupled with ener-
getic advertising campaigns to warn people of a range of
potentially dangerous driving habits.
New laws would be enforceable because billing records Banning cell phone use by drivers will be unenforce-
show when a phone has been in use. Technological able—often it will just be a policeman’s word against
improvements in photography may also allow the auto- a driver’s. This is especially true of hands-free phones,
matic detection of drivers breaking laws against cell where accused motorists could simply claim to be sing-
phone use at the wheel. In any case, just because a law is ing along to the radio or talking to themselves. In any
not completely enforceable does not mean that it should case, the widespread introduction of speed cameras in
be scrapped. many countries and an increased public fear of violent
crime have led to the redeployment of the traffic police
who would be needed to enforce such laws.
Using a cell phone in the car is unnecessary—everyone Using cell phones on the road could improve safety, for
coped without them 10 years ago, and little else about life example, by allowing delayed employees to call the office
has changed radically enough to make them indispens- rather than drive recklessly in an effort to arrive on time.
able, so no real loss of personal liberty occurs with the Drivers now often use cell phones to report accidents
banning of cell phone use while driving. Drivers always to the emergency services and alert the police to others
have the choice of pulling over and calling from a parked driving dangerously, stray animals, unsafe loads, etc.
vehicle. The ban will also protect drivers from pressure
from bosses who call them while on the road, requiring
employees to risk their lives for the company.
The state’s authority to control the actions of drivers is The state has no right to interfere so blatantly in our per-
already accepted, for example, through speed limits or sonal liberties. Cell phones don’t kill people, bad driving
rules against drunk driving. Dangerous driving meets does, and simply banning the use of phones while driv-

PROS CONS
the classic liberal test by endangering not just the indi- ing will penalize the many good drivers without remov-
vidual but others, including drivers, passengers, and ing the dangerous ones.
pedestrians, thus society has a right to intervene to pro-
tect the innocent. A new law signals social unacceptabil-
ity and will send a message to drivers; the New York ban
has already been highly effective.
Sample Motions:
This House would ban drivers from using mobile phones.
This House would do more to promote road safety.
This House would tame technology.
Web Links:
• Cell Phones Bans May Not Make Roads Safer. <http://my.webmd.com/content/article/1728.82343> Article on WebMDHealth,
discussing how “hands-free” devices, suggested as alternatives to traditional cell phones, may cause even more problems.
• Insurance Institute for Highway Safety. <http://www.hwysafety.org> Contains information on all aspects of highway safety,
including the use of cell phones.

CENSORSHIP OF THE ARTS

While all modern democracies value free expression, freedom of speech is never absolute. The restrictions a nation puts on speech are
a product of its experience and culture. The United States views free speech as the cornerstone of American civil liberties and has few
restrictions on expression. Nevertheless, conservatives have called for some type of censorship of art that they find morally offensive. Many
people are also disturbed by studies that show a correlation between watching violent films and television shows and violent behavior.
PROS CONS
An individual’s rights end when they impinge on the Civil rights should not be curtailed in the absence of
safety and rights of others. By enacting laws against a clear and present danger to the safety of others. Fur-
incitement to racial hatred and similar hate speech, we thermore, as long as no illegal acts were committed in
acknowledge that freedom of expression should have the creative process, the public should have a choice in
limits. Art should be subject to the same restrictions as deciding whether to view the resulting content. Argu-
any other form of expression. By making an exception ments about child pornography displayed as art are irrel-
for art, we would be creating a legal loophole for content evant because child pornography is illegal.
such as hate speech, which could seek protection on the
grounds that it was a form of art.
Certain types of content (e.g., sexual content) are unsuit- An age-rated system is a very blunt tool. It does not take
able for children despite their artistic merits. We should into account differing levels of education or maturity.
be able to develop a system of censorship, based on age, Censorship also deprives parents of the right to raise
that protects our children. their children as they see fit. Adults have the right to
vote, bear arms, and die for their country. Why should
they be deprived of the ability to decide what they or
|55

PROS CONS
their children see? Finally, we have to remember that
people are not forced to view art; they don’t have to look
at something they think is offensive.
Censorship may actually help artists. The general public Censorship is far more likely to hurt the arts. If the gov-
is far more likely to support erotic art if it knows that ernment labels art as unsuitable for children, the general
children won’t see it! public is not going to want to fund it.
Many forms of modern art push the boundaries of what Content that we consider acceptable today would have
is acceptable or aim for the lowest level of taste. This been regarded as taboo 50 years ago. If a novel or con-
type of content is unacceptable, and governments should troversial piece of art is out of touch with society, society
have the right to ban it. will reject it.
Excessive sex and violence in the media lead to similar The correlation between watching violence and com-
behavior in viewers. This alone should justify censor- mitting violent crimes is still not established. These
ship. studies are not exhaustive, and often are funded by
special interest groups. We must also realize that cor-
relation is different from causation. An alternative
interpretation is that people with violent tendencies are
more likely to be connoisseurs of violent art. Even if we
believe that some people are likely to be corrupted, why
should all of society be penalized? There are far better
ways of reducing the crime rate, with far less cost in civil
liberties, than censorship.
Even if some individuals manage to circumvent censor- Censorship is ultimately not feasible. Try censoring art
ship laws, government has sent an important message on the Internet, for example! In addition, censoring art
about what society considers acceptable. The role of the merely sends it underground and might glamorize the
state in setting social standards should not be underesti- prohibited artwork. It is far better to display it so that
mated, and censorship (be it through bans or minimum people can judge for themselves.
age requirements) is an important tool in this process.
Sample Motions:
This House supports censorship of the arts.
This House believes that nude art is lewd art.
This House fears that artistic license is a license to kill.
This House believes that you are what you see.
Web Links:
• American Civil Liberties Union. <http://www.aclu.org> Offers information on laws, court cases, and challenges to free speech.
• PBS: Culture Shock. <http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/cultureshock/> A companion site to a PBS series on art, cultural values, and
freedom of expression.
• University of Pennsylvania: Banned Books Online. <http://digital.library.upenn.edu/books/banned-books.html> On-line exhibit
of books that have been the objects of censorship and censorship attempts.
Further Reading:
Atkins, Robert, and Svetlana Mintcheva. Censoring Culture: Contemporary Threats to Free Expression. New Press, 2006.
Lane, Frederick S. The Decency Wars: The Campaign to Cleanse American Culture. Prometheus, 2006.

CHILD LABOR
In the past, activists have urged consumers to boycott companies that use child labor to produce goods. Is this response enough?
Should the international community impose sanctions against governments that permit child labor? Ultimately the issue of using
child labor is more a question of solving poverty than a simple moral or emotional issue. Any proposed sanctions would need to
address several considerations—both general (Who would impose sanctions? How and to what extent would they be enforced?)
and questions particular to this topic (What age is a “child”? Is child labor inherently an issue or is the debate really about mini-
mum labor standards for all employees and employers?).
PROS CONS
Governments have a duty to uphold human dignity. All While sanctions are effective for enforcing political
people have the right to the benefits gained from educa- and legal standards, they are less effective in dealing
tion, a good quality of life, and independent income. with social and economic ones. The world community
Child labor destroys the future of the young and must cannot force an impoverished state to maintain Western
be stopped. standards of education and labor laws, which did not
exist when the West industrialized.
Sanctions provide the only means of forcing countries Consumer power has proved highly effective in forcing
to take action. Consumer pressure is too weak to do so. transnational companies to institute ethical practices.
While people say they are willing to pay more for prod- Boycotts of one producer have led others to change
ucts manufactured in humane conditions, very few put their practices out of fear of negative publicity and pos-
this into daily practice. sible boycotts. The market takes care of the problem
itself.
Pressure on transnational companies is not enough. Not Imposing sanctions on states is unfair because they are
all child labor is in sweatshops for multinationals in poor not wholly responsible for the actions of their citizens.
countries. Children also work on family farms and as Should we impose sanctions on the United States because
prostitutes. Some countries also force children into their it has illegal sweatshops?
armies.
Ending child labor will allow the young a greater chance The vision of all former child laborers leaving work
to get an education and to develop fully both physically for school is utopian. Evidence shows that many either
and socially, thus benefiting a nation’s human resources cannot afford to pay school tuition or continue to work
and encouraging economic growth. The large number while attending school. In fact, many transnational com-
of underemployed adults in most developing countries panies have now set up after-work schools within the
can replace children. Often these will be the parents of very factories that activists criticize.
current child workers, so there will be little or no overall
effect on family income.
The international community was able to place human Placing sanctions on some companies will merely push
rights over the cause of free trade in the cases of South child labor underground. Moving poor children who
Africa and Burma—so why not here? have to work into unregulated and criminal areas of the
economy will only worsen the situation.
This is an argument for a targeted and more sophisti- Sanctions harm the poorest in society. Companies will
cated use of sanctions, not against them in any form. simply move to areas that do not have restrictions on
Sometimes free market economics is simply an excuse child labor. Past experience has shown that govern-
for denying responsibility. ment interference with the market does more harm than
good.
|57

Sample Motions:
This House believes that children should be free.
This House believes that education is the best economics.
This House would end child labor.
This House would put sanctions on states using child labor.
Web Links:
• Child Labour Coalition. <http://www.stopchildlabor.org/> Information on child labor around the world and campaigns to end it.
• International Labour Organization. <http://www.ilo.org/> Information on the International Programme on the Elimination of
Child Labour.
Further Reading:
Haass, Richard, ed. Economic Sanctions and American Diplomacy. Council on Foreign Relations, 1998.
Hobbs, Sandy, Michael Layalette, and James McKechnie. Child Labour: A World History Companion. ABC-CLIO Europe, 2000.
Mizen, Phil, ed. Hidden Hands: International Perspectives on Children’s Work and Labour. Routledge, 2001.
Schlemmer, Bernard, ed. The Exploited Child. Zed Books, 2000.

CHILD OFFENDERS, STRICTER PUNISHMENT FOR

Most US states have separate justice codes and justice systems for juvenile offenders. Traditionally the main goal of these systems has been
rehabilitation rather than punishment; courts have frequently sentenced delinquents to probation or counseling rather than jail. During the
1980s and early 1990s, the US experienced an unprecedented wave of juvenile crime, and although juvenile crime had dropped by the
mid-1990s, a series of high-profile school shootings and murders by children as young as six kept the issue in the news. In response nearly
every state passed laws making it easier for minors to be tried and incarcerated as adults.
PROS CONS
The primary purpose of a justice system is the preven- Child crime is different from adult crime. In most legal
tion of crime and the protection of the innocent. It is systems the offenders are not deemed to be fully func-
to achieve these purposes that children should not be tioning as moral agents. Thus, the best way to handle
entitled to lenient punishment. The purposes of pun- them is through rehabilitation rather than punishment.
ishment are proportional retribution, deterrence, and
prevention of crime. Rehabilitation should at best be a
secondary aim.
The “just desserts” theory of punishment argues that Subjective culpability should play as important a part in
the retribution society takes against an offender should punishment as the harm principle. That is why murder
be proportional to the harm he has caused the victim. is punished more severely than negligent manslaughter,
For example, a person who kills is more culpable than even though both cause the same harm. Children are not
a person who robs or hurts. Because the harm children capable of making the same moral judgments as adults.
cause is the same as that caused by adults committing a It is the inability of children to form moral judgments
similar offense, children should not receive special treat- that makes them less culpable and therefore worthy of
ment. The assumption that children are not as morally lighter punishment.
culpable as adults is false.
Treating children more leniently than adults undermines The deterrence theory assumes that all crime is com-
the deterrent value of punishment. A 1996 survey in mitted as a result of rational evaluation. If, indeed,

PROS CONS
Virginia, for example, showed that 41% of youths have 8- or 10-year-old children are capable of making ratio-
at various times either been in a gang or associated with nal calculations, then the prospect of spending several
gang activities. Of these, 69% said they joined because years in reform school should be no less a deterrent
friends were involved and 60% joined for “excitement.” then spending the time in jail. It is still a curtailment of
This clearly shows that young adults do not take crime their liberty, and if they were rational, they would not
seriously because they think the justice system will treat want their liberty curtailed. The real problem is that
them leniently. most crimes are committed by people who do not make
rational decisions.
The best way to prevent crime in the short run is to lock This is an argument that would justify imprisoning
up the offenders. This stops them from immediately people for life because that is the surest way to prevent
harming society. In the long term, these children will be them from harming anyone. Because this is plainly ridic-
reluctant to return to crime because of their memory of ulous, it must be accepted that locking a person up is at
harsh punishment. best a short-term remedy. The long-term answer lies in
rehabilitation.
Rehabilitation (counseling and psychiatric treatment) is The only long-term solution to juvenile crime is reform
too lenient. It will make children believe that they are of the child. Children’s characters are less formed and
spending short periods of time at camp. In the US, more thus they are more amenable to reform. The rate of
than half the boys who were ordered to undergo coun- recidivism for child offenders in counseling in the US
seling rather than sentenced to detention committed is significantly lower than that of adult offenders. Some
crimes while in therapy. Rehabilitation programs should children who have had counseling do return to crime,
take place in a detention facility. Young offenders should but a significant proportion does not. Putting children in
be separated from hardened adult criminals, but they prison with hardened adult offenders is likely to increase
should not be given lighter sentences than adults who recidivism because they will be influenced by and learn
committed the same crimes. from the adults.
Sample Motions:
This House would lower the age of criminal responsibility.
This House would punish children as if they were adults.
This House believes that sparing the rod spoils the child.
Web Links:
• Cornell Law Information Service: An Overview of Juvenile Justice. <http://www.law.cornell.edu/topics/juvenile.html> Quick sum-
mary of the theory and current status of juvenile justice with links to specific statutes and court decisions.
• Juvenile Crime/Punishment Statistics. <http://crime.about.com/newsissues/crime/library/blfiles/bljuvstats.htm> Offers links to sta-
tistics on juvenile crimes and arrests, juveniles in the court system, juveniles in adult jails, and juveniles and the death penalty.
• National Criminal Justice Reference Service—Juvenile Justice. <http://virlib.ncjrs.org/JuvenileJustice.asp> Provides links to resources
on a wide variety of juvenile justice topics, including alternatives to incarceration.
Further Reading:
Fagan, Jeffrey, and Franklin E. Zimring, eds. The Changing Borders of Juvenile Justice: Transfer of Adolescents to the Criminal Court.
Chicago University Press, 1998.
Jensen, Gary, and Dean G. Rojek. Delinquency and Youth Crime. Waveland Press, 1998.
Lawrence, Richard, and Christopher Lawrence. School Crime and Juvenile Justice. Oxford University Press, 1997.
Morrison, Blake. As If: A Crime, a Trial, a Question of Childhood. Picador, 1997.
Vito, Gennaro, et al. The Juvenile Justice System: Concepts and Issues. Waveland Press, 1998.

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CHILDREN, CHOOSING SEX OF
Until recently, would-be parents could only hope and pray for a baby of a particular gender, but with advances in genetic engineering,
couples can select the sex of their child. While this technology may help prevent selective abortions and the abandonment of unwanted
infants, it raises a series of ethical questions that divide both the lay and medical communities.
PROS CONS
People should have freedom of choice. Their decision We applaud freedom of choice, but not when it harms
doesn’t harm anyone else, so why shouldn’t would-be others. Apart from the danger that choosing the gender
parents be able to choose the sex of their child? Article of the child could result in serious gender imbalances,
16 (1) of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights making sexual selection legal and acceptable will rein-
states that: “Men and women of full age . . . have the force and legitimize gender stereotypes. Inevitably the
right to marry and to found a family.” They, therefore, practice will result in more oppression of women, who
should have the right to make decisions about how that in many cultures are already seen as less valuable than
family is formed. men. Nor does the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights support sex selection. The Declaration’s writers
did not imagine recent developments in genetics when
they drafted the document. However, they were deter-
mined to provide equal rights for women, which per-
mitting gender selection would undermine.
Guaranteeing (or improving the chances of ) a child being Children are not toys; they are not meant to be designed
of the gender the parents want means that the child is to specifications most convenient to the “owner.”
more likely to be accepted and loved. Talk of designer Choosing the sex of a child is an extension of our con-
babies is scaremongering nonsense. All babies are, to sumer society. If we allow parents to choose gender,
some extent, designed. Individuals do not procreate soon some will want to choose eye or hair color, and we
randomly: they choose their partners and often choose will encourage false ideas of perfection, damning those
the time of conception based on their age and economic that don’t look or act a certain way. If scientists dis-
considerations. Parents give so much to children. They cover a “gay gene,” would parents be permitted to weed
invest years of their lives and a large amount of their out embryos with it using the technology this proposal
earnings in their children’s upbringing. Isn’t it fair that, would condone? We should encourage parents to accept
in return, they get to decide the sex of the child if they the children nature gives them. Otherwise, people will
want to? This is an extension of reproductive rights. want to design more and more traits and be increas-
ingly likely to reject their own child when they don’t get
exactly what they want.
Some cultures place great importance on having at least This argument veils the likely result of the policy:
one child of a particular gender. We can help realize this reinforcement of already unhealthy cultural practices.
goal. If a state’s population becomes seriously imbal- Selective abortion has resulted in gender imbalances in
anced, we might have to rethink our position—but cur- China and India that are already extremely high—1.3
rently most families in most countries do not care about boys to each girl in some regions. These imbalances are
the gender of their children. In any case, over time a scar- socially harmful because eventually many young men
city of one gender will produce new pressures to rebal- will be unable to find a partner; in China sexual imbal-
ance the population, e.g., the practice of paying dowries ance is already linked to a rise in sexual violence, kid-
may end, women will achieve higher status. napping and forced marriage, and prostitution.

PROS CONS
Knowing what gender a child will be is tremendously Having a child is a process of wonder and awe. These
helpful for parents in planning for the future. Why not proposals make having children akin to pre-ordering a
extend that ability to plan? car. To many people, the moment of conception is the
start of life, touched by God and not to be interfered
with or abused out of selfish human motives.
Allowing the couple to have another child of the same Children are not replacements. They are individuals,
gender might help relieve the trauma and grief of having unique in themselves. How will children feel if they
lost a child. know that their primary purpose is to serve as a fill-in
for a dead sibling?
Some parents are carriers of known sex-specific condi- Ethical costs outweigh the medical benefits. Pre-implan-
tions or diseases. Choosing the gender of the child will tation genetic diagnosis involves the development of
ensure that the parents do not pass on these conditions. embryos outside the womb. These embryos are then
tested for gender, and one or two of the desired gender
are then implanted in the womb. Those that are not
of the desired gender or are surplus to requirements are
destroyed (typically, more than a dozen embryos are
used to select a single one to be implanted). A human
life has been created with the express purpose of being
destroyed. This is another form of abortion.
In many countries and cultures, gender selection happens Many believe that new technologies are not morally
already, usually by selective abortion or abandonment of different from abortion—in all cases a potential life is
unwanted babies. Everyone can agree that this is a ter- taken. In any case, the cost of these new methods is so
rible waste of life and potentially very dangerous for the high, and likely to remain so, that the proposition argu-
mother. The use of new technologies to allow gender ment is irrelevant. These new technologies are likely
selection at the start of pregnancy will reduce and, hope- to make selective abortion more common because they
fully, eventually end the use of selective abortion. appear to legitimize throwing away a human life simply
because the parents would prefer that their child were
of a different sex.
Sample Motions:
This House would allow parents to choose the sex of their children.
This House would not leave it to chance.
This House believes in the parents’ right to choose.
This House would choose a boy.
Web Links:
• CNN: Ethics Matters. <http://www.cnn.com/HEALTH/bioethics/9906/sperm.separation/index.html> Summary of ethical con-
cerns in gender selection.
• DevBio. <http://7e.devbio.com/article.php?id=177> Detailed discussion of the ethical issues involved in topic.
• The President’s Council on Bioethics. <http://bioethics.gov/background/background2.html> Background on ethical questions raised
by the issue.
• The Washington Post. <http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A62067-2004Dec13.html> Summary of ethical concerns
in gender selection.

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CHINA, FEAR OF
China’s perceived threat to the West stems largely from its history under communist rule. Continuing human rights abuses and its violent
suppression of democratic reform movements, as witnessed in Tiananmen Square in 1989, are not easily ignored. The nation’s aggressive
foreign policy during the Cold War years and its willingness to provide arms to rogue nations and leftist revolutionaries have created an
image of China as a warmonger and powerbroker. In recent years China has worked to counter its image and to improve relations with the
West. However, the fear of China continues. The 1999 Cox Report on Chinese espionage revealed that China had acquired American
nuclear weapons technology, and China remains the only nation known to target its missiles at the United States.
PROS CONS
China is an economic powerhouse that could dwarf West- China’s economic growth is unremarkable. In 1997 it
ern nations. The biggest market on Earth, China already accounted for merely 3.5% of world GDP, as opposed
produces one-third of the world’s toys and one-eighth to the leading economy, the United States, represent-
of its textiles. Between 1951 and 1980, the economy of ing 25.6%. In terms of GDP per capita, China ranks
China grew at a 12.5% annual rate, which is greater even eighty-first, just ahead of Georgia and behind Papua
than the archetypal “Tiger” economy of Japan. America’s New Guinea. In terms of international trade, China
huge trade deficit with China suggests that China could is equivalent to South Korea and does not even match
dominate the conventional trading relationships and the Netherlands. In China’s peak year for the receipt of
suck in most Western economies. “foreign direct investment,” it received $45US billion.
However, this was accompanied by record capital flight,
in which $35US billion left the country.
Since the middle of the twentieth century, China has People wrongly assume that a communist regime is a
presented a formidable military threat. China has the military threat. In terms of defense spending, China is
world’s largest standing army and poses a threat both insignificant, accounting for only 4.5% of the global
in terms of technology and regional ambition. The Cox total, as opposed to 33.9% spent by the United States.
Report revealed that China had acquired modern nuclear Similarly, China’s arms dealing is also no cause for
warheads. In addition, China’s arms sales, particularly to concern. At the end of the twentieth century, China’s
rogue states, threaten world peace. Its transfer of weap- weapons transfers constituted 2.2% of the global total.
ons to Pakistan has precipitated an arms race with India The United States, by contrast, traded 45% of the
and conflict in Kashmir, resulted in two civil wars, and world’s weapons. China is a signatory to the Nuclear
bolstered a military regime. We no longer have to fear Non-Proliferation Treaty and the Comprehensive Test
terror from the East only, but terror from around the Ban Treaty. It has never detonated a nuclear weapon in
world that flows from China. conflict nor shown any inclination to do so.
China acts as a destabilizing influence in East Asia. The China actually acts as a stabilizing force in a turbulent
threat posed to Taiwan is clear, not only in the aggressive region. It has considerable influence over its neighbors,
statements made by Chinese leaders, but also in recent particularly North Korea. No one would deny that
naval maneuvers designed to intimidate the Taiwanese. China has a right to practice military maneuvers. More-
In 1997, China went so far as to launch missiles over over, it is by no means certain that China is exerting
Taipei. undue influence on Taiwan. Both the Taiwanese and the
Chinese national constitutions state that Taiwan is a part
of mainland China.
China threatens the Western powers even in the United China actually has a much better Security Council record
Nations. As a permanent member of the Security Coun- than either Russia or France. Disagreements that divide
cil, China has repeatedly vetoed Western proposals, often the globe should not be laid at China’s door. China has
for petty political objectives. For example, it vetoed peace- made many efforts to promote international peace both

PROS CONS
keeping operations for Guatemala and Macedonia on the within and outside the UN. In any case, whatever China
ground that these nations trade with Taiwan. NATO had does in the UN is of little consequence because the UN
to intervene in Kosovo in part because China refused to has very little real power.
authorize a UN operation there.
China is capable of forming a dangerous power bloc in China exerts an astonishingly small influence over other
East Asia that threatens Western interests. China remains nations. As the largest recipient of international aid and
both politically and economically close to many states a very reluctant donor, China is certainly not buying
that lack the support of Western powers: Vietnam, Cam- herself allies. For 2,000 years, China rejected the con-
bodia, Burma, and North Korea. cept of international interdependence. Although eco-
nomic globalization has modified this approach, there
is no evidence that China has adopted an aggressive or
expansionist philosophy.
Sample Motions:
This House should regard China as a global power.
This House thinks that China is merely a regional power.
This House treats China as an equal power.
Web Links:
• Cox Report. <http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/resources/1999/cox.report/> CNN summary of Cox Report on Chinese
espionage.
• Sinomania.com. <http://www.sinomania.com> News resource devoted to fighting fear of China.
• The “State-to-State” Flap: Tentative Conclusions About Risk and Restraint in Diplomacy Across the Taiwan Straits. <http://www.
fas.harvard.edu/~asiactr/haq/200001/0001a008.htm> Scholarly article from the Harvard Asia Quarterly on recent China-Taiwan
relations.
Further Reading:
Lampton, David M., ed. The Making of Chinese Foreign and Security Policy in the Era of Reform, 1978–2000. Stanford University
Press, 2001.
Mann, James. About Face: A History of America’s Curious Relationship with China. Vintage Books, 2000.
Swaine, Michael D., and Ashley J. Tellis. Interpreting China’s Grand Strategy: Past, Present and Future. Rand Corporation, 2000.

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CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE
Civil disobedience is the deliberate disobeying of a law to advance a moral principle or change government policy. Those who practice
civil disobedience are willing to accept the consequences of their lawbreaking as a means of furthering their cause. Henry David Thoreau
first articulated the tenets of civil disobedience in an 1849 essay, “On the Duty of Civil Disobedience.” He argued that when conscience
and law do not coincide, individuals have the obligation to promote justice by disobeying the law. Civil disobedience was a major tactic in
the women’s suffrage movement, the campaign for the independence of India, the civil rights movement, and the abolition of apartheid in
South Africa.
PROS CONS
Elections do not give the people sufficient opportu- The “voice of the people” is heard in many ways. Elections
nity to express their will. In certain circumstances civil take place regularly, and members of the public can write
disobedience is a powerful method of making the will their local, state, or national representatives expressing
of the public heard. If a law is oppressive it cannot be their opinion. Legislators are there to represent and serve
opposed in principle by obeying it in practice. It must the people. Because citizens have many ways to express
be broken. their views, civil disobedience is unnecessary. Protests
can be made perfectly well without breaking the law.
Civil disobedience has a history of overcoming oppres- Peaceful protest is quite possible in any society—to go
sion and unpopular policies where all other methods further into actual lawbreaking is pointless. Civil disobe-
have failed. For example, Mohandas Gandhi’s civil dis- dience can devolve into lawlessness. Indeed, it can be
obedience was instrumental in winning liberty for India, counterproductive by associating a cause with terror and
and Martin Luther King’s tactics won basic rights for violence.
African Americans in the United States. In these cases no
other avenue was open to express grievances.
In actual fact, the conflict with the authority gives any Too often this “productive violence” is directed against
protest its power and urgency and brings an issue to a innocent members of the public or against the police,
wider audience. The women’s suffrage movement in Brit- often causing serious injuries. No cause is worth the sac-
ain and the civil rights movement in the United States rifice of innocent lives; protest must be peaceful or not
are both examples of an eventually successful campaign at all.
that won by its confrontation with authority, where more
sedate methods would simply not have succeeded.
Sample Motions:
This House supports civil disobedience.
This House believes the ends justify the means.
This House would break the law in a good cause.
Web Link:
• Civil Disobedience Index. <http://www.actupny.org/documents/CDdocuments/CDindex.html> Offers information on the history,
theory, and practice of civil disobedience.
Further Reading:
Arendt, Hannah. Crises of the Republic. Harvest Books, 1972.
Thoreau, Henry David. Civil Disobedience and Other Essays. Dover, 1993.


CONDOMS IN SCHOOLS
Should public schools actively promote the use of condoms as a way to prevent pregnancy, the spread of sexually transmitted diseases, and
the proliferation of HIV infection? While scientific evidence overwhelmingly supports the contention that condoms, when properly used,
reduce the incidence of these problems, numerous critics fear that advocating condom use would encourage children to become sexually
active earlier than they otherwise would. In particular, more conservative religious traditions, as well as religious groups that oppose contra-
ception, oppose the distribution of condoms in schools out of fear that such access might undermine basic religious values in their children.
PROS CONS
Providing condoms to students in public schools will Providing students with condoms actually encourages
reduce the incidence of underage pregnancy and the beginning sexual activity earlier.
spread of sexually transmitted diseases.
Providing condoms to students is the pragmatic thing Presenting condoms to students in public schools is
to do. Educators need not endorse sexual activity, but offensive to people from a variety of religions who oppose
they can encourage students to make wise choices if they birth control and sex outside of marriage.
decide to have sex. Such an approach is sensible because
it accepts the inevitability that some young people,
regardless of the strength of an abstinence message, will
still have sex.
Providing condoms to students is a wise investment of Taxpayers should not have to support programs that
government funds. World governments spend a fortune they find morally objectionable, even if there seem to be
annually addressing the public health problems created pragmatic justifications for the action. Moreover, if over-
by risky sexual behavior. The cost of raising the many all sexual activity increases as the result of encouraging
children created through unintended pregnancies over “safer sex,” the number of people occasionally engaging
a lifetime can be astronomical. The cost of treating a in risky behavior will increase, and the risk of these prob-
patient with HIV can be enormous. lems spreading will increase with it.
Condom distribution encourages the responsibility of Widespread condom distribution will establish sexual
men and increases choices for women. It can also estab- activity as the norm among young teens, creating peer
lish condom use as the norm, not something that women pressure to participate in sex. The added temptation to
continually have to negotiate, often from a position of engage in sexual activity that is “protected” will result in
weakness. more women having sex at a younger age, perhaps con-
tributing to their exploitation.
Condoms are one of the most effective and cost-effec- The effectiveness of condoms is grossly exaggerated. If
tive means of protecting against sexually transmitted dis- not used properly, condoms can be highly ineffective.
eases, HIV, and pregnancy. Young people are more likely to use condoms incorrectly,
due to lack of experience or because they are drunk.
Moreover, the temptation to have sex without a condom
may be significant where the supply of condoms is not
plentiful.
Sample Motions:
This House would provide free condoms to all high school students.
This House believes abstinence-based sex education is superior to condom distribution in schools.
This House would give students the option of free access to condoms through their schools.
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Web Links:
• American Civil Liberties Union: Reproductive Rights. <http://www.aclu.org/ReproductiveRights/ReproductiveRights.
cfm?ID=11141&c=147> Information on reproductive rights issues and campaigns.
• The Kaiser Family Foundation. <http://www.kaisernetwork.org/daily_reports/print_report.cfm?DR_ID=17970> Report on the ef-
fect of condom availability on high schools.
Further Reading:
Irvine, Janice M. Talk About Sex: The Battles Over Sex Education in the United States. University of California Press, 2002.
Levine, Judith. Harmful to Minors: The Perils of Protecting Children From Sex. University of Minnesota Press, 2002.
McKay, Alexander. Sexual Ideology and Schooling: Towards Democratic Sexuality. State University of New York Press, 2000.

CONSCRIPTION AND NATIONAL SERVICE

Many countries throughout Europe and the rest of the world have conscription or some type of required national service. This is normally
for 18-year-olds and lasts between one and three years. Usually young people have the option of serving in the military or performing
community service. Since the end of the Vietnam War, the United States has relied on a volunteer army. At age 18, young men are
required to register with Selective Service, but there is no draft. Nevertheless, some believe that some type of obligatory national service
would be good both for young people and the nation. The issue of reviving the draft emerged during the debate over the Iraq War in
2003, but died quickly.
PROS CONS
We accept the need for national service in wartime; ser- No justification exists for compulsory military service.
vice in peacetime is just an extension of the same idea. It The armed forces as they stand are capable of carrying
would mean that the country was prepared for emergen- out their role without conscripts. In fact, the military
cies when they happen, rather than having to prepare prefers a volunteer army.
after the fact.
National service develops valuable character traits. Young Forcing young people to go into the armed forces against
people learn respect for authority, self-discipline, team- their will fosters only resentment against authority and
work, and leadership skills. undermines any real chance at learning new skills.
The military teaches important skills that help young The government would be better off establishing civil-
people get jobs. In the long run this will reduce unem- ian training programs. The military is not an educational
ployment and help the economy. institution.
National service helps to promote patriotism and a sense Patriotism should not be centered on the military. We
of nationhood. have seen the detrimental effect a focus on the military
has had in other nations, such as Germany. National
pride should be fostered in other ways.
The individual has a duty to give something back to soci- A citizen has a duty to pay taxes and follow the rules of soci-
ety, and national service allows this. Whether through ety. Any service to the community should be voluntary.
protecting the country or helping with social or environ-
mental projects, national service encourages the idea of
working as a community.

Sample Motion:
This House would reintroduce the draft.
Web Links:
• Corporation for National Service. <http://www.cns.gov> US government site presenting information on public service programs.
• Draft Registration: The Politics of Institutional Immorality. <http://www.cato.org/pubs/pas/pa-214.html> Essay in support of dis-
mantling the Selective Service System.
Further Reading:
Evers, William M. National Service: Pro and Con. Hoover Institution Press, 1990.
Gold, Philip. The Coming Draft: The Crisis in Our Military and Why Selective Service Is Wrong for America. Presidio Press, 2006.

CORPORAL PUNISHMENT: ADULTS
Nigeria, Malaysia, Brunei, Saudi Arabia, and Singapore have retained flogging as a punishment long after other countries have declared
it a violation of human rights. In some fundamentalist Islamic countries the cutting off of a hand is also an acceptable sentence.
PROS CONS
Criminals must be punished. All forms of punish- Punishing with pain is barbaric, a throwback to societ-
ment recognize that with the commission of criminal ies built on military might, slavery, and the treatment
acts individuals surrender some of their human rights. of criminals as entities without any rights. The mark of
Why, logically, is corporal punishment any more of an civilized society is that it behaves better than its crimi-
infringement of these rights than prison? Corporal pun- nals. Prison is necessary as a method of punishment, pre-
ishment is an easy, strong, visible, and therefore effec- vention, and rehabilitation, but it does not (or at least
tive deterrent. It is also a proportionate punishment for should not) stoop to cruelty. This is why the UN Dec-
certain crimes. laration of Human Rights forbids “torture or . . . cruel,
inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.”
Like all forms of punishment, flogging and whipping can Any regulation tends to be arbitrary and allow abuse.
and should be subject to regulation. In Singapore, for Singapore’s list of crimes for which caning may be
example, caning is confined generally to males between imposed includes the transport of fireworks or a third
16 and 50, with a maximum number of 24 strokes, traffic offense. In 1995, a 48-year-old Frenchman was
which must be administered all at once. caned five times for overstaying his visa.
Corporal punishment is a useful deterrent against prison- There are always alternative punishments that can be
ers breaking prison rules. Since their freedom is already used in prison: solitary confinement, removal of privi-
gone and their date of release may seem distant (or non- leges, extension of sentence, and so on. Prisoners are
existent), little else remains to help maintain order. particularly vulnerable to abuse from prison supervisors
who seek to maintain order through a climate of fear.
Corporal punishment is appropriate for some cultures, Societies with a collective mentality need less strict pun-
but not for others. Citizens of Western democracies find ishment laws than societies without. The US doesn’t
a great deal of state control and authority frightening, have more crime than Singapore because of the lack of
and hold very diverse views on acceptable behavior and corporal punishment but precisely because of the lack of
appropriate punishment. In many Middle and Far East- a behavioral norm. The US and Britain allowed corporal
ern countries, however, consensus is much greater on punishment in the past; nevertheless, crime flourished.
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PROS CONS
what is acceptable—and a harsher collective response
exists toward those who breach society’s norms. Singa-
pore has very little crime in comparison with the US. Let
the results of its justice system speak for themselves.
Sample Motions:
This House would flog criminals live on national television.
This House would bring back the birch.
Web Link:
• World Corporal Punishment Research. <http://www.corpun.com> Links to hundreds of sites providing historical and contempo-
rary data on the subject.
Further Reading:
Newman, Graeme. Just and Painful: A Case for the Corporal Punishment of Criminals. Harrow & Heston, 1995.

CORPORAL PUNISHMENT: CHILDREN

The issue of “paddling” or spanking children is less about punishment in itself and more about punishment as a means of education. How
can young children learn the difference between right and wrong? How can teachers establish order in the classroom and with it a better
environment for learning? With the exception of the United States, Canada, and one state in Australia, all industrialized countries now
ban corporal punishment in schools although they may permit parental spanking.
PROS CONS
Corporal punishment, specifically spanking or similar Hitting a child is never right. The power of physical
actions, can be an effective punishment and deterrent punishment to teach a child the difference between right
for childish misbehavior. If children do not respond and wrong is unproven. A young child may learn that
seriously to verbal warnings or light punishment from the adult is displeased, but not why. Spanking will cause
teachers or parents, then a short, sharp stimulus, which a state of extreme distress and confusion that makes chil-
inflicts pain but no lasting damage, is the last resort to dren less likely to analyze their behavior with clarity. In
cause the child to associate misbehavior with punish- older children disciplined at school, a physical punish-
ment—a crucial association in a child’s development. ment is likely to provoke resentment and further mis-
behavior.
Much of the argument against corporal punishment has No matter how orderly you make the beating of a child,
a hysterical edge. Corporal punishment must be used as adverse effects are numerous. Children lose trust in the
part of a wider strategy and at the correct time: when adults who administer the beating; they learn that force
other immediate discipline has failed and after an initial is acceptable in human interaction; they feel humiliated
warning and opportunity for the child to repent. The and lose self-respect; and they build up resentment that
person delivering the punishment must not be angry at may lead to severe misbehavior in the future.
the time.
Serious physical injuries occur only where disciplined, The actual physical damage inflicted via corporal pun-
strategic corporal punishment becomes child abuse. ishment on children can be horrifying. Examples can be

PROS CONS
There is a strict line between the two and to ignore it is found of students needing treatment for broken arms,
deliberately misleading. nerve and muscle damage, and cerebral hemorrhage.
Spanking of the buttocks can cause damage to the sciatic
nerve.
Corporal punishment administered in the presence of at The buttocks are a sexual zone. Adults can derive pleasure
least two adults is much less likely to become violent or from administering punishment to that zone, and such a
lead to sexual abuse. At school, another teacher should punishment can affect the psychosexual development of
be present; at home, both parents. children being disciplined. Even the presence of another
adult does not prevent the easy degeneration from pun-
ishment into child abuse. A notorious case from Arizona
in 1995 involved school principal Michael Wetton, who
had previous convictions for violence against children.
He was convicted of abuse after forcing a 9-year-old boy
and a 15-year-old girl to strip naked and be paddled. In
the girl’s case, her mother was present, but “too fright-
ened to resist.”
“He who spareth his rod hateth his son, but he who loveth “The Devil can cite Scripture for his purpose” (Shake-
him is chasteneth him betimes” (Proverbs 13:24.) speare). The Bible frequently condones practices that are
outrageous to the modern sensibility.
Sample Motions:
This House would spank its children when necessary.
This House believes that it is never right to hit a child.
Web Links:
• Corporal Punishment of Children. <http://people.biola.edu/faculty/paulp/index.html> Provides links and references to research on
corporal punishment for children in the home and critiques of anti-spanking research.
• Ultimate Deterrent: Punishment and Control in English and American Schools. <http://www.hku.hk/cerc/2b.html> 1966 article
examining disciplinary policy in British and American schools.
• World Corporal Punishment Research. <http://www.corpun.com> Links to hundreds of sites providing historical and contempo-
rary data on the subject.
Further Reading:
Bitensky, Susan H. Corporal Punishment of Children: A Human Rights Violation. Transnational Publishers, 2006.
Donnelly, Michael, and Murry Straus, eds. Corporal Punishment of Children in Theoretical Perspective. Yale University Press, 2005.
Straus, Murray, and Denise A. Donnelly. Beating the Devil Out of Them: Corporal Punishment in American Families and Its Effect on
Children. Transaction, 2001.

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CORRUPTION, BENEFITS OF
Public corruption is generally viewed as an obstacle to the development of a country. Many governments, international organizations, and
aid agencies as well as donor-states have special agendas to fight the problem. Yet, in the countries with high levels of corruption, argu-
ments have been made that because corruption is pervasive it has to have some benefit. While definitely not something to be proud of,
public corruption is seen as an unavoidable side effect of development.
PROS CONS
Corruption reduces bureaucracy and speeds the imple- Countries with lower levels of corruption still have
mentation of administrative practices governing eco- efficient bureaucracies and enjoy better economic well-
nomic forces of the market. Corrupt public officials being. Corruption in the public sector is the biggest
acquire incentives to create a development-friendly obstacle to investment, causing misallocation of valuable
system for the economy. As a result, corruption starts resources and subversion of public policies. It is also an
a chain of benefits for all the economic actors, making invisible tax on the poor. GDP levels for corrupted states
overregulated, obstructive bureaucracies much more could be much higher without corruption.
efficient.
Corruption is a Western concept and is not applicable The very idea of corruption is unethical, regardless of
to traditional societies, where corruption does not have one’s traditions. Cultural relativism is just an attempt to
such a negative meaning. Many traditional societies with legitimize corruption by the corrupted. Not enough evi-
a “gift culture” have a different understanding of civil dence has been presented to support the suggestion that
responsibilities and etiquette. The social structure and corruption is required by certain sociocultural practices.
political traditions of many countries are based on the Moreover, regarding corruption as an innate quality of
beneficial effect of corruption and cannot survive in its human culture undermines the hope for any improve-
absence. ment and is inherently fatalistic, serving as an excuse for
creating cultures of corruption and fear.
Corruption is a condition of developing states, and Corruption is universal, and the fact that a nation is
should be seen as a childhood disease. Western coun- economically developed does not mean that it has less
tries themselves were once the most corrupted societies corruption. Some First World countries have high rates
of the world. Not only is corruption endemic in under- of public corruption. Having a low level of corruption,
developed nations, it is also an evolutionary level that however, gives a unique advantage to any developing
precedes development and industrialization. Corruption nation. Appropriate policies can substitute for any posi-
is a side effect of emerging capitalism and a free market. tive effect of corruption.
Underdeveloped countries cannot combat corruption
without having achieved the level of economic develop-
ment necessary to fight it.
In many countries corruption is a natural response to Corruption may be a response to supply and demand,
shortages. Often in developing countries the demand for but it is still not beneficial. It ensures that public services
a service such as access to the courts, education, health are available only to the rich. Where corruption is wide-
care, or the attention of civil servants and politicians far spread, the poor always lose out and society becomes
outstrips the ability of public officials to cope. To pre- ever more divided.
vent the system from grinding to a complete halt, a way Society suffers when corruption provides incentives
of rationing must be found, and corruption provides for bright young people to get jobs as unproductive
such a system. In effect, it places a price on a service and public officials because of the financial rewards from
enables officials to prioritize and take some steps toward corruption. The private sector, already struggling from
dealing with the demands on their time and resources. the added costs of corruption, suffers even more because
it is unable to recruit the brightest and most ambitious
young people. Economic growth suffers as a result.

PROS CONS
Corruption is not a problem in its own right, but rather Corruption is very bad for democracy because it can lead
a symptom of wider problems of governance. Misguided to special interests capturing the state. In corrupt soci-
socialist principles have left many developing countries eties, even free and fair election results count for little.
(and some developed ones) with complex and burden- Once in power, politicians are likely to concentrate on
some tangles of rules and regulations administered by enriching themselves, promoting their own interests
huge state bureaucracies staffed by poorly paid public rather than those of their constituents or the nation.
officials. These problems make ordinary people highly To avoid accountability, corrupt politicians then have
dependent on the actions of individual officials and an incentive to corrupt elections. This, in turn, creates
give such officials every incentive to exploit their power. contempt for democracy and makes dictatorship more
Crackdowns on corruption will achieve nothing until attractive to many people. Finally, failure to deal with
these underlying problems are addressed. corruption is economically disastrous because it gives
those in power the incentive to create new laws and regu-
lations that they can exploit in order to extract bribes.
Sample Motions:
This House declares that anticorruption efforts do more harm than good.
This House confirms that corruption is unethical.
This House should fight public corruption.
Web Links:
• Anti-Corruption Gateway. <http://www.nobribes.org> Provides information about combating corruption in Europe and Eurasia.
• Global Corruption Report. <http://www.globalcorruptionreport.org> Project of Transparency International provides an extensive
report on corruption around the world.
• Transparency International. <http://www.transparency.org> Global coalition against corruption.
Further Reading:
Anechiarico, Frank, et al. The Pursuit of Absolute Integrity: How Corruption Control Makes Government Ineffective. University of
Chicago Press, 1998.
Blundo, Giorgio, et al. Everyday Corruption and the State: Citizens and Public Officials in Africa. Zed Books, 2006.
Rose-Ackerman, Susan. Corruption and Government: Causes, Consequences, and Reform. Cambridge University Press, 1999.

|71

CREATIONISM IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS
In the mid-nineteenth century, Charles Darwin articulated his theory of evolution, which argues that human beings evolved, over the
course of millennia, from more primitive animals. This theory conflicts with the account of man’s creation in Genesis, wherein Adam is
created by God as the first fully formed human, having no predecessors. Adam’s creation is the act of an “intelligent designer,” rather than
the result of some natural evolutionary process. Although many believers think that evolution is compatible with the Bible, many others
feel that the account in Genesis must be taken literally and that teaching evolution is an affront to their religious beliefs. Many states and
school districts have tried to ban the teaching of evolution (most famously, the state of Tennessee, which prosecuted John Scopes in 1925
for violating its ban), but the Supreme Court ruled in 1968 that the purpose of such bans is religious and cannot be permitted in public
schools. In 1987 the Supreme Court declared unconstitutional Louisiana’s Creationism Act, which forbade the teaching of evolution
unless the theory of creation science was also taught. Nonetheless, believers in “intelligent design”—or “creationism”—have continued to
insist that creationism should be taught alongside evolution in the classroom.
PROS CONS
The Constitution forbids the establishment of any one In practice, there is no question that the supporters of
religion, but it also guarantees freedom of religion, which creationism depend upon one religious tradition—the
means that the government cannot suppress religion. By Judeo-Christian—and upon the account of creation
teaching that evolution is true, schools are violating the in its sacred texts. Teaching creationism establishes, in
religious beliefs of students. effect, only that specific religious tradition, to the detri-
ment of other religions and of nonbelievers. Teaching
creationism in a publicly funded school is clearly a viola-
tion of the Constitution.
Evolution has not been proved; it is a theory used to Evolution is a theory that is based on verifiable scientific
explain observable facts. But those facts can be explained facts, but creationism is based on the revelations con-
just as well, and in some cases, even better, by intelligent tained in scripture. Creationism cannot be taught as sci-
design theory. Moreover, evolutionists do not acknowl- ence because it is not consistent with standard scientific
edge that the evidence essential for proving their ideas— procedure.
e.g., fossil remains of transitional, evolving beings—
simply does not exist. Creationism is a theory that is at
least as worthy as evolution and should be taught along
with it.
By teaching intelligent design theory, a school is not All religions offer a creation story, varying from religion
doing anything to establish any particular religion. Intel- to religion and from culture to culture. A public school
ligent design is accepted by Christians, Jews, Muslims, might examine all of these beliefs in the context of a
Native Americans, Hindus, and many others. Therefore, history of ideas course, rather than in a science course.
it should not be forbidden by the establishment clause of In practice, however, creationists are not interested in
the First Amendment. exploring different beliefs; they are, rather, committed
to putting one religious belief on equal footing with pre-
vailing scientific thinking in the science classroom.
Creationism is not, as the Supreme Court has ruled, Creationism is not a scientific theory and is not accepted
a religious belief. It is a scientific theory, and has been by the scientific community. Schools have a mandate to
articulated by many philosophers and scientists, for teach what is currently accepted by the country’s scien-
example, Aristotle, in a completely secular context. tists—that is, they must teach evolution, not material
from outside the discipline of biology.

PROS CONS
History has shown that scientific theories are often dis- Science is morally and religiously neutral. It does not aim
proved over time; evolution, thus, should not be consid- to uphold religious beliefs; it does not aim to debunk
ered to be an unassailable truth. In the spirit of scientific religious beliefs. Evolution is not taught as an attack on
inquiry and intellectual skepticism, students should be religion; it is taught as the best scientific explanation of
exposed to competing theories. available facts. Students are free to pursue their own pri-
vate religious beliefs.
Sample Motions:
This House favors a curriculum free of creationism teachings in public schools.
This House believes that evolution ought to be taught instead of creationism.
This House thinks that teaching creationism in public schools is justified.
Web Links:
• Evolution and Creationism in Public Schools. <http://atheism.about.com/library/decisions/indexes/bldec_CreationismIndex.htm>
Index of court cases on the issue.
• Evolution vs. Creationism. <http://physics.syr.edu/courses/modules/ORIGINS/origins.html> Site contains information on both
sides of the debate including links to articles, newsgroups, books, and frequently asked questions.
• Science and Creationism. <http://www.nap.edu/html/creationism/preface.html> Detailed essay from the National Academy of
Sciences summarizes the key aspects of evolution, describes the positions taken by advocates of creation science, and analyzes their
claims.
Further Reading:
Binder, Amy J. Contentious Curricula: Afrocentrism and Creationism in American Public Schools. Princeton University Press, 2002.
Gilkey, Langdon. Creationism on Trial: Evolution and God at Little Rock. University Press of Virginia, 1998.
Scott, Eugene C., and Glenn Branch. Not in Our Classrooms: Why Intelligent Design Is Wrong for Our Schools. Beacon, 2006.

|73

CUBA, DROPPING OF US SANCTIONS ON
Fidel Castro and his communist government came to power in Cuba in 1959, much to the horror of the Eisenhower administration in the
United States. Cuba was supported throughout the Cold War by the Soviet Union and became a flashpoint for Cold War tensions, notably
during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, when Nikita Khrushchev sparked the most dangerous Cold War confrontation by attempting
to place nuclear weapons on the island. America has maintained near total sanctions on Cuba since 1959, but before 1990 they were
largely offset by the support, trade, and subsidy offered by the Soviet Union. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, the withdrawal of
these subsidies has caused a 35% drop in Cuba’s GDP. The decreased threat of communism has led to a reevaluation of the sanctions by
the United States, but so far the wounds of the twentieth century, and the electoral significance of Florida where most Cuban émigrés live,
has steeled the resolve of the White House. Sanctions were, in fact, strengthened significantly in the Helms-Burton Act of 1996, although
recent moves have made food and medicine a little easier to move from the United States to Cuba. In November 2003 almost 180 UN
delegations voted to end the unilateral sanctions. Nevertheless, the Bush administration has insisted that sanctions will remain until Presi-
dent Fidel Castro takes “meaningful steps” toward freedom, human rights, and the rule of law.
PROS CONS
The sanctions cause real and unacceptable harm to the Sanctions didn’t cause economic failure in Cuba. The
Cuban people. In the 1990s Cuba lost $70US billion in communist political and economic system has been
trade and $1.2US billion in international loans because shown to lead inevitably to economic collapse with or
of US sanctions. Cuba is too poor a country not to suffer without sanctions. Even if sanctions were lifted, lack
from these losses. The dominance of America in the of private ownership, foreign exchange, and tradable
pharmaceuticals industry, moreover, means that Cubans commodities would hold Cuba back. The International
are unable to gain access to many drugs. America would Trade Commission found a “minimal effect on the
be the natural market for most Cuban products, and its Cuban economy” from sanctions. In fact, the US can
refusal to accept goods with even the most minor Cuban best contribute to an economic recovery in Cuba by
components from third nations damages Cuba’s ability using sanctions to pressure that nation into economic
to trade with other countries. Other South American and political reforms.
countries have recently relied on the types of loans that
Cuba is denied to keep their economies on track.
Sanctions are pointless and counterproductive. They’ve Sanctions are a proven policy tool and can be used to pres-
made no political difference in the last 43 years, why sure an extremely repressive regime into reforms. Aggres-
would they now? They result the US being blamed for sive US engagement and pressure contributed to the col-
all the failures of the Cuban economy, and sanctions are lapse of the Soviet Union. Sanctions are also, according
also used to justify repressive measures for security. Presi- to Secretary of State Colin Powell, a “moral statement”
dent George W. Bush claims to want to empower civil of America’s disapproval for the Castro regime. Blam-
society in Cuba, but in 1998, while governor of Texas, ing America for all economic woes didn’t fool ordinary
he argued that the best way to achieve this in China was Russians, and it won’t fool Cubans. Now is exactly the
to trade and spread “American values.” time that the US should be tightening the screws so that
Castro’s successor is forced to make real changes.
No legitimate reason has been offered for singling out Cuba is a repressive regime with one-party rule that holds
Cuba for sanctions. Cuba has no biological, chemical, political prisoners and stifles opposition and economic
or nuclear weapons and does not sponsor terror. Cuba freedom through constant harassment. The Castro regime
holds fewer prisoners of conscience than China, Viet- has refused to aid with the search for Al-Qaeda suspects and
nam, Iran, or even Egypt. To maintain sanctions to is on the US list of sponsors of terror because it provides
encourage change in the form of government, as the US a safe haven to many American fugitives. Cuba is known
claims it is doing, is totally illegitimate under interna- to have a developmental biological weapons “effort” and
tional law. Cuba has offered to compensate US citizens is recorded as breaking international sanctions to export
whose property was nationalized in 1959. dual-use technologies to Iran. Finally, Cuba has failed to
stop illegal drug shipments through its waters, and its gov-

PROS CONS
ernment profits directly from resources stolen from US
citizens in 1959.
Sanctions on Cuba are illegal and damage America’s America is attempting to protect the rights enshrined in
international standing. They violate the UN Charter, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights for both its
laws on the freedom of navigation, and repeated UN own citizens and citizens of Cuba. If the US breaks inter-
resolutions since 1992 (passed with only the US and national law, it is only to more fully realize the true aims
Israel in opposition). Furthermore, some parts of the of international law. The UN resolutions condemning
Helms-Burton Act are extraterritorial in their effects on the sanctions have never passed the Security Council and
the business of other nations and thus cause significant therefore lack any authority. America’s status as a guard-
protest around the world. This makes a mockery of the ian of human rights and an enemy of terror is enhanced
US claim to be a guardian of international law, not only by its moral refusal to compromise with a repressive gov-
in its dealings with Cuba but also in the negotiations ernment just off its own shores.
over the future of Iraq. America could achieve its goals
internationally more easily if it were not for its own lack
of respect for international law.
The US will also benefit from the opening of trade with Cuba will never account for more than a tiny percentage
Cuba economically. Midwest Republicans have voted to of America’s trade, and it is able to source and sell all
drop the embargo because of the potential for profits in its products elsewhere. Even if Cuba were a vital market
their farming states. Further, if sanctions end, Americans for American goods, it would be worth giving up some
will be able to stop pretending that they prefer Bolivian economic growth to maintain a commitment to the free-
cigars! dom of the Cuban people. As it is, the total Cuban GDP
is a drop in the ocean.
Sanctions are not the will of the American people but The people who care most about the Cuban question
of a small minority of embittered Cuban Americans in oppose dropping sanctions. The Midwest Republicans
Florida who are being pandered to. National opinion who voted to drop the travel ban are no less blinkered
generally expresses no preference about or opposes the than the Cuban Americans who vote to keep it. Opin-
ban. In recent years the House of Representatives has ion on sanctions wavers; the separation of powers is in
voted by increasing margins to lift the ban on travel to place specifically to allow the White House to maintain
Cuba, but the Bush administration remains opposed. a stable policy on issues of national security.
This is electioneering government at its worst.
Sample Motions:
This House would drop the sanctions on Cuba.
This House would sanction sanctions.
This House believes in Cuba Libre.
This House condemns US foreign policy.
Web Links:
• CIA Country Profile. < http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html> Quick overview of the government and econo-
my of Cuba.
• CubaNet. < http://www.cubanet.org> Provides latest news on Cuban domestic issues and international relations.
• State Department: Cuba and the United States. <http://usinfo.state.gov/wh/americas/cuba.html> State Department information on
US policy and issues related to Cuba.
Further Reading:
Askari, Hossein G., John Forrer, Hildy Teegen, and Jiawen Yang. Case Studies of U.S. Economic Sanctions: The Chinese, Cuban, and
Iranian Experience. Praeger, 2003.
|75

Fontaine, Roger, and William E. Ratliff. A Strategic Flip-Flop in the Caribbean: Lift the Embargo in Cuba. Hoover Institution Press,
2000.
Haney, Patrick J., and Walt Vanderbush. The Cuban Embargo: The Domestic Politics of an American Foreign Policy. University of
Pittsburgh Press, 2005.
Schwab, Peter. Cuba: Confronting the US Embargo. Palgrave Macmillan, 1999.

CULTURAL TREASURES, RETURN OF
Debate has raged for almost two centuries about the ownership and display of cultural treasures that were frequently acquired from the
(then) developing world by imperial powers in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and displayed in Western museums. This debate
most often uses the Elgin, or Parthenon, Marbles, masterpieces of classical Greek sculpture that Lord Elgin removed from the Parthenon
in 1801 and sold to the British Museum in 1816. Greece has consistently demanded their return since independence in 1830. The issue
of who owns cultural treasures reemerged following World War II, when the victorious Allies, principally the Soviet Union, seized art from
the defeated Axis powers. During the last decades of the twentieth century, Native Americans successfully waged a number of campaigns
for the return of their sacred relics.
PROS CONS
Cultural treasures should be displayed in the context Art treasures should be accessible to the greatest number
in which they originated; only then can they be truly of people and to scholars. In practice this means display-
understood. In the case of the Elgin Marbles, this is an ing them in the great museums of the world. Return-
architectural context that only proximity to the Parthe- ing treasures to their original context is impossible. Too
non itself can provide. much has changed physically and culturally over the
centuries for them to speak more clearly in their coun-
try of origin than they do in museums where they can
be compared to large assemblies of objects from a wide
variety of cultures. In any case, copies could be placed in
original locations.
Display of cultural treasures in Western museums is an For whatever reason the treasures were first collected, we
unfortunate legacy of imperialism. It reflects the unac- should not rewrite history; sending such artifacts back
ceptable belief that developing nations are unable to to their country of origin would set a bad precedent that
look after their artistic heritage. The display of imperial could denude museums around the world. Placing great
trophies in institutions such as the British Museum or artifacts in a geographical and cultural ghetto—Afri-
the Louvre has become offensive. can sculptures could be viewed only in Africa, Egyptian
mummies only in Egypt—would leave the world much
poorer and reduce popular understanding of the achieve-
ments of such civilizations.
Artifacts were often acquired illegally, through looting Although some art treasures may have been acquired
in war, under the duress of imperial force, or by brib- illegally, the evidence for this is often ambiguous. For
ing officials who were supposed to be safeguarding their example, Lord Elgin’s bribes were the common way of
country’s artistic treasures. facilitating any business in the Ottoman Empire and do
not undermine Britain’s solid legal claim to the Parthe-

PROS CONS
non marbles based upon a written contract made by the
internationally recognized authorities in Athens at the
time. Much art was freely sold to the imperial powers,
indeed some art was specifically produced for the Euro-
pean market.
Some treasures have religious and cultural associations This may be true, but religious artifacts may have been
with the area from which they were taken, but none for originally purchased or given in good faith, perhaps
those who view them in glass cases. Descendants of their with the intention of educating a wider public about
creators are offended by seeing aspects of their spiritual- the beliefs of their creators. Descendants should not be
ity displayed for entertainment. allowed to second-guess their ancestors’ intentions. Also,
many cultural treasures relate to extinct religions and
cultures; no claim for their return can be validly made.
In the past, countries may not have been capable of look- In the case of the Parthenon marbles, Lord Elgin’s action
ing after their heritage, but that has changed. A state-of- in removing them was an act of rescue because the
the-art museum is planned in Athens to house the sur- Ottoman authorities were pillaging them for building
viving marbles, while pollution-control measures have stone. They cared nothing for the classical Greek heri-
reduced sulfur dioxide in the city to a fifth of its previous tage. Furthermore, had they been returned upon Greek
level. At the same time the curatorship of institutions independence in 1830, the heavily polluted air of Athens
such as the British Museum is being called into question, would by now have destroyed them. Similar problems
as it becomes apparent that controversial cleaning and face the return of artifacts to African or Native American
restoration practices may have harmed the sculptures museums. Delicate artifacts would be destroyed with-
they claim to protect. out proper handling and preservation techniques. These
institutions frequently lack the qualified personnel or
necessary facilities to preserve these treasures.
Sample Motions:
This House would return cultural treasures to their country of origin.
This House would return the Elgin Marbles.
This House believes a jewel is best in its original setting.
This House would lose its marbles.
Web Link:
• Stolen Property or Finders Keepers. <http://home.att.net/~tisone/problem.htm> General site offering information on the issues
concerning many stolen historical artifacts.
Further Reading:
Carman, John. Against Cultural Property: Archaeology, Heritage and Ownership. Duckworth, 2005.
Gibbon, Kate Fitz, ed. Who Owns the Past?: Cultural Policy, Cultural Property, and the Law. Rutgers University Press, 2005.
Hoffman, Barbara, ed. Art and Cultural Heritage: Law, Policy and Practice. Cambridge University Press, 2005.
Merryman, John Henry, ed. Imperialism, Art and Restitution. Cambridge University Press, 2005.

|77

CURFEW LAWS
More than 300 US towns have passed local curfew laws making it illegal for youths to be out-of-doors between certain publicized times.
In most cases cities imposed nighttime curfews, but a 1997 survey indicated that approximately one-quarter had daytime curfews as well.
All curfews are aimed at proactively reducing juvenile crime and gang activity. Officials also see curfews as a way of involving parents and
keeping young people from being victimized. Opponents say the curfews violate the rights of good kids to prevent the actions of a few bad
ones.
PROS CONS
Youth crime is a major and growing problem, often Curfews are not an effective solution to the problem of
involving both drugs and violence. Particularly worrying youth crime. Research finds no link between reduction
is the rise of youth gangs, which can terrorize urban areas in juvenile crime and curfews. Although some towns
and create a social climate in which criminality becomes with curfews did see a drop in youth crime, this often
the norm. Imposing curfews on minors can help solve had more to do with other law-enforcement strategies,
these problems. They keep young people off the street such as zero-tolerance policing, or with demographic
and out of trouble. Curfews are easy to enforce com- and economic changes in the youth population. In any
pared to other forms of crime prevention and are there- case, most juvenile crime takes place between 3 p.m. and
fore effective. 8 p.m., after the end of school and before working par-
ents return home, rather than in the hours covered by
curfews.
The use of curfews can help protect vulnerable children. Youth curfews infringe upon individual rights and liber-
Although responsible parents do not let young children ties. Children have a right to freedom of movement and
out in the streets after dark, not all parents are respon- assembly, which curfews directly undermine by crimi-
sible. Inevitably their children suffer, both from crime nalizing their simple presence in a public space. This
and in accidents, and are likely to fall into bad habits. reverses the presumption of innocence by assuming all
Society should ensure that such neglected children are young people are potential lawbreakers. They are also
returned home safely and that their parents are made to subject to blanket discrimination on the grounds of age,
face up to their responsibilities. although only a few young people commit crimes. Fur-
thermore, curfews infringe upon the rights of parents to
bring up their children as they choose. Just because we
dislike the way some parents treat their children does
not mean that we should intervene. Should we intervene
in families whose religious beliefs mean girls are treated
as inferior to boys, or in homes where parents practice
corporal punishment?
Children have no good reason to be out alone late at Children in their mid-teens have legitimate reasons to be
night, so a curfew is not really a restriction on their lib- out at night without adults. Many have part-time jobs.
erty. They would be better off at home doing schoolwork Others participate in church groups or youth clubs.
and participating in family activities. Requiring adults to take them to and from activities is
unreasonable. It will ensure many children do not par-
ticipate in after-school activities either because adults are
unwilling or are unable to accompany them. On a more
sinister note, some children are subject to abuse at home
and actually feel safer out on the streets.
Child curfews are a form of zero-tolerance policing. The Youth curfews have great potential for abuse, raising civil
idea of zero tolerance comes from the theory that if the rights issues. Evidence suggests that police arrest far more
police ignore low-level crimes they create a permissive black children than white for curfew violations. Curfews

PROS CONS
atmosphere in which serious crime can flourish and law tend to be imposed in inner cities with few places for
and order breaks down entirely. Child curfews can help children to amuse themselves safely and legally. Curfews
the police establish a climate of zero tolerance and create compound the social exclusion that many poor children
a safer community for everyone. feel with physical exclusion from public spaces. This
problem is made worse by the inevitable deterioration in
relations between the police and the young people sub-
ject to the curfew.
Child curfews can help change a negative youth culture Imposing curfews on children would actually be coun-
in which challenging the law is seen as desirable and gang ter-productive because it would turn millions of law-
membership an aspiration. Impressionable youngsters abiding young people into criminals. More American
would be kept away from gang activity on the streets at children are charged with curfew offenses than with any
night, and a cycle of admiration and recruitment would other crime. Once children acquire a criminal record,
be broken. By spending more time with their families they cross a psychological boundary, making it much
and in more positive activities such as sports, which cur- more likely that they will perceive themselves as crimi-
fews make a more attractive option for bored youngsters, nals and have much less respect for the law. This can
children will develop greater self-esteem and discipline. lead to more serious offenses. At the same time, a crimi-
nal record decreases the chances for employment and
so contributes to the social deprivation and desperation
that breed crime.
We should try other ways of reducing youth crime, but A number of alternative strategies exist that are likely
they will work best in conjunction with curfews. If a to do more to reduce youth crime. Rather than a blan-
troubled area develops a culture of lawlessness, identify- ket curfew, individual curfews could be imposed upon
ing specific youngsters for rehabilitation becomes more particular troublemakers. Another successful strategy
difficult. A curfew takes the basically law-abiding major- is working individually with young troublemakers. For
ity off the streets, allowing the police to engage with the example, authorities can require them to meet with vic-
most difficult element. Curfews are a tool in the struggle tims of crime so that they understand the consequences
to improve lives in rundown areas. They are likely to of their actions. Youths can also be paired with trained
be used for relatively short periods to bring a situation mentors. Overall, the government needs to ensure good
under control so that other measures can be put in place educational opportunities and employment prospects so
and given a chance to work. that youngsters feel some hope for their futures.
Sample Motions:
This House would introduce child curfews.
This House would lock up its daughters.
This House believes children should be neither seen nor heard.
Web Links:
• American Civil Liberties Union. <http://www.aclu.org/search/search_wrap.html?account=436ac9516921&q=curfew+laws> Links
to articles on the legal status of curfews.
• Status Report on Youth Curfews in American Cities. <http://www.usmayors.org/uscm/news/publications/curfew.htm> Summary of
1997 survey of 374 cities providing status of curfews and information on their effectiveness.
Further Reading:
Jensen, Gary, and Dean G. Rojek. Delinquency and Youth Crime. Waveland Press, 1998.

|79

DEMOCRACY, IMPOSITION OF
The US invasion of Iraq has raised the question of whether imposing democracy by force is permissible—or even possible. Many believe
that for democracy to be successful, democratic institutions must develop gradually along with various social and economic structures.
Countering this stance is the example of West Germany and Japan, which, following World War II, had democratic regimes imposed by
the Allies. Both countries have become stable democracies.
PROS CONS
History has shown that democracy is the best form of Arguing that one nation can successfully impose democ-
government. Countries have not only the right but also racy on another is untenable. Democracy relies on the
the duty to intervene to liberate others so they can enjoy rule of law (undermined by military imposition), free-
their human rights. Furthermore, because war between dom of choice and independence (destroyed by external
two true democracies is rare, the removal of repressive determination), and accountability (impossible when a
regimes promotes world peace. foreign power chooses one’s rulers).
Merely pressuring dictators to move toward democracy Encouraging democracy is not the same as imposing it.
is insufficient, and internal opposition is often too weak The desire for and fight for democracy must come from
to compel reform. The international community cannot within; otherwise the political system will be unstable.
permit countries to shroud themselves in the pretense of
free elections in order to gain international funding or to
prevent invasion.
During the Cold War, Western powers often supported Turning on a regime that we once maintained is morally
dictatorial regimes for reasons of realpolitik. This is inex- reprehensible. The 21st-century world is a dangerous
cusable in the 21st century. Past complicity in dictator- place. Stability may be safer than universal democracy
ships requires us to make amends by aggressively pro- bought with many lives and at the price of massive re-
moting democracy. sentment. The idea of democracy may be degraded in
the eyes of many who associate it with invasions under-
taken for suspect motives and the imposition of a cultur-
ally discordant polity.
Limiting those states that harbor and trade with terror- The doctrine of prevention depends on analyzing un-
ists would reduce terrorism. Preventive attacks on dicta- clear evidence; undertaking potentially unjustified in-
torships thwart future attacks. vasions will result in increased support for terrorists.
“Security” is merely an excuse for intervening in oil- or
resource-rich areas, while those in poorer nations are left
to suffer.
Suggesting that people in various regions of the world To impose democracy is to foist a set of Western values
will not accept the rule of law or protection for civil onto populations with different cultural backgrounds.
rights is fallacious. Democracy comes in enough forms Permitting the election of former dictators can lead to
to allow for social and historical variations—remember, potentially serious problems in the future.
illiberal political parties can always stand for election.
When a country is already engaged in conflict or civil Intervention may escalate the conflict. Democracy may
war, intervention may help resolve the conflict. To wait, be encouraged after a war has ended; dictatorships can
as occurred in Rwanda, will only permit carnage to con- be undermined by economic and cultural sanctions.
tinue longer. Neither requires costly (in lives and money) military
action.

PROS CONS
To rely on multilateral action is utopian. The UN Char- Unilateral action is dangerously dependent on the politi-
ter does not permit intervention in the domestic affairs cal whim of foreign electorates who are often unwilling
of independent nations, and, in any case, some members to commit troops and money to long-term nation build-
of the Security Council are not democracies. Unilateral ing. A bloody invasion and regime change, followed by
or bi-lateral action is the only realistic possibility. anarchy when the external power swiftly withdraws, is
far worse than a dictatorship. Even when invaders re-
main to oversee the installation of a new regime, they
may choose pliant appointees rather than risk the uncer-
tainty of true democracy.
Sample Motions:
This House would force people to be free.
This House would impose democracy.
This House believes that freedom is worth imposing.
Web Links:
• EURASIANET.ORG. <http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/civilsociety/articles/eav022305.shtml> Article discussing the prob-
lems of imposing democracy.
• United Nations Association of the United States of America. <http://www.unausa.org/site/pp.asp?c=fvKRI8MPJpF&b=730613>
Policy brief on UN and US ways of nation building.
Further Reading:
Cox, Michael, G. John Ikenberry, and Takashi Inoguchi, eds. American Democracy Promotion: Impulses, Strategies, and Impacts. Ox-
ford University Press, 2000.
Dobbins, James, et al. America’s Role in Nation-Building: From Germany to Iraq. RAND Corporation, 2003.
Mead, Walter Russell. Power, Terror, Peace, and War: America’s Grand Strategy in a World at Risk. Vintage, 2005.
Nye, Joseph S. Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics. PublicAffairs, 2005.

|81

DEVELOPING WORLD DEBT, CANCELLATION OF
For many years, poor nations in Asia, Latin America, and particularly Africa, have borrowed heavily to reduce poverty and foster develop-
ment. Over the years external debt payments increased dramatically, often forcing countries to choose between paying their debt and fund-
ing social, health, and education programs. By the beginning of the new millennium the situation had reached a crisis in some countries.
Sub-Saharan Africa owed lenders approximately $200US billion, 83% of its GNP. Groups such as the International Monetary Fund
(IMF) and the World Bank, with their Heavily Indebted Poor Countries initiative, are working toward a partial reduction or reschedul-
ing of this debt, but demand adherence to strict economic reforms. Others, such as Jubilee 2000, are pressing for more immediate and
more substantial action.
PROS CONS
The burden of debt costs lives. Some of the most heavily There are many reasons for the current problems in the
indebted poor countries are struggling to pay even the world’s poorest nations. They may often have heavy
interest on their loans, let alone paying down the prin- debt burdens, but the debt is not necessarily the cause of
cipal. This massively distorts their economies and their the problems. Many countries spend huge amounts of
spending priorities. African nations currently spend money on weapons to fight local wars instead of invest-
four times as much on debt repayments as they do on ing in their people. Many are led by dictators or other
health. The reforms demanded by the IMF in return corrupt governments, whose incompetence or greed
for rescheduled debt make this problem even worse. In is killing their own population. The money to pay for
Zimbabwe, spending on health care has dropped by a social programs and, at the same time, repay debt may
third, in Tanzania, school fees have been introduced to well exist, but it is being wasted in other areas.
raise more money. Progress made in health and educa-
tion over the past 50 years is actually being reversed in
some countries. It is obscene that governments are cut-
ting spending in these vital areas to repay debts. The
debts must be cancelled now.
To raise the cash for debt repayments, poor countries Again, there are many potential causes for starvation—
have to produce goods that they can sell internation- famines are caused by war or by freak weather condi-
ally. Often this means growing cash crops instead of the tions, not by debt. While growing cash crops can seem
food needed to support their population. People in fer- to be counter-intuitive, the money they bring in helps
tile countries can find themselves starving because they boost the country’s economy. The idea that a nation
cannot afford to buy imported food. could and should be agriculturally and industrially self-
sufficient is outdated.
Debt repayments often punish those who were not This thinking has dangerous implications on an inter-
responsible for creating the debt in the first place. In a national level. Governments are always changing in
number of poorer countries, huge debts were amassed by democracies, but nations are expected to honor their
the irresponsible spending of dictators in the past. They debts. A crucial element in lending money is the prom-
have now been overthrown, yet the new government and ise that the debt will be repaid. If every new government
the people of that country still are required to pay the could decide that it was not responsible for its prede-
price for the dictator’s actions. This is clearly unfair. cessor’s debts, then no one would ever lend money to
a country. Developing countries in particular still need
loans to invest in infrastructure projects. Canceling debt
now would make lenders far less likely to provide loans
on good terms in the future and would retard economic
growth in the long term.
All poor countries need is the chance to help them- Reform must come first. Corrupt and incompetent
selves. While their economies are dominated by the need governments and economic systems cripple many poor

PROS CONS
to repay debt, it is impossible for them to truly invest countries. Canceling debt would therefore make no dif-
in infrastructure and education. By canceling debt, we ference, it would be the equivalent of giving a one-time
would give them a fresh start and the opportunity to payment to dictators and crooks, who would siphon off
build successful economies that would supply the needs the extra money and become rich while the people still
of generations to come. suffer. Even worse, dictators might spend more money
on weapons and palaces, thus reincurring possibly even
greater debt. A country’s government must be account-
able and its economy stable before debt reduction or
cancellation is even considered.
The developed world has a moral duty to the developing The parallel with bankruptcy cannot work on a national
world because of the historical background of develop- scale. First, when an individual is declared bankrupt, most
ing world debt. In the rush to invest in the 1970s, many assets and possessions are seized to pay as much debt as
banks made hasty loans, pouring money into pointless possible. This is why banks find bankruptcy an acceptable
projects without properly examining whether they would option. In national terms, this would mean the total loss
ever make a profit. Because of these bad investments, of sovereignty. Foreign governments and banks would be
some of the world’s poorest countries are so burdened able to seize control of the infrastructure or the resources
with debts that they can now no longer realistically of the “bankrupt” country at will. No government could,
expect to pay them off and are instead simply servicing or should, ever accept this. Second, the difference in scale
the interest. An important parallel may be made with is vitally important. Whereas the bankruptcy of a single
bankruptcy: If an individual is unable to repay his or her individual within a country is unlikely to cause major
debts, he or she is declared bankrupt and then allowed to problems for that country’s economy, the bankruptcy of a
make a fresh start. The same system should be used with nation would significantly affect the world economy. The
countries. If they are unable to repay their debts, they economic plans of banks and nations currently include the
should be given the opportunity to start again. A coun- interest payments on developing world debt; if this sub-
try making contributions to the world economy is far stantial revenue stream were suddenly cut off, economic
better than a country in debt slavery. At the same time, repercussions could be catastrophic. Even if this debt relief
banks would be discouraged from making bad loans as would be helpful to the “bankrupt” countries in the short
they did in the 1970s. term, a world economy in recession would be in nobody’s
best interest.
Sample Motions:
This House would end developing world debt.
This House would kill the debt, not the debtors.
This House would break the chains of debt.
Web Links:
• International Monetary Fund: Debt Initiative for the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPCs). <http://www.imf.org/external/np/
hipc/hipc.htm> Offers information on IMF programs and progress for HIPCs.
• Jubilee Debt Campaign. <http://www.jubileedebtcampaign.org.uk/?lid=98> Research, analysis, news, and data on international
debt and finance presented by an advocacy group dedicated to ending developing world debt.
• World Bank: Debt Relief. <http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTSITETOOLS/
0,,contentMDK:20147607~menuPK:344191~pagePK:98400~piPK:98424~theSitePK:95474,00.html> Summary of World
Bank’s debt relief policy.
Further Reading:
Dent, Martin, and Bill Peters. The Crisis of Poverty and Debt in the Third World. Ashgate, 1999.
Hertz, Noreena. The Debt Threat: How Debt Is Destroying the Developing World. HarperBusiness, 2004.

|83

DNA DATABASE FOR CRIMINALS
DNA evidence is playing an increasing role in criminal cases—both in convicting the guilty and clearing the innocent. The federal gov-
ernment and the states are building interlinked computerized databases of DNA samples. Initially these samples were taken from people
convicted of sex crimes and a few other violent offenses, but recently the suggestion has been made to gather the DNA of all convicted
criminals. Some officials have recommended expanding the database to include all individuals arrested, while others want the database to
include DNA from everyone. Many people view extending the database beyond convicted criminals as an invasion of privacy and a viola-
tion of civil liberties.
PROS CONS
DNA detection has considerable advantages over con- Although DNA detection might have advantages over
ventional fingerprinting. Fingerprints attach only to fingerprint dusting, the test is nevertheless fallible. Envi-
hard surfaces, can be smeared, or can be avoided by using ronmental factors at the crime scene such as heat, sun-
gloves. Comparison of even a clear print from a crime light, or bacteria can corrupt any genetic data. DNA
scene with a print in the national database requires sig- evidence must be stored in sterile and temperature con-
nificant scientific expertise. Scientists can build an accu- trolled conditions. Criminals may contaminate samples
rate DNA profile from very small amounts of genetic by swapping saliva. There is room for human error or
data, and they can construct it even if it has been con- fraud in analyzing samples. The accuracy of any genetic
taminated by oil, water, or acid at the crime scene. The profile is dependent upon the number of genes exam-
accused should appreciate a “fingerprinting” technique ined. The smaller the number, the greater the possibil-
that is both objective and accurate. ity of error. In 1995 an 18-month investigation was
launched into allegations that the FBI Crime Lab was
“drylabbing” or faking results of DNA comparisons.
Even a complete DNA profile cannot indicate the length
of time a suspect was present at a crime scene or the
date in question. The creation of a database cannot be a
panacea for crime detection.
The use of a DNA fingerprint is not an affront to civil DNA fingerprinting would have to be mandatory, oth-
liberties. The procedure for taking a sample of DNA is erwise those liable to commit crime would simply refuse
less invasive than that required for taking a blood sample. to provide a sample. Individuals consent to pass personal
The police already possess a vast volume of information; information to mortgage or insurance agencies. When
the National Crime Information Center Computer in citizens release information to outside agencies they
the United States contains files relating to 32 million receive a service in return. In being compelled to give a
Americans. A forensic DNA database should be seen sample of DNA, the innocent citizen would receive the
in the context of the personal information that other scant benefit of being eliminated from a police investiga-
agencies hold. Insurance companies commonly require tion. Moreover, the storage by insurance companies of
an extensive medical history of their clients. Mortgage genetic information remains highly controversial because
lenders usually demand a full credit report on applicants. of the potential abuse of that information. Finally, cre-
Many employers subject their employees to random ation of the database would change the attitude of gov-
drug testing. If we are prepared to place our personal ernment toward its citizens. Every citizen, some from the
information in the private sector, why can we not trust moment of their birth, would be treated as a potential
it to the police? Law enforcement officials will use the criminal.
DNA sample only in the detection of a crime. In short,
the innocent citizen should have nothing to fear.
The creation of a DNA database would not require a The initial and continuing expense of a DNA database
disproportionate investment of time or public resources. would be a gross misapplication of finite public resources.
The requisite computer and laboratory technology is Public confidence in the criminal justice system will nei-
already available. The United States has developed the ther be improved by requiring individuals to give time

PROS CONS
Combined DNA Index System. The expense of sam- and tissue to the police nor by the creation of a bureau-
pling the entire population of most countries would be cracy dedicated to administering the database. The funds
substantial and is unlikely to be offset by any subsequent would be better spent on recruiting more police officers
saving in police resources, but this is part of the price and deploying them on foot patrol.
for justice. Popular support for “law and order” suggests
that the public puts a very high premium on protection
from crime.
Persons who create violent crimes are unlikely to leave The most serious violent crimes, notably rape and murder,
conventional fingerprints. However, the National Com- are most commonly committed by individuals known to
mission on the Future of DNA Evidence estimates that the victim. When the suspects are obvious, DNA detec-
30% of crime scenes contain the blood, semen, or saliva tion is superfluous. Moreover, it is harmful to suggest that
of the perpetrator. DNA detection can identify the guilty crimes can be solved, or criminals deterred, by computer
even when the police have no obvious suspects. wizardry. Unless the DNA is used to identify a genetic cause
for aggression, violent crimes will continue.
A DNA database is not intended to replace conventional There is a serious risk that officials will use genetic evi-
criminal investigations. The database would identify dence to the exclusion of material that might prove the
potential suspects, each of whom could then be inves- suspect innocent. Moreover, there is the possibility that
tigated by more conventional means. Criminal trials not only the police, but also the jury, will be blinded by
frequently feature experts presenting scientific evidence. science. It seems unlikely that juries will be able to com-
The jury system is actually a bastion against conviction prehend or, more importantly, to question the genetic
on account of complicated scientific facts. If the genetic information from the database. The irony is that forensic
data and associated evidence is not conclusive or is not evidence has cleared many wrongly convicted individuals
presented with sufficient clarity, the jury is obliged to but might now serve to create miscarriages of its own.
find the defendant not guilty. O. J. Simpson was acquit-
ted of the murders of Nicole Brown Simpson and Ron
Goldman in spite of compelling DNA evidence linking
him to the scene of the crime.
The increased use of DNA evidence will minimize the We do not need a database to acquit or exclude non-
risk of future wrongful convictions. An FBI study indi- offenders. When the police have identified a suspect they
cates that since 1989 DNA evidence has excluded the ought to create a DNA profile and compare it to the
initial suspect in 25% of sexual assault cases. Moreover, crime scene data. Likewise, a DNA sample should be
forensically valuable DNA can be found on evidence taken if there is concern that an individual was wrongly
that has existed for decades and thus assist in reversing convicted of a crime.
previous miscarriages of justice.
Sample Motions:
This House would have a criminal DNA database.
This House would give away its DNA.
This House would catch a crook by his genes.
Web Links:
• From Crime Scene to Courtroom. <http://www.ornl.gov/hgmis/publicat/judicature/article9.html> A 1999 essay stressing the ben-
efits of and problems involved in the Combined DNA Indexing System (CODIS) by the executive director of the National Com-
mission on the Future of DNA Evidence.
• How Stuff Works. <http://www.howstuffworks.com/dna-evidence.htm> Detailed explanation of DNA fingerprinting for the lay-
person.
|85

• Genelex, DNA Profilers. <http://www.genelex.com/paternitytesting/paternitybook5.html> Detailed discussion of the use of DNA
evidence in the courtroom.
• Shadow Article, Anti-DNA Database. <http://shadow.autono.net/sin001/dna.htm> Detailed essay outlining the reasons for op-
posing a broad forensic DNA database.
Further Reading:
Rudin, Norah, and Keith Inman. Introduction to Forensic DNA Analysis. 2nd ed. CRC Press, 2001.
Sheindlin, Gerald. Genetic Fingerprinting: The Law and Science of DNA. Routledge, 1996.

DRILLING IN THE ARCTIC NATIONAL WILDLIFE

REFUGE
In 2002, the US Congress rejected a motion that would allow drilling for oil in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) on the
grounds that the area was ecologically sensitive. In 2006, however, as oil prices skyrocketed, the House voted to open the refuge to drill-
ing. The Senate took no action. Oil developers and environmentalist have never engaged in a more highly charged and symbolic debate.
Supporters of drilling claim that growing foreign dependence on oil threatens American security and that drilling in ANWR would help
reduce that dependence. Opponents maintain that US dependence on foreign oil is inevitable and that drilling in ANWR would not
significantly reduce dependence.
PROS CONS
An oil pipeline runs through ANWR, and the same Drilling would disrupt certain ecologically sensitive
argument (ecology) was used to oppose its construction. areas. Alaska has caribou herds that move north to
However, the pipeline actually increased caribou num- ANWR seasonally; drilling carries the risk of diverting
bers. Perhaps “keystone” species are not as “key” as has and potentially reducing the herd. In addition, other key
been supposed. species live on Alaska’s shoreline.
Drilling requires substantial amount of time, in some Drilling would undercut a vital reserve that we may need
cases years. If we don’t put the exploration and drilling in the future. The US is without long-term recourse, it
structure in place now, it won’t be available in times of is dependent on foreign oil; in times of crisis, however,
crisis. drilling in ANWR could regulate prices for a limited
time. So we should not drill now, we need to hold these
reserves for an emergency.
The U.S. urgently needs to reduce its dependence on Drilling in the ANWR will do nothing to make America
foreign oil. At present the United States needs 10 million more energy independent. Even the most optimistic esti-
barrels of imported oil a day, with much of this supply mates suggest that the fields under the refuge contain
coming from unstable or unfriendly areas. National secu- only 10 billion barrels of oil—equivalent to only two
rity depends on ensuring that the economy is never held years U.S. consumption. Pumping a million barrels a day
hostage to foreign oil interests; the government should from the refuge would not even offset the likely growth
act to achieve energy independence. An important part in U.S. oil imports over the next 10 years. Achieving
of this is the development of untapped U.S. reserves, true energy independence means getting serious about
including the huge ANWR oil fields. conserving energy and investing in alternative energy
sources, not feeding the U.S. addiction to fossil fuels.
Consumption is inevitable. Proponents of renewable Oil development is unjustified because it further exac-
energy have not made clear how opening ANWR would erbates the problems of consumption. The more we rely

PROS CONS
delay a transition to renewable energy. Opening ANWR on fossil fuels, the longer we delay the inevitable: the
could speed the transition by making the U.S. more vital shift to renewable energy. We should take other
dependent on foreign oil in the future (once the ANWR action to limit fuel consumption such as increasing the
reserves were depleted) and thus give more of an incen- use of hybrid cars.
tive to convert.
Drilling in the ANWR is an economic necessity. The Drilling in the ANWR won’t reduce the price of oil
high cost of oil over the past few years has meant misery because the amount of oil it contains is tiny compared
for millions of Americans who cannot afford the high to America’s need. Global conditions such as the rise in
price of gasoline or heating oil. Only by bringing more Chinese demand set the price. In any case, we must be
oil to the market can we drive down prices. Opening prepared to pay the costs of protecting the environment.
the ANWR is also necessary for the Alaskan economy, If ANWR is developed for oil extraction, not only is its
bringing investment and safeguarding jobs as well as the status as a national wildlife refuge (NWR) under attack,
way of life on America’s last frontier. but all other NWRs are also threatened. Big oil and
other extraction companies will look greedily at other
protected areas. If NWR status is to mean anything, it
must be upheld everywhere and absolutely.
We may need to spread out proposed development, but Proposed “limited development” will still intrude hun-
we can make drilling seasonal to avoid disrupting animal dreds of miles into pristine areas. Alaska doesn’t have a
migration. Caribou herds move into ANWR during spe- major reserve under ANWR; rather ANWR contains
cific and predictable times, thus we can schedule drilling several reserves. Thus, even with “minimal” develop-
and reduce the impact on the herds. ment, the damage would cover thousands of acres.
Sample Motions:
This House supports measures permitting oil development in ANWR.
This House believes development should be valued over ecology.
This House maintains that limited development in the ANWR is justified.
Web Links:
• Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. anwr.org <http://www.anwr.org/> Site provides justifications for oil development and gives up-
to-date information on the status of prospects for drilling in the Arctic. Offers links to fact sheets and various other information in
support of drilling.
• The Wilderness Society. <http://www.wilderness.org/OurIssues/Arctic/index.cfm?TopLevel=Home> Conservation organization
opposed to drilling offers information on many aspects of the issue.
Further Reading:
Bass, Rick. Caribou Rising: Defending the Porcupine Herd, Gwich-’in Culture, and the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. Sierra Club
Books, 2004.
Corn, M. Lynne. Arctic National Wildlife Refuge: Background and Issues. Nova Science Publishers, 2003.
Hiscock, Bruce. The Big Caribou Herd. Boyds Mills Press, 2003.
Lieland, Barbara, ed. Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR): Review, Controversies and Legislation. Nova Science Publishers, 2006.

|87

DRUGS IN SPORTS
Over the past decade, the sports world has been rocked by revelations that world-class athletes have used performance-enhancing drugs.
During 2002, major league baseball players Jose Canseco and Ken Caminiti alleged that a large percentage of players used steroids to
enhance their performance; since 2003, Barry Bonds, who holds the record from most home runs in a season, has continually been dogged
by allegations of having used steroids and other performance-enhancing drugs. In 2006 Tour de France winner Floyd Landis was fired
from his team after testing positive for the steroid testosterone.
The use of steroids has not been confined to professional athletes. Young athletes have died as a result of steroid use, leading to bans on
performance-enhancing drugs in high school and college programs. Nonetheless, doubts remain about the effectiveness of these tests and the
fairness of some of the resulting bans. Some people argue that the whole approach is deeply flawed.
PROS CONS
Using performance-enhancing drugs is an issue of free- Once some people choose to use these drugs, they
dom of choice. If athletes wish to take drugs in search infringe on the freedom of choice of other athletes.
of improved performances, let them do so. They harm Athletes are very driven individuals who go to great
nobody but themselves and should be treated as adults lengths to achieve their goals. To some, the chance of a
capable of making rational decisions on the basis of gold medal in two years time may outweigh the risks of
widely available information. We should not forbid them serious long-term health problems. We should protect
performance-enhancing drugs even if such drugs have athletes from themselves and not allow anyone to take
long-term adverse effects. We haven’t outlawed tobacco performance-enhancing drugs.
and boxing, which are proven health risks.
What is the distinction between natural and unnatural Where to draw the line between legitimate and illegiti-
enhancement? Athletes use all sorts of dietary supple- mate performance enhancement? Difficult though that
ments, exercises, equipment, clothing, training regimes, may be, we should nonetheless continue to draw a line:
medical treatments, etc., to improve their performance. first, to protect athletes from harmful drugs; second, to
There is nothing “natural” about taking vitamin pills preserve the spirit of fair play and unaided competition
or wearing whole-body Lycra suits. Diet, medicine, between human beings at their peak of natural fitness.
technology, and even coaching already give an artificial Eating a balanced diet and using the best equipment
advantage to those athletes who can afford the best of all are clearly in a different category from taking steroids
these aids. As there is no clear way to distinguish between and growth hormones. We should continue to make
legitimate and illegitimate artificial aids to performance, this distinction and aim for genuine drug-free athletic
they should all be allowed. competitions.
Legalizing performance-enhancing drugs levels the play- Legalization is very bad for athletes. The use of perfor-
ing field. Currently, suspicion about drug use surrounds mance-enhancing drugs leads to serious health problems,
every sport and every successful athlete. Those competi- including “steroid rage,” the development of male char-
tors who don’t take performance-enhancing drugs see acteristics in female athletes, heart attacks, and greatly
themselves as (and often are) disadvantaged. There are reduced life expectancy. Some drugs are also addictive.
no tests for some drugs, and, in any case, new medical
and chemical advances mean that cheaters will always
be ahead of the testers. Legalization would remove this
uncertainty and allow everyone to compete openly and
fairly.
Legalizing these drugs will provide better entertainment Spectators enjoy the competition between athletes rather
for spectators. Sport has become a branch of the enter- than individual performances; a close race is better than

PROS CONS
tainment business, and the public demands “higher, a no-contest in a world record time. Similarly, they enjoy
faster, stronger” from athletes. If drug-use allows athletes displays of skill more than simple raw power. In any case,
to continually break records or makes football players why should we sacrifice the health of athletes for the sake
bigger and more exciting to watch, why deny the specta- of public enjoyment?
tors what they want, especially if the athletes want to
give it to them?
Current rules are very arbitrary and unfair. For example, What about the children? Even if performance-enhanc-
the Olympics forbids athletes from using cold medi- ing drugs were legalized only for adults, how would
cines, even in sports where the stimulants in these medi- you control the problem among children? Teenage ath-
cines would have minimal effects on performance. There letes train alongside adults and share the same coaches.
is also the possibility that some positive tests are simply Many would succumb to the temptation and pressure to
the result of using a combination of legal food supple- use drugs if these were widely available and effectively
ments. Cyclists legally have heart operations to allow endorsed by legalization. Young athletes are unable to
increased circulation and thus improve performance, but make fully rational, informed choices about drug taking,
they would be banned if they were to use performance- and the health impact on their growing bodies would
enhancing drugs. be even worse than for adult users. Legalization of per-
formance-enhancing drugs would also send a positive
message about drug culture in general, making the use
of “recreational drugs” with all their accompanying evils
more widespread.
In many countries bans on performance-enhancing drugs Legalization discriminates against poor nations. Far
fail to stand up in court. The legal basis for drug testing from creating a level playing field, legalization would
and the subsequent barring of transgressors from further tilt it in favor of those athletes from wealthy countries
participation is open to challenge, both as restraint of with advanced medical and pharmaceutical industries.
trade and invasion of privacy. Sports governing bodies Athletes from poorer nations would no longer be able to
often fight and lose such court cases, wasting vast sums compete on talent alone.
of money.
If drugs were legal, they could be controlled and moni- Reform is preferable to surrender. The current testing
tored by doctors, making them much safer. Athletes on regime is not perfect, but better research, testing, and
drugs today often take far more than needed for perfor- funding, plus sanctions against uncooperative countries
mance enhancement because of ignorance and the need and sports could greatly improve the fight against drugs
for secrecy. Legalization would facilitate the exchange in sports.
of information on drugs, and open medical supervision
will avoid many of the health problems currently associ-
ated with performance-enhancing drugs.
Sample Motions:
This House would legalize the use of performance-enhancing drugs for athletes.
This House would win at all costs.
This House believes your pharmacist is your best friend.
Web Link:
• Sports Supplements Danger. <http://www.consumerreports.org/main/detail.jsp?CONTENT<>cnt_id=59279&FOLDER<>folder_
id=18151&bmUID=992904313175> Overview of issues surrounding the use of sports supplements.
Further Reading:
Canseco, Jose. Juiced: Wild Times, Rampant ’Roids, Smash Hits, and How Baseball Got Big. Regan Books, 2006.
|89

Jendrick, Nathan. Dunks, Doubles, Doping: How Steroids Are Killing American Athletics. Lyons Press, 2006.
Kuhn, Cynthia, Scott Schwartzwelder, and Wilkie Wilson. Pumped: Straight Facts for Athletes About Drugs, Supplements, and Training.
Norton, 2000.

DRUG TESTING IN SCHOOLS

The right of schools to randomly test students for drugs has been debated in the courts for years. In a landmark 1995 decision Vernonia
School District v. Acton, the US Supreme Court ruled that schools could test student athletes for drug use. Three years later the
US Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit (covering Illinois, Indiana, and Wisconsin) extended the right to test all participants in
extracurricular activities, but in 2000 the Indiana Supreme Court banned such testing where the student concerned was not suspected of
taking drugs. In 2002 the US Supreme Court ruled that drug testing was permissible for students involved in “competitive” extracurricu-
lar activities. Does society’s desire to combat a growing drug problem override the right to privacy?
PROS CONS
Drug use among teenagers is a clear and present prob- Our justice system is based on the principle that a person
lem. Current measures to tackle drugs at the source (i.e., is innocent until proven guilty. To enforce random drug
imprisoning dealers and breaking the supply chain) are testing (thereby invading the privacy of students who are
not succeeding. It is especially important to protect teen- not suspected of drug use) is to view them as guilty until
agers at an impressionable age and at the time when their proven innocent. Nothing justifies the sacrifice of the
attitude to education greatly affects their entire lives. human rights of innocent people.
Some sacrifice of human rights is necessary to tackle the
drug problem.
Students who do not take drugs have nothing to fear. Innocent students do have something to fear—the viola-
tion of privacy and loss of dignity caused by a drug test.
The purpose of random drug testing is not so much to Other methods of preventing drug abuse are less inva-
catch offenders but to prevent all students from offend- sive. These include encouraging extracurricular activi-
ing in the first place. ties, fostering better relations with parents, tackling the
problems of poverty and safety, and so on.
Peer pressure is the primary cause of experimentation Teenagers, especially drug-taking teenagers, are attracted
with drugs. Discouraging drug use among athletes, by rebellion and the chance of beating the system. Dra-
model students, etc., sends a powerful message to the conian, Big Brother–style tactics of random drug testing
entire student body. will only provoke resentment and encourage students
to break the law. Peer pressure increases as they unite
against school authorities.
Urine, hair, and breath samples can be used to detect use Drug users will only turn to drugs that are more difficult
of most common drugs, including marijuana, cocaine, to test, such as “designer” drugs, or use masking agents
heroin, and methamphetamines. before being tested.
Sample Motions:
This House supports random drug testing in schools.
This House believes in a student’s right to privacy.

Web Links:
• Reported Drug Use by Potential Targets of Random School Drug Testing Policies. <http://www.drugs.indiana.edu/publs/archive/
pdfs/drugtesting_athlete.pdf> Short essay presenting evidence that random drug testing in schools is unlikely to detect much drug
use.
• Substance Abuse Resource Center. <http://www.jointogether.org/plugin.jtml?siteID=AMBIOMED&P=1> General site offering
links to current news on drug-related topics as well as resources on issues, laws, and government policy.
Further Reading:
Ligocki, Kenneth B. Drug Testing: What We All Need to Know. Scarborough, 1996.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT VS. ENVIRONMENT

The issue of economic development versus environmental conservation can also be seen as the First World vs. the Third World. Industrial-
ized nations, ironically those that are most responsible for current environmental problems, fear that unregulated economic development in
the Third World will have disastrous long-term environmental effects on the planet. They point out that massive clearing of tropical forests
for farmland is threatening biodiversity and may impact world climate, while a reliance on heavy industry to fuel economic growth adds
more pollutants to the air, ground, and water. Developing countries counter that they must make industrialization and economic develop-
ment a priority because they have to support their growing populations. Developing countries must address current problems; they cannot
afford to worry about the distant future.
PROS CONS
Taking care of the millions of people who are starving is We have wasted and destroyed vast amounts of natural
more important than saving natural resources, most of resources, and in so doing have put Earth in jeopardy.
which are renewable anyway. We must preserve Earth for future generations.
The industrialized world’s emphasis on protecting the No one wants to stop economic progress that could give
environment shackles developing countries and contrib- millions better lives. But we must insist on sustainable
utes to and widens the great divide between the First and development that integrates environmental stewardship,
Third Worlds. By limiting the development of profitable social justice, and economic growth. Earth cannot sup-
but polluting industries like steel or oil refining, we are port unrestricted growth.
sentencing nations to remain economically backward.
Economic development is vital for meeting the basic Unchecked population growth has a deleterious effect
needs of the growing populations of Third World coun- on any nation and on the entire planet. Limiting popula-
tries. If we do not permit industrialization, these nations tion growth will result in a higher standard of living and
will have to implement measures to limit population will preserve the environment.
growth just to preserve vital resources such as water.
Obviously the world would be better if all nations Nations are losing more from polluting than they are
abided by strict environmental rules. The reality is that gaining from industrialization. China is a perfect exam-
for many nations such adherence is not in their larger ple. Twenty years of uncontrolled economic develop-
interests. For example, closing China’s massive Capital ment have created serious, chronic air pollution that has
Iron and Steelworks, which ecologists point to as a major increased health problems and resulted in annual agri-
polluter, would cost 40,000 jobs. The uniform applica- cultural losses of billions of dollars. Thus, uncontrolled
tion of strict environmental policies would create insur- growth is not only destructive to the environment, it is
mountable barriers to economic progress. also unsound economically.
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PROS CONS
Rapid industrialization does not have to put more pres- Technological progress has made people too confident in
sure on the environment. Technological advances have their abilities to control their environment. In just half
made industries much safer for the environment. For a century the world’s nuclear industry has had at least
example, nuclear generating plants can provide more three serious accidents: Windscale (UK, 1957), Three
energy than coal while contributing far less to global Mile Island (US, 1979), and Chernobyl (USSR, 1986).
warming. We are also exploring alternative, renewable In addition, the nuclear power industry still cannot store
types of fuel. its waste safely.
The “Green Revolution” has doubled the size of grain The Green Revolution is threatening the biodiversity of
harvests. Thus, cutting down more forests or endanger- the Third World by replacing native seeds with hybrids.
ing fragile ecosystems to provide more space for crops is We do not know what the long-term environmental or
no longer necessary. We now have the knowledge to feed economic consequences will be. We do know that in
the world’s increasing population without harming the the short run, such hybrid crops can indirectly cause
environment. environmental problems. The farmer using hybrid seed,
which is expensive, must buy new seed each year because
the seed cannot be saved to plant the following year’s
crops. Farmers using hybrid seeds in what once was the
richest part of India went bankrupt. As a result, fertile
lands lay idle and untilled, resulting in droughts and
desertification.
Sample Motions:
This House believes that environmental concerns should always take precedence over economic development in both the First and
Third Worlds.
This House believes that economic growth, even at the expense of some environmental degradation, is justified by the need to feed
the rising world population.
Web Links:
• Center for International Environmental Law. <http://www.ciel.org> Offers a review of major international environmental agree-
ments as well as information on the impact of globalization and free trade on sustainable development.
• International Institute for Sustainable Development. <http://www.iisd.org> Describes institute activities and offers reports and re-
search materials on different aspects of sustainable development.
• United Nations Environmental Programme: Division of Technology, Industry and Economics. <http://www.uneptie.org> Presents
information on UN programs associated with sustainable development.
Further Reading:
Cherni, Judith A. Economic Growth Versus the Environment: The Politics of Wealth, Health and Air Pollution. Palgrave, 2002.
Cole, Matthew A. Trade Liberalisation, Economic Growth and the Environment. Edward Elgar, 2000.
Kageson, Per. Growth Versus the Environment: Is There a Trade-Off? Kluwer, 1998.
Lomborg, Bjorn. The Skeptical Environmentalist: Measuring the Real State of the World. Cambridge University Press, 2001.


ECONOMIC SANCTIONS VS. ENGAGEMENT
Economic sanctions are one of the most controversial ways whereby the international community seeks to influence a nation’s internal
policy and democratize countries. Sanctions helped end apartheid in South Africa, but the 40-year-old US embargo of Cuba has not
brought down its communist government. China has a terrible human rights record, nevertheless sanctions have not been imposed on it.
The question of whether to use trade to effect change is a subject of continuing debate.
PROS CONS
Free trade brings about democratization in three ways: It Most dictatorial oligarchies welcome free trade as it usu-
permits a flow of information from Western countries; ally increases their wealth. The West no longer has any
it raises a nation’s standard of living; and it facilitates the leverage over them once they have been accepted into
growth of a middle class. These factors generate internal the free trade arena. Although the international commu-
pressure and consequent political change—economic nity chose not to impose sanctions on China because it
freedom leads to political freedom. Free trade helped is a valuable economic and strategic partner, trade, spe-
bring about the downfall of communism in Eastern cifically MFN status, can still be used to force China to
Europe and is beginning to increase freedoms in China. improve human rights. Believing that free trade can lead
When the United States linked most favored nation to democratization is naïve. Governments against which
(MFN) status to improvements in human rights, China sanctions are imposed will not permit the growth of a
made only token gestures to improve its rights record middle class or let wealth filter down to the people. In
to maintain MFN status. Deep structural changes in reality free trade has worsened Chinese living standards
human rights in any country come only with unlimited by putting domestic industries out of business and forc-
free trade. ing people to work for multinational corporations that
pay little.
Sanctions are ineffective. For example, France and Russia Sanctions are effective as a long-term tool. They worked
currently have openly breached international sanctions in South Africa and they worked in the former Rhode-
against Iraq because of their complete failure. Sanctions sia. Granted, they can lead to mass suffering of the very
against Cuba, Haiti, and Burma have also proved useless people they are designed to help, as they did to the black
because many nations do not recognize them. In addi- population of South Africa. However, Nelson Mandela
tion, once sanctions are in place, the government of the has said that the suffering was worthwhile because it
country being sanctioned keeps all available resources, helped end apartheid.
ensuring that sanctions adversely affect only the people.
In the case of Iraq, sanctions led to terrible suffering.
Sanctions block the flow of outside information into a Sanctions send a strong message to the people of a coun-
country, thus permitting dictators to use propaganda try that the Western world will not tolerate an oppressive
to strengthen their own position. People cannot believe regime.
such propaganda is false when there are no competing
external claims.
Sample Motions:
This House would put trade relations above human rights.
This House believes in free trade.
This House would make money not war.
This House would engage, not estrange, nondemocratic nations.
Web Links:
• Cato Institute Center for Trade Policy Studies. <http://www.freetrade.org/> Site advocating free trade includes essays on China, the
Cuban embargo, and the failure of unilateral US sanctions.
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• USA*Engage. <http://usaengage.org/> Information on current US sanctions and potential sanctions by coalition of American busi-
ness and agriculture opposing unilateral US action.
Further Reading:
Askari, Hossein G., John Forrer, Hildy Teegen, and Jiawen Yang. Case Studies of U.S. Economic Sanctions: The Chinese, Cuban, and
Iranian Experience. Praeger, 2003.
Crawford, Neta, and Audie Klotz, eds. How Sanctions Work: Lessons from South Africa. Palgrave, 1999.
Simons, Geoff. Imposing Economic Sanctions: Legal Remedy or Genocidal Tool? Pluto Press, 1999.
Von Sponeck, H. C. A Different Kind of War: The UN Sanction Regime in Iraq. Berghahn Books, 2006.

ELECTORAL COLLEGE, ABOLITION OF

The presidential election of 2000 gave new prominence to the Electoral College. Although Al Gore received more popular votes than
George W. Bush, Bush won the election because his victory in Florida gave him a majority of electoral votes. To some observers, this out-
come demonstrated clearly that the Electoral College should be abolished. They feel it is an anachronism that has outlived its usefulness.
To others, however, the result demonstrated that the Electoral College is both good and necessary, and that the system had worked as it was
designed to do.
PROS CONS
The president should be the person chosen by the great- The Electoral College ensures that the person elected
est number of Americans, via the popular vote. The president has broad support throughout the country.
Electoral College violates this mandate in principle and Without the college, candidates could win by appealing
sometimes in practice. only to heavily populated urban areas.
The Electoral College was established at a time when the The principle behind the Electoral College is similar to
people were not trusted to choose wisely; senators, too, the principle that determines the composition of the
were initially not chosen by popular vote. The system Senate, wherein every state is deemed equal, no matter
should be changed to trust the wisdom of the American its size. The college is an integral part of the system of
people. federalism, which gives the states distinct and important
rights.
The Electoral College system gives greater weight to The Electoral College forces candidates to campaign
votes cast in lightly populated states. The result is that broadly throughout the country to gain the electoral
a vote cast for the president by a New Yorker counts less votes of as many states as possible. If it is eliminated,
than a vote cast by a North Dakotan; this inequality is candidates will spend all their time campaigning in the
inherently unfair. states with the greatest number of voters and ignore
smaller states.
The lightly populated states that are privileged by the Minority voters could be safely ignored by candidates
Electoral College system are overwhelmingly white. In in a national election that depended only on receiving
effect, the system discounts the worth of votes cast by a popular majority. But because these voters can deter-
minorities living in urban areas and exacerbates the racial mine who wins a majority—and the electoral votes—in
imbalance of power in the country. a given state, their influence is significant in the present
system.
The current winner-take-all system effectively eliminates Because no candidate can win the presidency without an
third-party candidates, as they cannot win enough Elec- absolute majority of electoral votes, the Electoral College

PROS CONS
toral College votes to gain office. The result? The elec- promotes the strength of the two-party system and that
toral process is predisposed to the status quo, and change system promotes the political stability of the country.
and progress are discouraged.
Too much latitude is given to electors in the present The Constitution designed the US government to
system; in some states, electors are not required to cast include a series of checks and balances, and the Electoral
their votes for the candidates who have won the popular College is part of that system. The Electoral College is
vote in their states. Electors should not have the power meant to limit the “tyranny of the majority” that is pos-
to disregard the will of the people. sible in unrestrained democracy.
Sample Motions:
This House supports the abolition of the Electoral College.
This House values the will of the people over the rights of the states.
Web Links:
• Center for Voting and Democracy: The Case Against the Electoral College. <http://www.fairvote.org/op_eds/electoral_college.
htm> Web site argues for abolition, with news items and links to other sites.
• The Electoral College. <http://www.fec.gov/pages/ecmenu2.htm> The Web site of the Federal Election Commission explains what
the Electoral College is and how it works, and offers essays in favor of retaining the Electoral College.
• In Defense of the Electoral College. <http://www.cato.org/dailys/11-10-00.html> Think tank Web site offers essay in favor of re-
taining College.
Further Reading:
Bennett, Robert W. Taming the Electoral College. Stanford University Press, 2006.
Gregg, Gary L. Securing Democracy: Why We Have an Electoral College. ISI Books, 2001.
Schumaker, Paul D., and Burdett A. Loomis, eds. Choosing a President: The Electoral College and Beyond. CQ Press, 2002.

ENVIRONMENTALLY LINKED AID

Many parts of the developing world have begun industrializing without regard to the environmental consequences. In light of growing
environmental concerns, some individuals and groups have suggested tying aid to environmental goals including curbing emissions of
carbon dioxide and chlorofluorocarbon. The international community would still give emergency aid in response to disasters, but it would
tie development aid to environmental standards set by the United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP). Countries with especially
low emissions would receive extra aid.
PROS CONS
The scientific community is almost unanimous in believ- Environmental pressure groups seriously overstate the
ing that emissions are seriously damaging the world evidence for climate change. Even if climate change is
ecosystem. The most serious threat is climate change. occurring, pollution is not necessarily the cause. It may
The effects of global warming include increasing deserti- result from natural variations, which the fossil record
fication and rising sea levels. In addition, the El Niño indicates have occurred in the past.
phenomenon occurs more often. Air pollution has also
resulted in increased acid rain and a growing hole in the
ozone layer.
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PROS CONS
The industrialization of the small number of devel- This is just a new form of imperialism. Developing
oped countries caused virtually all the problems laid out countries have the right to develop economically and
above. If developing countries, which have about five industrially just as developed countries have. Industri-
times the population of the developed world, were to alization will improve the living standards of billions of
industrialize unchecked, the effect could be catastrophic. people throughout the globe. In addition, industrializa-
For example, rising sea levels would flood millions of tion will lead to economic stability for the world’s poor-
homes in low-lying areas such as Bangladesh. Increased est countries. This, in turn, will increase democratization
crop failure would kill many more by starvation. Devel- in these nations.
oped countries might be able to protect themselves from
these effects, but developing countries would not. The
developing world has not acted to prevent environmen-
tal disaster and so the developed world must act to save
literally billions of lives.
The UN could design initial standards so that all devel- Developed countries are hypocritical in trying to restrict
oping countries could meet the goals and receive aid. emissions from developing countries when they do so
If they spend this development aid wisely, developing little themselves. The United States, which is still the
countries could industrialize in an environmentally clean world’s biggest polluter, consistently refuses to ratify
way. In the long run, the combined approach of extra environmental treaties because its own economic self-
rewards for successful countries and serious sanctions for interest does not appear to be served by doing so. What
unsuccessful countries should ensure success. right does the developed world have to preach to the
developing world about emissions?
Developed countries should be guardians of the planet Asking the UNEP to set emission standards is unfeasible
expressly because they have a terrible history of pollut- because both developed and developing countries would
ing. They must prevent unhindered industrialization try to influence the agency. Developed countries would
elsewhere. lobby for very restrictive emission standards to decrease
the threat from cheap imports. Developing countries
would demand standards so lax that they would have
no effect.
Even if environmentalists have exaggerated their claims, This proposal has serious consequences for world stabil-
the threat from environmental pollution is still great ity. First, developed countries would certainly not enforce
enough to require action. The potential benefit of acting regulations against China (an important trading partner
to save the planet’s ecosystem far outweighs any down- and the linchpin of regional stability), the world’s fast-
side. (We are not conceding that the claims are exagger- est growing polluter. Second, the developing countries,
ated, merely that it does not matter even if they are.) particularly those that fail to meet the standards, would
resent such outside intrusion. In addition, withholding
aid could cause economic collapse and the subsequent
rise of dictatorships. Rogue nations might form alliances
that threatened world stability. In their rush to develop,
these states would increase pollution because developed
countries would have no influence over them.
Sample Motions:
This House would link aid to emissions reductions.
This House believes that the environment must come first.
Web Links:
• World Bank Development Education Program. <http://www.worldbank.org/html/schools/depweb.htm> Information on sustain-
able development for teachers and students.

• World Bank: Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development. <http://www-esd.worldbank.org/> Information on World
Bank initiatives promoting sustainable development.
Further Reading:
Bossel, Hartmut. Earth at a Crossroads: Paths to a Sustainable Future. Cambridge University Press, 1998.
Daly, Herman E. Beyond Growth: The Economics of Sustainable Development. Beacon, 1997.
Farley, Joshua, and Herman E. Daly. Ecological Economics: Principles and Applications. Island Press, 2003.
Gupta, Avijit. Ecology and Development in the Third World. Routledge, 1998.

ETHICAL FOREIGN POLICY

For centuries, the foreign policy of most Western nations was based on realpolitik, doing whatever necessary to forward the self-interest of
the nation. In the United States, which traditionally has seen itself as held to a higher standard, tension has always existed between real-
politik and a desire to act out of humanitarian concern or to preserve liberty. During the 1990s, ethnic cleansing in the Balkans and, in
2006, the continuing genocide in Darfur forced Western nations to confront the question of ethics in foreign policy. Should nations whose
self-interests are not threatened intervene in other countries solely for humanitarian reasons?
PROS CONS
Western governments must pursue an ethical foreign If “ethical foreign policy” means active intervention
policy. This translates into the philosophy that impels us whenever there is a “moral imperative,” then it is a hope-
to act whenever there is a moral imperative to do so. lessly naïve notion. Governments are constrained by
practical concerns. For example, selling arms to certain
nations might be unethical, but if the government stops
such sales, citizens lose jobs—and the weapons are pur-
chased elsewhere.
Lobbyists should not influence foreign policy. It should In a representative democracy discounting these groups
be above special interests and should focus on doing is impossible. Moreover, the “right thing to do” for the
what is right. nation may be what special interests demand.
The argument for ethical foreign policy is strongest when We concede the principle but reject the practice. Inter-
the West confronts heinous crimes in foreign lands, such vening might make matters worse. We also have to be
as genocide in Rwanda or ethnic cleansing in the Bal- mindful of broader concerns, like the situation in the
kans. In both places, the West had a clear moral impera- foreign country and what action might do to our image
tive for active involvement—our action could save lives in other nations. Taking an active and moralistic stance
and free people from oppression. toward African problems, for example, may make the
West look like neo-imperialists.
In many cases, such as that of Kosovo in the 1990s, the Intervention before a situation is fully assessed may cost
humanitarian imperative demands intervention: We more lives in the long run. Being starkly utilitarian is
must act because if we don’t people will suffer and die. horrible, but foreign policy must solve problems for the
Taking the pragmatic approach based on a careful assess- long term; it cannot be based on a knee-jerk reaction to
ment of national interests costs lives. an immediate situation.
Sample Motions:
This House would have an ethical foreign policy.
This House believes politics is the art of the necessary not the possible.
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Web Links:
• Foreign Policy. <http://www.foreignpolicy.com> Journal specializing in analysis and comment on foreign policy issues.
• Foreign Affairs. <http://www.foreignaffairs.org> Journal sponsored by the Council on Foreign Relations, exploring foreign policy
issues.
Further Reading:
Forsythe, David P. Human Rights in International Relations. Cambridge University Press, 2000.
Hitchens, Christopher. The Trial of Henry Kissinger. Verso, 2001.

FACTORY FARMING, BANNING OF

Factory farming is the large-scale, industrial production of livestock and poultry designed to produce the highest output at the lowest cost.
The practice began in the 1920s after the discovery of vitamins A and D and vitamin supplements, which allowed large numbers of
animals to be raised indoors without sunlight. Proponents of the practice point to its economic benefits, while opponents say it has led to
cruelty and environmental destruction.
PROS CONS
Factory farming is intrinsically cruel. Modern science Factory farming involves very little cruelty or suffering—
permits factory farms to raise large numbers of animals certainly no more than in traditional forms of farming.
indoors with no concern for their physical and emo- Animals have always been herded together, confined,
tional needs. branded, killed, and eaten. Furthermore, government
regulatory agencies can more easily monitor large factory
farms, so the animals often fare better than they would
on traditional farms. Activists have ensured that the few
isolated incidents of cruelty or bad practice have received
publicity greatly out of proportion to their significance.
Factory farming sees animals as commodities for pro- This is sentimental nonsense. Unless the state is going
duction and sale just like bricks or bread. But animals are to impose vegetarianism (and that’s not being proposed
conscious and know pleasure and pain. We should treat here), farming will continue to be a business. It should
them humanely and with dignity. Factory farming does be efficient and make a profit for the producer, while
not. Yes, we are capable of higher thought and animals keeping prices low for the consumer. Many animals exist
are not, but this means that we must be good stewards simply as a food source. Animals are not our equals and
and care for them. How terribly we fail in fulfilling that don’t have the capacity for higher thought. We can use
duty. them without any moral problem.
Factory farming does not practice healthier, traditional Again, sentimentality is interfering with logic. Farming
farming methods that were more in tune with nature has always been the imposition of artificial, man-made
and that were the backbone of a rural way of life that patterns on nature. As for farmers losing jobs, plenty of
is now dying. The countryside that we love was created people are employed in factory farming. Why is that any
by traditional farming methods, particularly grazing, not less worthy? And many farmers have sold off their land
vast sheds full of imprisoned animals. for enormous profits.

PROS CONS
Factory farming is unhealthy for the environment. The Come on! Are we really supposed to believe that cow-
waste from factory farms has contributed to water pollu- produced methane is in the same league as pollution
tion; large-scale beef farming has produced vast quanti- from big business and industry?
ties of methane that damages the ozone layer. Factory The topsoil point is more substantial. But that’s
farming also erodes topsoil at an alarming rate. an argument for regulations requiring the upkeep and
replacement of turf, not for banning a whole industry.
Sample Motions:
This House would ban factory farming.
This House would go free range.
This House prefers low-intensity agriculture.
Web Links:
• FactoryFarming.com. <http://www.factoryfarming.com/> Information on specific aspects of the topic by group opposed to factory
farming.
• In Defense of Animals. <http://www.idausa.org/facts/factoryfarmfacts.html> Useful source of information from a group opposed
to factory farming.
Further Reading:
Masson, Jeffrey Moussaieff. The Pig Who Sang to the Moon: The Emotional World of Farm Animals. Ballantine, 2003.
Scully, Matthew. Dominion: The Power of Man, the Suffering of Animals, and the Call to Mercy. St. Martin’s Griffin, 2003.

FAILED STATES, US INTERVENTION TO PREVENT

COLLAPSE OF
A failed state is usually defined as one in which law and order has collapsed and the government can no longer provide services to the
people. In 2005 Foreign Policy reported that up to two billion people live in countries in danger of collapse and so are exposed to vary-
ing degrees of violence. In the past, the US and the global community have acted to prevent failure, but with mixed results. This debate
focuses on whether and how the United States and the United Nations should act to prevent failure.
PROS CONS
We must help failing states, because once they col- The United States National Security Strategy (2002)
lapse, they cannot provide services and security for their rightly states that the United States “should be realis-
people. The United States should work with the UN to tic about its ability to help those that are unwilling and
resolve conflicts and should engage in peacekeeping mis- unready to help themselves. Where and when people
sions and nation-building initiatives. (This will require are ready to do their part, we will be ready to move de-
both a greater willingness on the part of the US to com- cisively.” Past US failures in Haiti and Somalia show
mit funds and a commitment to conflict resolution that the wisdom of this principle. The United States should
has been largely lacking in recent US policy.) choose its areas of engagement with care based on their
strategic importance and the likelihood of success, rather
than spread itself too thin to be effective.
We must rescue failing states in the interests of inter- US willingness to step in to help every fragile state will
national stability. Failed states often infect an entire re- only exacerbate the problem. Irresponsible governments
gion, a problem known as contagion. Neighboring states will assume that the US will bail them out to prevent
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PROS CONS
back different factions and are themselves destabilized their people from suffering. This in itself makes future
by floods of refugees and weapons from next door. Also, failures much more likely.
their own rebel groups can easily use the lawless country
to regroup and mount fresh attacks.
Failed states often provide havens for illegal activity such The contagion theory is hard to apply beyond a small
as growing opium. Finally, desperate people in failed group of countries in West Africa. Elsewhere failed states
states may take refuge in religious or political extremism, do not tend to drag their neighbors down with them.
which can threaten the world. For example, none of the countries bordering Somalia
are close to failing. In most cases, having regional groups
take responsibility for failing states in their areas is far
better than overburdening the United States and UN.
Saving fragile states from failure is in the interest of the We have very limited evidence to support the theory that
United States and its allies. Failed states often become failed states become havens for terrorists. Yes, there are
havens for terrorists, as happened in Afghanistan and a few Al-Qaeda sympathizers in Somalia, but these are
Somalia. The United States should work with the UN to no greater a threat than similar groups in other coun-
strengthen governments so that they can more effectively tries. Nor is Afghanistan a good example; an established
maintain internal order while controlling their borders government—the Taliban—invited Osama bin Laden to
and tracking resource flows. take refuge there. On the other hand, Iran and Syria are
both accused of providing bases for terrorists, but nei-
ther is a failed state.
The cost of preventive action is dramatically lower than The cost of intervention is too high. The UN has nei-
the cost of military action, and we are paying the price ther the money nor the support to undertake speculative
for failing states in any case. The United States already missions. Currently, it cannot provide enough troops for
spends many billions of dollars annually in handling the peacekeeping missions in countries that request them.
humanitarian, drug, and security problems these states The US already contributes nearly a quarter of the UN’s
create. These states also cost the world economy in terms peacekeeping budget and cannot afford more at a time
of lost opportunities for trade and investment. when it is already stretched by major commitments in
Iraq and Afghanistan.
The US and other international financial institutions The United States should maintain and even extend its
must change their rules on aid and market access. At current approach to international development. Such
present these programs reward only countries that have conditions provide incentives for developing countries
good governance (e.g., anticorruption measures, etc.). to put constructive policies in place and reward those
Sensible though it seems, this policy denies international who fight corruption. As past failures show all too clear-
help to failing states, whose people need this aid. Fund- ly, throwing money at chaotic, lawless, and corrupt re-
ing micro-credit plans, education, health, and sanitation gimes is pointless—it never reaches the people anyway.
programs in the more stable parts of failing states, and In any case, humanitarian relief is not conditional, and
providing meaningful trade access could provide long- the United States continues to respond with compassion
term benefits for the United States. to emergencies anywhere in the world.
Finally, special measures to support states identified
as failing could in themselves be economically harmful.
Even discussing intervention might scare off investors
and help to bring about economic collapse, creating a
self-fulfilling prophecy.
The US should work with the UN to prevent state fail- Intervening in fragile states is simply a new form of im-
ure. The United Nations has the expertise and is widely perialism. Neither the United States nor the UN should
respected, whereas the international reputation of the impose its rule on individual countries. Doing so would

PROS CONS
US is now sufficiently damaged that the hostility Amer- deny people the right to chart their own future. A policy
ica generates can undermine the good work it wishes of intervention would create more hostility toward the
to do. The US can provide resources to enable the UN United States, with accusations that it is acting out of
to secure the future stability of many fragile countries, self-interest. US troops and civilian personnel could rap-
while UN involvement will show that these operations idly become targets for attacks. And increasing UN in-
are altruistic and pose no imperialist threat. Over time, tervention in the domestic affairs of member states could
the partnership will change the world’s perception of the encourage the organization in its ambitions to become a
US—an important aspect of the war on terror. world government.
Sample Motions:
This House believes the United States should work together with the UN to prevent the collapse of third-world states.
This House would save failing states.
This House believes the United States should do more to prevent failed states.
Web Links:
• The Failed State Index. <http://www.foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=3098> A Foreign Policy ranking of weak and fail-
ing states.
• Global Policy Forum. <http://www.globalpolicy.org/nations/sovereign/failedindex.htm> Links to a variety of articles on failed
states.
• The Reluctant Imperialist: Terrorism, Failed States, and the Case for American Empire. <http://www.foreignaffairs.org/
20020301facomment7967/sebastian-mallaby/the-reluctant-imperialist-terrorism-failed-states-and-the-case-for-american-empire.
html> Article in Foreign Affairs supporting US intervention in failed states.
• U.S. Foreign Assistance and Failed States. <http://www.brook.edu/views/papers/rice/20021125.htm> Brookings Institution paper
on the subject.
Further Reading:
Cooper, Robert. The Breaking of Nations. Atlantic Books, 2004.
Diamond, Jared. Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Survive. Viking, 2005.
Fukuyama, Francis. State Building: Governance and World Order in the Twenty-First Century. Profile Books, 2004.
Pham, John-Peter. Liberia: Portrait of a Failed State. Reed Press, 2004.

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FOREIGN-BORN PRESIDENTS
Article II of the U.S. Constitution states:
No person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitu-
tion, shall be eligible to the Office of President; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have at-
tained to the Age of thirty-five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States.
Thus, no naturalized citizen may serve as president. In the past, some people have criticized the provision for making naturalized citizens
“second-class citizens,” but in the main it has been uncontroversial. Now, the issue took on new life when Austrian-born Arnold Schwar-
zenegger became governor of California.
PROS CONS
America is a nation defined by ideas, not birth. Opening The practical importance of the office far outweighs the
the highest office to a foreign-born citizen would be a symbolic advantages of allowing a foreign-born person
vivid demonstration of this principle. to run for the highest office. We need to know that a
president’s primary loyalty is to the United States, not
another nation. Who knows how a foreign-born presi-
dent would act in a crisis involving his or her homeland?
And even if that president were not torn emotionally in
such a situation, the perception that he or she was not
100% American could be very damaging both at home
and abroad.
The restriction may rule out the best candidate. Mil- The United States has a pool of more than 200 million
lions of US citizens were born elsewhere, and many of people eligible for the presidency. Only three or four in
these are highly committed achievers, the kind we need each generation can ever reach the Oval Office, so the
to serve our country. After all, immigrants are almost by odds of finding a suitable candidate from that pool are
definition more dynamic than most, and they may also pretty good. If we are not getting the best candidates,
be more committed to the American dream than com- isn’t this the result more of the current political climate
placent U.S. born citizens. than restrictions on foreign-born candidates?
Having knowledge of another culture could be extreme- This argument displays the shallowness of view that has
ly helpful in an era when the United States must engage caused the debate in the first place. You can understand
with the world. a place without being from it. And again, a perception
of being biased in favor or against certain other countries
could be very damaging.
The rule creates two classes of citizenship. Let a foreign- The Constitution restricts the right to stand in other
born candidate run and let the American people decide if ways, for example age. The restriction against the for-
his or her origin is important, but don’t restrict a person’s eign-born is therefore entirely in keeping with the ap-
right to stand for office. proach to the presidency—requiring more from those
who aspire to the office.
The rule restricts voter choice. Voters may wish to elect Voters might want to elect a minor or someone else
a person who is unable to stand. For example, millions whose qualities make him or her innately unsuitable.
of people voted for Arnold Schwarzenegger for governor Rules exist to limit candidates to those who are obvi-
of California. If he had not been allowed to run, voters ously suitable. Being foreign-born renders one unsuit-
would not have had that choice. able. Thus being excluded is not unfair.

PROS CONS
The rule is at odds with laws that prohibit discrimina- The presidency is the highest office in the land, thus re-
tion on the basis of race, sex, or national origin. This quiring particular standards of those who wish to fill it is
constitutional provision sends a clear signal that the very extremely reasonable. The Constitution requires some-
top of American society is closed to those of particular one to be unquestionably dedicated to the good of the
backgrounds. United States. You cannot apply laws prohibiting dis-
crimination in employment to the presidency!
Sample Motions:
This House believes birthplace should be no bar to the presidency.
This House would amend the Constitution to allow foreign-born Americans to run for president.
This House would terminate constitutional discrimination.
Web Links:
• Maximizing Voter Choice: Opening the Presidency to Naturalized Americans. <http://judiciary.senate.gov/member_statement.
cfm?id=1326&wit_id=3697> Senate hearing on the issue.
• President Schwarzenegger—Or At Least Hughes? <http://www.greenbag.org/Ex%20Ante%20President%20Schwarzenegger%20O
r%20Hughes.pdf> Article in support of the topic.

FREE SPEECH, RESTRICTIONS ON

Freedom of speech is one of the basic tenets of democracy. A fundamental right enshrined in the US Bill of Rights, the UN Declaration
of Human Rights, and the European Convention on Human Rights, freedom of speech is, nevertheless, not an absolute. Most nations
have laws against sedition, libel, or speech that threatens public safety. Where a nation draws the line between protected and unprotected
speech is a continuing subject for debate.
PROS CONS
Free speech is an inherently ambiguous concept that The limits to free speech are too important to be deter-
requires definition and interpretation; it is the job of mined by government. If speech is to be regulated, it
governments to clarify these ambiguities. should be done by an independent body.
As Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes wrote, “the most The tyranny of the majority is a good reason to resist
stringent protection of free speech would not protect government censorship. A healthy democracy recognizes
a man in falsely shouting fire in a theater and causing that smaller groups must be heard; to guarantee that
a panic.” We accept limitations on free speech when it they have a public voice, no restrictions should be put
may threaten public safety. Therefore, freedom of speech on speech.
is never absolute.
Speech leads to physical acts. Pornography, hate speech, Society is self-regulating. The link between speech and
and political polemic are linked to rape, hate crimes, and action is a false one. Yes, people who commit hate crimes
insurrection. are likely to have read hate literature, and people who
commit sex crimes are likely to have watched pornog-
raphy. But viewing pornography or reading hate speech
does not necessarily lead to crime. In addition, expos-
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PROS CONS
ing hate speech and extreme political polemic to societal
scrutiny increases the likelihood that it will be discred-
ited and defeated, rather than strengthened through per-
secution.
Government must protect its citizens from foreign and Regardless of the situation, the public has the right to a
internal enemies. Thus, governments should be permit- free exchange of ideas and to know what the government
ted to curb speech that might undermine the national is doing.
interest during war.
Some views are antithetical to religious beliefs. To protect We must defend the right of the nonreligious to express
the devout, we should ban this type of offensive speech. their views.
We need to protect children from exposure to obscene, We all agree that government must protect children, but
offensive, or potentially damaging materials. that does not mean that government should have the
right to censor all material.
Sample Motions:
This House would restrict freedom of speech.
This House would muzzle the press.
This House would censor the Internet.
This House would ban books.
Web Links:
• American Civil Liberties Union. <http://www.aclu.org> Offers information and resources on a wide variety of rights issues.
• American Library Association. <http://www.ala.org/ala/oif/firstamendment/firstamendment.htm> Links to court cases, advocates
and resources on the First Amendment.
• Banned Books Online. <http://digital.library.upenn.edu/books/banned-books.html> On-line exhibit of books that have been the
object of censorship or attempted censorship.
Further Reading:
Curtis, Michael Kent. Free Speech, “The People’s Darling Privilege”: Struggles for Freedom of Expression in American History. Duke
University Press, 2000.
Eastland, Terry. Freedom of Expression in the Supreme Court. Rowman and Littlefield, 2000.
Hensley, Thomas R., ed. Boundaries of Freedom of Expression and Order in American History. Kent State University Press, 2001.
Stone, Geoffrey R. Perilous Times: Free Speech in Wartime from the Sedition Act of 1798 to the War on Terrorism. W. W. Norton,
2004.


FREE TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT
Economists and politicians have praised the virtues of free trade for over 200 years. By allowing everyone equal access to all markets, the
theory goes, you guarantee the most efficient allocation of resources and the cheapest prices for consumers. Can such a theory work in prac-
tice? Specifically, could it help the least-developed countries achieve a better quality of life? Western rhetoric says it can and points to inter-
national institutions like as the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the World Bank that foster free trade and help these nations.
However, as long as the West continues to protect its own agriculture and industries from the international market, its position is arguably
hypocritical.
PROS CONS
Interlocking trade relationships decrease the likelihood Free trade does not promote peace. Trading countries
of war. If a nation is engaged in mutually beneficial rela- have gone to war against each other. This argument
tionships with other countries, it has no incentive to might apply to a good-natured trading relationship, but
jeopardize these relationships through aggression. This not necessarily to one that is just tariff free.
promotes peace, which is a universal good.
A tariff-free international economy is the only way to International economics isn’t as simple as increasing the
maintain maximum global efficiency and the cheapest efficiency of global resource allocation above all else.
prices. Efficient allocation of the world’s resources means Tariff revenue is a perfectly legitimate and useful source
less waste and, therefore, more affordable goods for con- of government income. Without tariffs governments
sumers. cannot protect the jobs of their citizens.
Free trade might lead to domestic layoffs, but the uni- Job security is a legitimate concern of governments. The
versal good of efficiency outweighs this. We should not destruction of jobs is clear testimony against free trade
subsidize uncompetitive industries; we should retrain serving a “universal good.” Free trade supporters fail to
workers for jobs in other fields. Subsidizing inefficiency factor in the political ramifications of job losses. A starkly
is not sound economic practice. Moreover, the jobs we utilitarian understanding of “universal good” may dic-
subsidize in the West are more needed in the developing tate that jobs flock to the developing world, but political
world, to which they would inevitably flow if free trade considerations may dictate a more localized definition of
were observed. the “good.”
The growth of the developing world is a universal good Defending pure, unadulterated free trade is a pointless
because improving the quality of life of millions of people exercise. Textbook ideas are always mediated by practical
is clearly a moral imperative. Free trade helps countries constraints. In reality, the conditions developing coun-
by maximizing their comparative advantage in free trade tries must meet just to join the “not quite free trade”
circumstances. WTO are stringent and may cost the equivalent of the
nation’s entire annual humanitarian budget. Poor nations
have social and development programs that must take
priority over trade issues.
Free trade permits developing countries to gain ready If capital flow were rational, it would be beneficial. In
access to capital in liberalized international financial practice, liberalized capital flow can destabilize develop-
markets. This gives them the opportunity to finance ing economies, which are prone to speculation based on
projects for growth and development. investor whim rather than economic fundamentals.
Sample Motions:
This House believes free trade serves a universal good.
This House believes free trade is good for the developing world.
|105

Web Links:
• International Monetary Fund (IMF). <http://www.imf.org> General site providing statistics and background on the IMF; offers
information on trade and monetary issues and legal issues involving trade; and presents evaluations of IMF programs.
• The World Bank Group. <http://www.worldbank.org> Broad site linking to development statistics, documents and reports, pro-
grams, research, and World Bank publications.
• World Trade Organization (WTO). <http://www.wto.org> Offers general information on the WTO, international trade and trade
agreements, and WTO programs.
Further Reading:
Bhagwati, Jagdish N. Free Trade Today. Princeton University Press, 2003.
Irwin, Douglas. Free Trade Under Fire. 2nd ed. Princeton University Press, 2005.
Rorden Wilkinson. Multilateralism and the World Trade Organisation: The Architecture and Extension of International Trade Regulation.
Routledge, 2001.
Schott, Jeffrey. Prospects for Free Trade in the Americas. Institute for International Economics, 2001.
Stiglitz, Joseph E. Globalization and Its Discontents. W. W. Norton, 2003.

GAY ADOPTION
At present, US states are divided on the issue of gay adoption. California, Connecticut, Illinois, Massachusetts, and New York have
approved the practice, while Florida has prohibited it. Some states make gay adoption impossible by restricting adoption to married couples;
in other states adoption laws are unclear or do not address the issue. In 2000, Mississippi passed a law not only banning gay and lesbian
couples from adopting children but also forbidding Mississippi to recognize gay adoptions from other states. Civil rights groups are cur-
rently challenging bans on gay adoption in federal courts. In February 2004, a federal appeals court upheld the Florida ban, saying the
law did not violate the Constitution and that the legislature, not the courts, was the proper forum for the debate. The following year the
US Supreme Court announced that it would not hear a challenge to the ban.
PROS CONS
Society is changing, and the traditional idea of the nuclear The traditional nuclear family is still the ideal. Where its
family with married mother and father is no longer the breakdown is inevitable, a close substitute, with maternal
only acceptable alternative. Many states are beginning to and paternal influences, is the only alternative. Evolution
award legal rights to gay couples because the stability of and nature have shown that the natural development of
such relationships is now recognized. Such couples can the young is aided by both these influences. Research
provide a stable and loving upbringing for children. published in the University of Illinois Law Review in 1997
found that children raised in homosexual households are
significantly more likely to be gay themselves.
Nature has shown in many species that, when one or While exceptions occur, the norm in nature is that both
both parents die, an uncle or aunt frequently takes on mother and father nurture offspring. To legally allow
the child-rearing role. adoption by gay couples is to encourage what is an
unnatural upbringing.
Some babies (both human and of other species) are A child’s primary role models are his or her parents.
born with a predisposition to homosexuality, and their Bringing a heterosexual child up in a gay household
upbringing will not affect their sexuality. Attempting gives the child a distorted view of a minority sexuality,
to suppress this genetic predisposition has resulted in just as a girl brought up by two men would fail to benefit
great misery for many. We should embrace all gay people from a female influence.

PROS CONS
fully—which must include celebrating gay role models,
especially as responsible parents.
In many cases where one of the partners is the biologi- While the law should not penalize gay relationships, it
cal parent, gay couples are currently responsibly rearing also exists to encourage the nuclear family as the ideal
children. Allowing adoption by the other partner merely for child raising. Legal prohibition of gay adoption is a
confers legal rights on an already successful, if informal, natural step toward this ideal.
family model.
Homophobia is wrong and must be fought wherever Homophobic language and behavior is still common in
encountered. Only through the full inclusion of gays in society. Placing a child too young to have an opinion of
society and all its institutions can we hope to overcome his own in the care of a gay couple exposes him to this
prejudice. prejudice and subjects him to ridicule or violence. What-
ever ideal we might have, the psychological and physical
welfare of the child must come first.
Sample Motions:
This House would allow gay couples to adopt children.
This House would explode the nuclear family.
Web Links:
• YouDebate.com. <http://www.youdebate.com/DEBATES/gay_adoption.HTM> Pros and cons of gay adoption.
• Children of Lesbians and Gays Everywhere. <http://www.colage.org> Site offering sociological information on gay families for
children of gay parents
Further Reading:
Savage, Dan. The Kid: What Happened When My Boyfriend and I Decided to Go Get Pregnant: An Adoption Story. Plume, 2000.
Sullivan, Ann. Issues in Gay and Lesbian Adoption. Child Welfare League of America, 1995.
Tasker, Fiona, and Susan Golombok. Growing Up in a Lesbian Family: Effects on Child Development. Guilford Press, 1998.

GAY CLERGY
Debates over the ordination of gays have dominated—and divided—major American Protestant groups for years. Most denominations
formally oppose the ordination of gays. In practice, however, many church leaders follow a “don’t ask, don’t tell” policy. Some church lead-
ers who have openly ordained gays have been dismissed from their posts. American Roman Catholics debated the issue throughout the
sex abuse scandals that engulfed the church in the opening years of this century. In 2003 the debate came to the fore in the Episcopal
Church with the consecration of its first openly gay bishop. The move threatened to split the domination. Two years later, the Vatican pro-
hibited the ordination of practicing homosexuals, those with deep-seated homosexual tendencies, or those who support “gay culture.”
PROS CONS
Leviticus also permits polygamy, bans tattoos, and pro- The Bible considers homosexuality “a grievous sin”
hibits the wearing of clothes made of blended textiles. (Genesis 18:20); a capital crime (Leviticus 20:13); and
Most Christians accept that parts of the Bible reflect the punishable by exclusion from the Kingdom of Heaven
societal attitudes of the time and are not relevant today. (1 Corinthians 6:9–10). Christians—especially the
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PROS CONS
The only New Testament comments about homosexual- clergy—must accept the Bible as the ultimate author-
ity come from Paul; Jesus does not address the issue. ity. Christian ministry is therefore incompatible with
homosexuality. Jesus was a radical teacher who over-
turned Jewish tradition where he thought it necessary.
His silence on homosexuality indicates that he saw no
need in this case.
Scientists are now confident they have isolated the “gay While homosexuality certainly has a genetic component,
gene” that makes individuals homosexual. Since science the existence of a “gay gene” has not been proven. Also,
is part of nature, homosexuality must be part of God’s genes create only predisposition; if one identical twin is
plan. gay, the probability that the other twin will be gay is only
52%. Genetic pre-dispositions to alcoholism and pedo-
philia have also been found, but society does not accept
these conditions as normal.
Condemning homosexuality as sex outside marriage and The Bible and Jesus strongly condemn sex outside of
therefore adultery is unfair because most denomina- marriage. Although Jesus spent time in the company of
tions do not recognize same-sex unions. Were they to adulterers, he loved “the sinner, not the sin” and ordered
do so, gays could enjoy sex within loving relationships, them to cease their behavior. His response to homosexu-
sanctified by the church, just as heterosexuals do. Jesus’ als would have been just as unequivocal.
main teaching was clear: “Love your God and love your
neighbor.” You cannot equate homosexual behavior with
adultery; the former causes pain and has a victim (the
betrayed partner), the latter can be a purely loving rela-
tionship.
Priests have a responsibility to represent the members Priests act as representatives of God for members of
of their congregations. A large number of Christians their congregation. Some people oppose women priests
are gay, and they can receive better spiritual direction because, while women are children of God and part of
from gay ministers than from heterosexuals who do not the church, they cannot represent Jesus because he was
understand their lifestyles or relationships. male. The same applies to gays; they cannot represent
Jesus because he was heterosexual.
Over the centuries, the church has revised its stand The church is not a political institution, changing and
on social issues as it seeks to reinterpret and re-explain catering to the views of the electorate. It acts as the
God’s message of love in terms of modern society. The curator of God’s word and maintains its principles no
acceptance of homosexuality and ordination of openly matter how unfashionable. Christianity will survive in
gay priests is a necessary next step. an increasingly secular age by maintaining a clear, con-
sistent message.
Sample Motions:
This House believes in the ordination of gay clergy.
This House calls for a representative clergy.
Web Links:
• BeliefNet. <http://www.beliefnet.com> Multi-faith site offering information on various religions and on religious issues.
• Boston Globe. <http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2005/11/29/debate_over_gay_clergy_is_testing_many_faiths/>
Background article on the debate.

• ReligiousTolerance.org: The Bible and Homosexuality. <http://www.religioustolerance.org/hom_bibl.htm> Summarizes the con-
servative and liberal interpretations of biblical passages that might relate to homosexuality.
Further Reading:
Didi, Herman. The Antigay Agenda: Orthodox Vision and the Christian Right. University of Chicago Press, 1997.
Kader, Samuel. Openly Gay, Openly Christian: How the Bible Really Is Gay Friendly. Leyland, 1999.
Keith, Hartman. Congregations in Conflict: The Battle over Homosexuality. Rutgers University Press, 1996.
Siker, Jeffrey. Homosexuality in the Church: Both Sides of the Debate. Westminster John Knox, 1994.

GAY MARRIAGE
American society increasingly supports equal rights for gays and lesbians in areas such as housing, employment, public accommodations,
etc. Yet many people continue to oppose granting homosexuals the right to marry or to formally register their unions with the state. In
2000 Vermont became the first state to grant gay and lesbian couples marriage-like status; in 2004 Massachusetts became the first state
to recognize same-sex marriage. In contrast, 19 states have constitutional amendments barring same sex marriage. Legal recognition of
same sex unions became a major issue in the 2004 presidential election and in 2006 the Senate Judiciary Committee supported a Federal
Marriage Amendment to the US Constitution, which would have prohibited states from recognizing same-sex marriages, but the amend-
ment failed in both the Senate and the House. Amendments banning same-sex marriage passed in seven of eight states in the 2006 mid-
term elections.
PROS CONS
The refusal of governments to permit gays to marry is While contemporary society should reject discrimina-
one of the last areas of discrimination against gays. The tion in general, some forms of discrimination can be
state should permit gay couples to marry as a means of objectively justified. Society has always viewed marriage
professing their love to and for each other. Societal views as a heterosexual institution, the religious and/or civil
ought to change with the times. union between a man and a woman.
Permitting gay couples to marry would enable them to Many of the financial benefits that married couples enjoy
take advantage of the various financial benefits accorded are not designed to encourage marriage per se but to pro-
to heterosexual married couples. mote the conventional family.
We must modify religious attitudes to reflect changes Historically marriage has been a religious institution.
in society. Many religious views are no longer justifiable Because most major world religions frown on homosex-
(e.g., the notion that women are inferior to men). Con- uality, they would find gay marriage unacceptable.
versely, if religious institutions oppose gay marriage as
against their beliefs, they should accept civil marriages.
Marriage is not merely an institution for raising children. Historically society has viewed child rearing as the major
Many married couples do not have children. In addition, purpose of marriage. Because gay couples are unlikely to
the number of single-parent families is increasing. In any have children, they have no need for marriage.
case, many countries permit gay singles and couples to
adopt. Advances in medical science also enable gay cou-
ples to have children through artificial insemination and
the use of surrogate mothers.
A “registered union” is an alternative to gay marriage. Finland, Sweden, Denmark, Belgium, and Spain permit
However, this arrangement is unacceptable because gay the registered union of gay couples. Registered couples
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PROS CONS
couples still would not enjoy the same rights as married are entitled to joint insurance coverage and enjoy inheri-
heterosexual couples. Moreover, registering would imply tance and tenants’ rights. Registration makes no incur-
that gay couples had an inferior status to married hetero- sions into the sanctity of the institution of marriage.
sexual couples, thus leading to discrimination. Consequently it should prove acceptable to the religious
sections of society.
Sample Motions:
This House would allow gay couples to marry.
This House would give homosexuals equal rights.
This House believes that discrimination can never be justified.
Web Links:
• Legal Gay Marriages in the Netherlands. <http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/world/europe/newsid_922000/922024.stm> BBC
story on the Dutch parliament’s passage of a bill giving gay marriage the same legal status as heterosexual marriage.
• RainbowGuide.com. <http://www.rainbowguide.com> Offers news on a variety of issues of interest to gays and lesbians.
Further Reading:
Lehr, Valerie. Queer Family Values: Debunking the Myth of the Nuclear Family. Temple University Press, 1999.
Myers, David G., and Letha Dawson Scanzoni. What God Has Joined Together: The Christian Case for Gay Marriage. HarperSan
Francisco, 2006.
Stanton, Glenn T. Marriage on Trial: The Case Against Same-Sex Marriage and Parenting. InterVarsity Press, 2004.
Sullivan, Andrew. Same-Sex Marriage: Pro and Con. Vintage, 2004.
Warner, Michael. The Trouble with Normal: Sex, Politics and the Ethics of Queer Life. Harvard University Press, 2000.

GAYS IN THE MILITARY

In 1993 President Bill Clinton attempted to remove the long-standing ban on gays in the US military but was forced to compromise
in the face of powerful military and congressional opposition. The Clinton administration reached a compromise known as “Don’t Ask,
Don’t Tell.” While the ban remained, the compromise permitted gays to serve if they did not disclose their sexual orientation or engage in
homosexual behavior. The military was also prohibited from trying to discover the sexual orientation of its personnel. The United States is
the only NATO country to maintain such a ban. The United Kingdom had a ban until January 2000, when it changed its policy after
the European Court of Human Rights declared it illegal.
PROS CONS
No one now can realistically doubt that gay men or This debate is about soldiers defending their country
women are as hard working, intelligent, or patriotic while sharing close quarters. Their effectiveness depends
as heterosexuals. Only sheer bigotry would deny the on mutual trust and uncomplicated camaraderie. Sexual
opportunity to join the military (and suffer its pervasive relations or tension between soldiers, no matter the
homophobia) to those who want to do so. gender, undermine this bond.
Much of the argument against the admission of gays is Not all gay applicants will have a vocational calling to
based on homophobia, which is encouraged by contin- the military. A disproportionate number of gays, lesbi-
ued segregation. Permitting straight soldiers to see how ans, and bisexuals may apply because the high concen-
effective gays can be will reduce prejudice. tration of individuals of one gender in military units
makes them a fruitful source of sexual partners. Using

PROS CONS
the military for this purpose will provoke even more
homophobia.
Many other professions require a bond of trust and The military is a special case. Its members work in life-or-
intense living conditions among employees. Gays are death situations where any mental distraction could be
not barred from any of them. fatal. Men and women aren’t sent into combat together;
why should gays and heterosexuals be?
If the armed forces accepted gays, they would not have to Closeted homosexuals run the risk of blackmail, which
remain in the closet, thus reducing the risk of blackmail. could have implications for national security.
In any case this risk is diminishing as society increasingly
accepts homosexuality.
Gays and lesbians frequently come to terms with their The problem is not so much the concept of a ban but the
sexuality in their late teens or early twenties, which might halfhearted enforcement of it. If a ban is well publicized
be long after they had enlisted. A ban would require the and if people understand that encouraging sexual inter-
firing of personnel who had joined in good faith. This is est among military personal is inappropriate, then gays
discrimination at its worst. are not being misled.
Sample Motions:
This House would not admit gays into the armed forces.
This House believes that the military and sexuality do not mix.
Web Links:
• The Ban on Gays in the Military: Links. <http://www.california.com/~rathbone/links001.htm> Links to history of “Don’t Ask,
Don’t Tell” policy, articles on gays in the military, and resources for gays.
• PBS. <http://www.pbs.org/newshour/forum/january00/gays_military.html> 2000 PBS forum on the issue.
Further Reading:
Belkin, Aaron, and Geoffrey Bateman. Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell: Debating the Gay Ban in the Military. Lynne Reinner, 2003.
Lehring, Gary L. Officially Gay: The Political Construction of Sexuality by the U.S. Military. Temple University Press, 2003.
Shilts, Randy. Conduct Unbecoming: Gays and Lesbians in the U.S. Military. St. Martin’s Griffin, 2005.

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GENE PATENTING
The pioneering research of the Human Genome Project has given us the ability to isolate our genes. This has engendered hope that
scientists may be able to use genetic research to treat or cure disease. By the end of the twentieth century, the US Patent Office had
granted more than 1,500 patents on fragments of human DNA. The patents are not on DNA in its natural state, but on the process
of discovering and isolating certain strings of DNA, and on DNA developed in the laboratory. But legal—and ethical—questions arise
when commercial companies attempt to patent genetic research. Many people fear that these companies are coming close to patenting the
building blocks of life itself.
PROS CONS
Companies engaged in genomic research are legally enti- Genes are the very basis of human life, and to claim that
tled to patent genes, so why should they be prevented anyone has the right to be regarded as the “owner” of
from doing so? a particular gene shows a basic disregard for humanity.
Patenting treatments based on genetic research is mor-
ally acceptable, but patenting genes is not.
If companies are not allowed to patent the products of Most genetic research is not conducted by private com-
their research, other companies will exploit their find- panies. The publicly funded Human Genome Project
ings. Without the safeguards that a patent provides, has contributed, by far, the greater amount of knowl-
companies will end their research because they see no edge in this area. Patenting stifles research. We need to
future profit. ban patenting in order to protect the public investment
in genome research.
An inventor must be able to protect his or her inven- Facts do not support this contention; the Myriad Com-
tion. Private companies will continue genomic research pany, which holds patents on isolating BRCA 1 & 2,
because it promises to be extremely lucrative. Competi- genes connected with breast cancer, prevented the Uni-
tors will be willing to pay royalties to the patent holder versity of Pennsylvania from using a test for these genes
for use of the material because they, too, can foresee that was substantially cheaper than the company’s own
future profit. screening procedure. Companies are putting private
profit before public good. Instead of protecting their
research investment, companies have a moral duty to
facilitate the development of inexpensive treatments and
screening procedures.
Patents are granted for a limited time in the United Patenting discourages research because scientists fear
States, 17 years. Companies need this time to recoup costly lawsuits by patent holders. Medical and biotech
their investments. If another company wishes to pursue patent holders frequently exploit their monopolies,
a project in a patented area, it can always consult the charging what they like for their drugs and treatments.
patent owner. It was only after immense public protest, for example,
that companies cut the prices of their AIDS medicines
for African countries.
Profit has proved to be the most practical means of pro- The Human Genome Project makes its research read-
moting medical advances. It is unrealistic and ill con- ily available to ensure the free flow of information and
ceived to criticize an incentive that has brought us such stimulate further research. The only barriers to genetic
benefits. research should be those of conscience.

Sample Motions:
This House would allow the patenting of genes.
This House believes that genes are inventions.
Web Links:
• Celera. <http://www.celera.com/> Biotech company site includes statement of its mission in genomic research.
• The National Human Genome Research Institute (US). <http://www.genome.gov/> Excellent source of research on all aspects of
the Human Genome Project.
Further Reading:
Matare, Herbert. Bioethic: The Ethics of Evolution and Genetic Interference. Bergin & Garvey, 1999.

GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOODS

The development of genetically modified (GM) foods has precipitated an ongoing debate among consumers, environmentalists, scien-
tists, and even economists. On the one hand, genetic modification has improved crop characteristics—yield, resistance to disease, pests,
or drought, etc.—and has contributed to global health. Recently, scientists announced the development of “golden rice”—rice genetically
modified to produce greater levels of vitamin A—which can help prevent a variety of diseases in developing countries. On the other hand,
the procedure has raised a number of concerns including the long-term risks to humans and the environment. Economists also point out
that because biotechnology companies often patent GM crop varieties, farmers will become increasingly dependent on monopolies for seed.
PROS CONS
Genetic modification is unnatural. There is a fundamen- Genetic modification is entirely natural. The process of
tal difference between modification via selective breeding crop cultivation by selective breeding, which has been
and genetic engineering techniques. The former occurs performed by farmers for thousands of years, leads to
over thousands of years and so the genes are changed exactly the same kind of changes in DNA as modern
much more gradually. With change occurring so rapidly, modification techniques do. Current techniques are
we now have no time to assess the long-term effects of just faster and more selective. In fact, given two strands
these products on human health and the environment. of DNA created from the same original strand, one by
selective breeding and one by modern modification
techniques, it is impossible to tell which is the “natu-
ral” strand. The changes resulting from selective breed-
ing have been just as radical as current modifications.
Wheat, for example, was cultivated through selective
breeding from an almost no-yield rice-type crop into the
super-crop it is today.
Introducing the DNA of one species into the genes of It is perfectly natural and safe to introduce genes from
another is wrong. This attempt to play God is short- one organism into another. We must remember that all
sighted and unnatural. DNA is made up of the same four fundamental mol-
ecules regardless of which organism the DNA came
from originally. DNA from all organisms is very similar.
Human DNA is 99% the same as chimpanzee DNA and
about 50% the same as grass DNA. Consequently, the
addition of genes from one organism into the DNA of
another is like using LEGOs to create a structure. Indeed
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PROs CONS
such processes occur all the time in nature in sexual
reproduction.
Testing GM food is often difficult. Biotechnology com- This debate should be decided on the basis of hard facts,
panies are often unwilling to submit their results for not woolly assertions and environmental sentiment.
peer review. Furthermore, in some countries government Until scientific tests show that GM food poses a risk
agencies are often unwilling to stop GM foodstuffs from to agriculture or health, it should not be banned. GM
reaching the shelf because of the clout the companies foods undergo extensive testing before they are placed on
have with the government. the market. This testing takes two forms: peer review by
other scientists and testing by the food standards agen-
cies in the countries in which the product is to be mar-
keted. For example, in the United States all GM food
must be tested for nine years before being released onto
the market.
GM foods are potentially dangerous. Human health is at The fears about GM food are a result of media
risk because, despite extensive testing, scientists cannot scares about “frankenfood.” Few deaths have been
anticipate all the problems that might occur when food directly attributed to genetic modification, and sci-
is modified. This risk will increase as biotechnology entists are taking all reasonable precautions to ensure
companies introduce more modifications. GM foods these products are safe. The need for many different
also present a danger to the environment. The use of strains is not an argument against GM crops. Sci-
these crops has resulted in fewer strains planted. If dis- entists and farmers cannot produce and plant many
ease wipes out a few these strains, the result could be different strains. Furthermore, scientists have no evi-
catastrophic. In addition, removing certain varieties of dence that cross-pollination of GM with non-GM
crops wipes out the organisms that feed on them. Fur- varieties is harmful.
thermore, pollen produced from GM crops can acciden-
tally fertilize unmodified crops, polluting the natural
gene pool. This cross-pollination, in turn, makes label-
ing foods impossible. Thus consumers will not be able to
choose whether to purchase GM crops.
GM food will not help solve hunger in developing The possible benefits from GM food are enormous.
countries. The problem in such countries is not one of Modifications that render plants less vulnerable to pests
food production but of distribution (due to wars, for lead to less pesticide use, which is better for the environ-
example), the emphasis on cash crops rather than staple ment. Other modifications increase crop yield, which
crops (to pay off the national debt), and deforestation leads to lower food prices. This technology is particularly
and desertification. In addition, many GM strains are important for developing countries; it can help farmers
infertile, forcing farmers to buy seed annually from com- grow crops in arid soil. More important, it can help pre-
panies that can charge whatever they want because they vent diseases as the introduction of “golden rice” has
have a patent on the strain. shown.
Yes, banning GM food would decrease consumer choice. Banning GM food results in fewer choices for the con-
However, governments have the right and obligation to sumer. Scientists can prevent crossbreeding between GM
intervene to prevent harm to both the population and and non-GM plants so that foods can be properly labeled
the environment. Besides, the number of consumers and consumers maintain their freedom of choice.
who actually want GM food is tiny.
Genetically modifying food is yet another means by The question of whether crop varieties should be allowed
which multinational corporations can exercise illegiti- to be patented is separate from the debate on whether
mate economic power over developing nations. The GM food is itself good or bad.
combination of the patenting of genes and the use of the

PROs CONS
terminator gene is a recipe for exploiting the developing
world and destroying traditional agriculture.
Issues of principle should always come before pragmatic Unemployment in the biotechnology industry would
concerns about unemployment. People have jobs that increase dramatically if GM foods were banned.
are dependent on illegal trade in endangered species and
in drugs and arms. Maintaining or providing employ-
ment is not an argument for the continuation of these
harmful and immoral practices nor is it an argument in
favor of GM foods.
Sample Motions:
This House would ban genetically modified food.
This House believes that genetically modified foods are not in the public interest.
This House would not eat “frankenfood.”
Web Links:
• GM Organism. <http://www.newscientist.com/channel/opinion/gm-food/> Site, sponsored by NewScientist, presents information
in opposition to the cultivation and sale of GM foods.
• Scope Forum. <http://scope.educ.washington.edu/gmfood/> Curriculum site, maintained by the University of California at Berke-
ley, presenting the pros and cons of GM food as well as links to other sources.
• Shiva, Vandana. “Reith Lecture on Poverty and Globalisation.” <http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/events/reith_2000/
lecture5.stm> Transcript of a lecture on the impact of genetically modified seeds on Indian farmers.
Further Reading:
Federoff, Nina, and Nancy Marie Brown. Mendel in the Kitchen: A Scientist’s View of Genetically Modified Foods. Joseph Henry Press,
2004.
Lambrecht, Bill. Dinner at the New Gene Cafe: How Genetic Engineering Is Changing What We Eat, How We Live, and the Global
Politics of Food. St. Martin’s Griffin, 2001.
Miller, Henry I., and Gregory Conko. The Frankenfood Myth: How Protest and Politics Threaten the Biotech Revolution. Praeger,
2004.
Pinstrum-Andersen, Per, and Ebba Schioler. Seeds of Contention: World Hunger and the Global Controversy Over GM (Genetically
Modified) Crops. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001.
Ruse, Michael, and David Castle. Genetically Modified Foods: Debating Biotechnology. Prometheus, 2002.

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GENETIC SCREENING
Francis Galton coined the term “eugenics” in 1883 during his work on the genetic basis of intelligence. Literally meaning “good breed-
ing,” the term referred to the restructuring of the characteristics of the human race through selective mating (and subsequent reproduction)
of the higher echelons of society. Some people, including Theodore Roosevelt, embraced the idea at the turn of the nineteenth century, but
it lost favor as a result of its association with Nazi Germany, which took the idea to its extreme. Today, as a result of advances in biotech-
nology, we can screen fetuses to determine their predisposition to certain congenital disorders. In 2000, a baby boy, Adam Nash, was born
after having been genetically screened as an embryo, from several embryos created by in vitro fertilization by his parents. They chose that
embryo because tests showed that it was genetically healthy and the baby would be able to act as a bone marrow donor for his sister, who
had a genetic disease. The case sparked heated moral debate.
PROS CONS
Testing embryonic cells can help to identify potentially Embryonic testing could become a slippery slope for
debilitating illnesses or inherited disorders. It can also future exploitation of the process. It must not develop
determine the sex of a baby, allowing parents who carry into the widespread abuse of screening to create “designer
a sex-linked genetic disorder to have children without babies” chosen for aesthetic or other qualities considered
passing on the disorder to their children. It is eminently desirable. This is morally wrong.
sensible to use this technology to ensure that children are
as healthy as possible.
We have a duty to give a child the best possible start Are we not presuming that those born with physical
in life, and if the technology is available to determine or mental defects or genetic predispositions to certain
whether a baby will have a genetic disease such as Hun- diseases do not enjoy a quality of life as high and a life
tington’s we should use it. This is not a case of engineer- as fruitful as those born without? To suggest that they
ing a child. be bred out of society is presumptuous and abhorrent.
More to the point, many “defective” genes confer advan-
tages of a different nature, e.g., the sickle cell anemia
allele protects somewhat against malaria.
When a number of embryos are created through in vitro The proposition holds sinister overtones of treating
fertilization, the embryos not chosen after screening may embryos like commodities. Even more morally dubious
be offered up for “adoption.” Human life will not be is the idea of disposing of those embryos that do not
thrown away, and childless couples can benefit. conform to the requirements of health.
Sample Motions:
This House would choose its babies.
This House would genetically engineer its children.
This House calls for more genetic screening.
Web Links:
• Bioethics. <http://library.thinkquest.org/29322/mainpage1.htm> Broad site on bioethics, offering information on medical devel-
opments and ethical problems.
• Center for Bioethics. <http://www.med.upenn.edu/~bioethic> Maintained by the University of Pennsylvania, the site provides
links to resources in bioethics.
Further Reading:
Andrews, Lori B. Future Perfect. Columbia University Press, 2001.
Chadwick, Ruth, Darren Shickle, and Henk Ten Have. The Ethics of Genetic Screening. Kluwer, 1999.
Rothman, Barbara Katz. The Book of Life: A Personal Guide to Race, Normality and the Implications of the Human Genome Project.
Beacon, 2001.

GLOBALIZATION AND THE POOR
Globalization is the process that spreads economic, political, social, and cultural activity across national boundaries and increases the inte-
gration of internationally dispersed activities. Foreign media often focus on the spread of American culture (characterized as fast food res-
taurants, Hollywood movies, etc.), but academic debates center around more fundamental economic issues. While globalization may have
benefited industrialized nations and transnational corporations (TNCs), has the trend eroded global and national solidarity and increased
the poverty and isolation of developing nations?
PROS CONS
Globalization marginalizes the poor. It is a means of Globalization is eroding the differences between devel-
exclusion, deepening inequality and reinforcing the oped and developing nations, sometimes called the
division of the world into core and periphery. It is a North-South divide. It is a progressive force for creating
new form of Western imperialism that dominates and global prosperity. Through free trade and capital mobil-
exploits through TNC capital and global governance by ity, globalization is creating a global market in which
institutions such as the World Bank and the Interna- prosperity, wealth, power, and liberal democracy are
tional Monetary Fund (IMF). being diffused around the globe.
Globalization has intensified global and national inequal- Globalization has increased world prosperity, and orga-
ity. The economic and social gaps within countries and nizational efforts to stabilize the world economy have
between countries are widening, with the rich becoming shown significant progress. By historical standards global
richer and the poor becoming poorer. Globalization is poverty has fallen more in the last 50 years than in the
an uneven process causing world fragmentation. Trade previous 500, and the welfare of people in almost all
has also seen increasing inequality. Because of increas- regions has improved considerably during the past few
ing globalization the value of world trade is 17 times decades. Globalization will bring about the end of the
greater than 50 years ago, but Latin America’s share has Third World. The fall in the developing nations’ share
fallen from 11% to 5% and Africa’s from 8% to 2%. The of world trade is due to internal economic, social, and
terms of trade have increasingly moved against develop- political conditions in individual countries.
ing nations.
Globalization exploits developing nations and their poor Globalization promotes development by spreading tech-
through TNCs. Globalization is a euphemism for trans- nology and knowledge to poor nations. The poorest
nationalization, the spread of powerful companies to nations are those countries bypassed by globalization.
areas that best suit corporate interests.
Increased global integration means that poorer countries Globalization has brought about huge benefits. The
become more vulnerable to world financial markets. The emergence of a single global market, free trade, capital
East Asian economic crisis of the 1990s, a direct result mobility, and global competition has permitted the dif-
of globalization, increased and intensified poverty. The fusion of prosperity, wealth, and power. Globalization
crisis shows that even the strongest developing states are has opened up new opportunities and is the harbinger of
at the mercy of global economic forces that serve the modernization and development. It was the force that led
interests of the dominant capitalist powers. Globaliza- to the successful development of East Asia and its “eco-
tion also resulted in the speedy transition of the crisis to nomic miracle.” Far from making developing nations
the other East Asian countries—the “contagion effect”— more vulnerable, increased global integration means that
with devastating human consequences. The benefits of better organizational structures are in place to address
the global market accrue to a relatively small proportion world political, economic, and social problems.
of the world’s population. The stronger become stronger
and the weak become weaker.
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PROS CONS
Globalization is a form of disempowerment. Outside The policies of institutions such as the IMF and the
interference from the World Bank and the IMF has World Bank have reinforced the global market. Outside
weakened the economies of poor nations and constrained intervention allows the dissemination of effective eco-
development. International negotiations to reduce and nomic management strategies to less developed areas.
eliminate foreign debt have led to increasing exports of
capital and deeper indebtedness in developing nations.
Sample Motions:
This House believes that globalization marginalizes the poor.
This House believes that globalization will bring about the end of the Third World.
This House believes that globalization is a euphemism for transnationalization.
Web Links:
• Government Report: Making Globalisation Work for the Poor. <http://www.dfid.gov.uk> British government report on globaliza-
tion and developing nations.
• Poverty and Globalisation. <http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/events/reith_2000/lecture5.stm> Part of the BBC lecture se-
ries, Respect for the Earth. Lecture emphasizes the impact of globalization on food producers, particularly women.
Further Reading:
Allen, Tim, and Alan Thomas. Poverty and Development into the 21st Century. Oxford University Press, 2000.
Driscoll, William, and Julie Clark, eds. Globalization and the Poor: Exploitation or Equalizer? International Debate Education Asso-
ciation, 2003.
Isaak, Robert A. The Globalization Gap: How the Rich Get Richer and the Poor Get Left Further Behind. Prentice Hall/Financial Times,
2005.

GLOBAL WARMING
Since the 1980s, a growing body of evidence has suggested that industrialization is affecting Earth’s climate. As a result, in 1997 the
industrialized nations of the world agreed to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions under the Kyoto Protocol. The protocol has come under
attack from both sides—many environmentalists feel that it does not really address the threat of global warming, while many in industry
feel it is an unnecessary burden. Although the United States signed the agreement, in 2001 President George W. Bush announced that
the United States would abandon its commitment to the protocol as it was not in the nation’s best economic interests. Global warming is a
particularly difficult issue because it demands a worldwide response. Many developing nations are understandably angered that a problem
that seems to have been created by the rich, developed nations will have the most impact on the Third World. A global consensus remains
far off.
PROS CONS
Over the past 100 years, humankind has been burning Scientists have not yet proved conclusively that human-
increasing quantities of fossil fuels to provide energy. kind is causing global warming. Although average tem-
This has released large volumes of gases into the atmo- peratures rose during the twentieth century, tempera-
sphere, particularly CO2. At the same time, the world’s tures actually dropped slightly between the 1930s and
remaining large forests, which help absorb CO2, are the 1970s. This was not associated with a reduction in
being rapidly felled. Overall, the levels of carbon diox- fossil fuel consumption; emissions actually increased over
ide in the atmosphere have increased by 30% during this period. If the “greenhouse gases” are responsible for

PROS CONS
the last century. When in the atmosphere, CO2 and global warming, how do you account for this? Accurate
other gases are thought to cause a “greenhouse effect”: records simply do not cover a long enough period to be
They allow sunlight to pass through, but absorb heat useful. The Earth’s average temperature varies naturally
emitted by the Earth, trapping it and leading to global through time, and we have few good explanations of the
warming. Weather records seem to support this theory. Ice Ages. Indeed, there was a “mini–Ice Age” around 400
Average temperatures have increased by 0.6°C since the years ago, during which the River Thames in England
nineteenth century; the four hottest years since accu- repeatedly froze over in winter. This was followed by an
rate records have been kept have all been in the 1990s. intense but natural period of “global warming.” We do
Unusual weather patterns such as floods and droughts not have enough information to say that current trends
have also been on the increase, with the uncharacter- are not simply a natural variation.
istically strong El Niño events of recent years causing
widespread disruption. The Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC), an international body set up to
study possible global warming, has concluded that “. . .
the balance of evidence suggests that there is a discern-
ible human influence on global climate.”
Computer models predict that continued global warm- Again, our computer models for predicting climate
ing could have catastrophic effects. Changes in temper- change are far from reliable. Weather is a hugely com-
ature could devastate wildlife when local vegetation dies plex system that we are only beginning to understand.
off. Patterns of disease could change. Already isolated It is affected by many factors, including solar activity,
cases of malaria have been reported far north of tradi- volcanic eruptions, ocean currents, and other cycles that
tional danger zones as warmer weather allows the mos- we are gradually discovering. Very slight changes in the
quitoes that carry the disease to spread. Most important, computer model result in immense differences in predic-
a portion of the polar ice caps might melt and lead to a tions. Some scientists, for example, have suggested that
rise in sea level, which has already increased by between global warming could actually cause a drop in sea level as
10 and 25 cm in the last 100 years. Giant cracks have rainfall patterns and ocean currents shift. Indeed, refine-
been found in the Larsen ice shelf in Antarctica, which ments in the models used by the IPCC have caused it
suggest that it is breaking apart; a section 48 miles wide to modify its predictions. In 1990, the IPCC estimated
and 22 miles long drifted free and melted as early as that by 2100 the average temperature would rise by 3°C
1994. If, as experts believe, temperatures rise a further and the sea would rise by about 65cm; in 1995, it revised
3°C over the next century, low-lying areas and even its estimates to 2°C and 50 cm. The more research that
entire countries, such as Bangladesh, could disappear takes place, the less catastrophic global warming seems
under the waves. to be. The media always report the predictions of doom
most widely.
Technology has now reached the point where we can Of course greater energy efficiency is important. How-
continue to increase standards of living without burning ever, most alternative fuels are simply not effective. They
fossil fuels. Renewable sources of energy, such as wind can also cause their own problems. Nuclear power cre-
or solar power, are ripe for development, but have yet ates unacceptable radioactive waste; hydroelectric power
to see the levels of investment needed to make them projects, such as the Three Gorges Dam in China, lead
truly effective. More efficient use of energy is also vital. to the flooding of vast areas and the destruction of the
Encouraging the development of electric cars or promot- local environment; solar and wind power often require
ing better insulation of houses could make a substantial the covering of large areas of natural beauty with solar
difference in CO2 levels in the long run. panels or turbines. Environmentalists often paint an ide-
alistic view of renewable energy that is far from the less
romantic reality.
Global warming is a worldwide catastrophe waiting to The evidence for global warming is not strong enough
happen. The emission of greenhouse gases affects every- to merit this kind of response. The changes over the past
one. It is, therefore, vital that the entire world respond century may certainly have been purely natural. Environ-
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PROS CONS
now. The targets set by the Kyoto Protocol will barely mentalists in the developed world can afford the luxury
scratch the surface of the problem. The developed world of demanding government action because reducing pol-
agreed to only minimal reductions in carbon dioxide lution will have a minimal impact on their technology-
emissions, and no agreement was reached involving the based economies. Those in the developing world are not
developing world, which is producing a greater percent- so lucky. Industrialization is a key part of building suc-
age of greenhouse gas emissions every year. Gases like cessful economies and bringing prosperity to the world’s
CO2 remain in the atmosphere for centuries. If we wait poorest people; heavy industry is often the only area in
until we can see the results of global warming, it may be which developing nations can compete. Global action
too late. The damage will have been done. We must act on greenhouse gas emissions would sustain the inequali-
now, and we must act globally. Developed countries must ties of the status quo. The developing world would have
do all they can to reduce their use of fossil fuels. They to depend on multinational corporations to provide the
must assist developing nations to do the same, by shar- technology needed to keep pollution levels low, or else
ing technology or perhaps through “emissions trading,” they would have to stop expanding their economies.
allowing poorer countries to sell their quota of pollution Having apparently caused the problem through the
in return for hard cash. International pressure must be industrialization that made them powerful, developed
exerted against those countries that do not cooperate, countries would be pulling the ladder up behind them,
even if this slows economic growth. The poorest regions depriving other countries of the chance to grow. This is
of the world would suffer most from more droughts and simply unacceptable. In the modern world, one of our
floods and rising sea levels. However difficult it may be first priorities must be to help the poorest people achieve
in the short term, such actions now may save millions of the prosperity they need to support themselves. The cur-
lives in the future. rent evidence for global warming does not begin to merit
endangering this goal.
Sample Motions:
This House believes that the Kyoto Protocol didn’t go far enough.
This House calls for urgent action on global warming.
This House fears a global greenhouse.
This House believes that global warming demands global action.
Web Links:
• Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. <http://www.ipcc.ch> Offers reports assessing scientific, technical, and socioeco-
nomic information related to human-induced climate change.
• Kyoto Protocol. <http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/1997/global.warming/stories/treaty/> Full text of the Kyoto Protocol.
• National Center for Policy Analysis. <http://www.ncpa.org/bothside/gw.html> Site presenting arguments on both sides of the
debate.
• World Meteorological Organization. <http://www.wmo.ch> UN organization provides information on meteorological issues as
well as a statement on the status of the global climate.
Further Reading:
Flannery, Tim. The Weather Makers: How Man Is Changing the Climate and What It Means for Life on Earth. Atlantic Monthly Press,
2006.
Gore, Al. An Inconvenient Truth. Rodale, 2006.
Klobert, Elizabeth. Field Notes from a Catastrophe. Bloomsbury USA, 2006.
Lovelock, James. The Revenge of Gaia: Earth’s Climate Crisis and the Fate of Humanity. Basic Books, 2006.


GOD, EXISTENCE OF
This is the “Big” question, the ultimate metaphysical debate. It has occupied the world’s best minds for centuries. Followers of many reli-
gions have offered proofs of the existence of God. Below are arguments from within the Judeo-Christian and Islamic traditions.
PROS CONS
The world is so magnificent and wonderful, so full of You cannot infer from the variety and beauty of the
variety and beauty that it is inconceivable that it could world that God was the creator. The conception of God
have come about purely by chance. It is so intricate that a contains many extra attributes that are not necessary for
conscious hand must have been involved in its creation. a world creator. Just because the world is beautiful and
Therefore, God exists as the creator of the world. varied does not mean it was consciously designed. Why
can’t beauty happen by accident?
If you saw a watch lying on the sand, you would think The difference between a watch and humans is that the
that someone must have made the watch—a watch- watch serves a purpose—to tell time. Therefore, seeing
maker. Similarly, we human beings are so complicated something so perfectly serving a purpose suggests design.
and amazing that we must conclude that we had a con- What purpose do we serve? We don’t, we just exist. And
scious maker. even if we were designed for a purpose, the earlier argu-
ment applies: A purposeful designer isn’t necessarily
God.
Only human beings are capable of rational thought. That The argument from probability does not work. It relies
we are here at all is amazing. One infinitesimal change on there being something special about us. What is so
in the world and life would not have evolved. Getting special about us? We are rational—so what?
something so amazing, on such long odds, smacks of
intention.
God must be perfect if he exists. But a thing that exists is This ontological argument can be rebutted by rejecting
more perfect than a thing that doesn’t exist. But nothing the idea that existence is perfection. Something either
can be more perfect than God. So God must exist. exists or it doesn’t. The argument is a disguised condi-
tional. You say “if God exists then he must be perfect,
and if he must be perfect he must therefore exist.” But
all this rests on the initial “if God exists.” If God doesn’t
exist, we don’t have the problem and the argument
doesn’t work.
Everything in the universe has a cause. It is inconceivable The cosmological argument doesn’t work. For a start, an
that time is one long chain of cause and effect without uncaused first cause still doesn’t necessarily have all the
beginning, but it must be because we cannot conceive of attributes it would need to be called God, e.g., omnipo-
something happening uncaused. Therefore, God exists tence, benevolence, and omniscience. More important,
as the uncaused first cause. an uncaused first cause is just as incomprehensible to us
as an endless chain of cause and effect. You are just shift-
ing the incomprehension one stage back.
Sample Motions:
This House believes that God exists.
This House believes that reports of God’s death have been greatly exaggerated.
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Web Links:
• Counterbalance. <http://www.counterbalance.org> Contains summary of debate about the existence of God from the cosmologi-
cal standpoint.
• Existence of God. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existence_of_God> Detailed article presenting the classic arguments on both
sides of the issue.
• The Existence of God and the Beginning of the Universe. <http://www.leaderu.com/truth/3truth11.html> An academic paper em-
ploying the cosmological argument for the existence of God.
• New Advent. <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06608b.htm> Detailed essay on a Roman Catholic Web site outlining the vari-
ous proofs for the existence of God.
Further Reading:
Hume, David. Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion. New ed. Routledge, 1991.
Strobel, Lee. The Case for a Creator: A Journalist Investigates Scientific Evidence That Points Toward God. Zonderan, 2004.
Yandell, Keith. Philosophy of Religion: A Contemporary Introduction. Routledge, 1999.

GREENHOUSE GASES: TRADING QUOTAS

A number of methods have been proposed to reduce the emissions of the so-called greenhouse gases that lead to global warming. The
European Union has always favored taxing heavy polluters, while the United States has supported Tradable Pollution Quotas (TPQs).
The 1997 Kyoto Protocol laid the foundation for TPQs. Under this agreement developing countries are exempt from the emission
standards and cannot take part directly in pollution trading. Each country in the TPQ plan is initially permitted to produce a certain
maximum amount of each polluting gas. Countries that want to exceed their quotas can buy the right to do so from other countries that
have produced less than their quota. Furthermore, countries can also “sink” carbon (by planting forests to remove carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere) to offset some of their pollution quotas. Interestingly, two usually opposing groups are against TPQs. Industries claim that
they go too far and that such stringent regulation is unnecessary. Environmentalists maintain that they are too lax.
PROS CONS
The scientific community agrees that something must be The environmental lobby has hugely overestimated the
done to curb emissions of greenhouse gases that may be claims for pollution damaging the environment. The
the cause of global warming. The possible consequences fossil record indicates that climate change has occurred
of global warming include crop failure, mass flooding, frequently in the past, and there is little evidence linking
and the destruction of entire ecosystems with the pos- climate change with emissions.
sible loss of billions of lives. Other consequences of pol-
lution include acid rain and the enlargement of the hole
in the ozone layer.
The TPQ plan is the only practical way to reduce emis- The TPQ plan ensures more pollution in the long run
sions of greenhouse gases globally. It will guarantee that than if limits were strictly enforced for each country and
global levels of these gases are kept below strict targets punitive taxes imposed on those exceeding their quotas.
and is more realistic than expecting heavy polluters to Without TPQs, the environment would benefit further
cut their emissions overnight. if a country kept well below its emissions quota. Adopt-
ing the TPQ plan means that this benefit is lost because
the right to this extra pollution is bought by another
country.

PROS CONS
Emissions are a global problem. The emission of the main Stating that it does not matter where pollution is pro-
greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide, for example, affects the duced is simplistic and completely untrue for many gases,
entire planet regardless of where the gas is produced. which do affect the region in which they are created. Fur-
This validates the use of TPQs, which act to limit the thermore, to permit developing countries to industrial-
total amount of each polluting gas globally. TPQs are ize, they have been exempted from the protocol. This
much more effective than the alternative of taxing emis- seriously undermines its efficiency. Furthermore, if taxes
sions, because rich companies or countries will be able to on pollution were set high enough, big companies would
pay the tax and still pollute. stop polluting because it would be prohibitively expen-
sive. In addition, the introduction of TPQs will make
later reductions in global emissions much harder. Once
trading in TPQs has started, countries that have bought
extra emission rights would certainly not voluntarily give
them up to help reduce global emissions further.
TPQs are tried and tested. The United States has used TPQs have had some success in the United States, but
them successfully since they were introduced in 1990. they failed in Europe for two reasons. First, the European
Therefore, we have good reason to expect them to suc- plans were poorly conceived, as was the Kyoto Protocol.
ceed on a global scale. Second, whereas the American solution to pollution was
always trading emissions, the main European solution
was, and still is, to produce new technology to clean the
emissions. Extending the TPQ plan to the entire globe
will slow the technological developments needed to
reduce greenhouse gases.
Progress in the field of emission control is remarkably The Kyoto Protocol lacks a comprehensive enforcement
difficult because of the opposition from the industrial mechanism and is thus ineffective. In addition, assess-
lobby, most notably in the United States, which sees ing the effect that an individual country’s carbon “sink”
such restrictions as harmful to its economy. TPQs are is having on the atmosphere is impossible. This merely
the one method of control acceptable to these lobby creates a loophole that allows a country to abuse the pro-
groups and, more significant, to the US government. As tocol and produce more than its quota of gases.
the world’s biggest polluter, the United States must be
included in any meaningful treaty. Therefore, TPQs are
the only practical way forward.
TPQs cause less damage to an economy than any other TPQs will hit employment hard. Even developed coun-
emission control regime. Individual companies and tries are not so rich that they can simply buy enough
countries can trade TPQs on the free market until they quotas to avoid pollution; neither can they afford to
have struck the right balance between the cost of paying install the expensive cleaning technology. Growth will
to pollute and the cost of cleaning up their industry. consequently decline and with that decline will come a
drop in living standards in developed countries.
Sample Motions:
This House would buy the right to pollute.
This House supports tradable pollution quotas.
This House believes that the Kyoto Protocol got it right.
Web Links:
• Environmental Protection Administration. <http://yosemite.epa.gov/oar/globalwarming.nsf/UniqueKeyLookup/SHSU5BPQXU/
$File/emissions_trading.pdfLeonardo Academy Inc.> Paper describing how emissions trading works.
• Leonardo Academy. <http://www.leonardoacademy.org/Resources/emissiontrading.htm> Introduction to emissions trading.
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Further Reading:
Grubb, Michael, et al. Kyoto Protocol: A Guide and Assessment. Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1999.
Victor, David G. The Collapse of the Kyoto Protocol and the Struggle to Slow Global Warming. Princeton University Press, 2001.

GUN CONTROL
The issue of gun control has divided American society for years. Supporters insist that tighter measures are needed to curb crime and
to prevent tragedies like the recent wave of school massacres where students used guns to kill other students and teachers. Opponents
insist that they have the constitutional right to carry guns, and that people, not guns, cause crime. Long considered a uniquely American
problem, gun control has become an issue in many European nations as a result of incidents including the school massacre in Erfurt, Ger-
many, in 2002.
PROS CONS
The only function of a gun is to kill. The more instru- Prohibition is not the answer. Banning guns would not
ments of death and injury we remove from our society, make them disappear or make them any less dangerous.
the safer we will be. Citizens have the right to own weapons to protect them-
selves, their families, and their property. Many people
also need guns for other reasons; farmers, for example,
need them to protect their stock and crops.
The legal ownership of guns by law-abiding citizens Guns don’t kill people; people kill people. Restricting
inevitably leads to many unnecessary and tragic deaths. gun ownership will do nothing to make society safer.
Legally held guns end up in the hands of criminals, who Most crimes involve illegal weapons.
would have greater difficulty in obtaining weapons if
they were less prevalent. Guns also end up in the hands
of children, leading to tragic accidents and terrible disas-
ters like the Columbine massacre.
Shooting as a sport desensitizes people to the lethal nature Shooting is a major sport enjoyed by many law-abid-
of all firearms, creating a gun culture that glamorizes and ing people. Sportsmen have the right to continue their
legitimizes unnecessary gun ownership. The minority chosen leisure activity. Spending on guns and ancillary
who enjoy blood sports should not be allowed to block equipment puts large sums into the economy. Hunters
the interests of society as a whole in gun control. also put food on the table.
Burglary should not be punished by vigilante killings. Law-abiding citizens deserve the right to protect their
No amount of property is worth a human life. Keeping families in their own homes. Would-be rapists and armed
firearms in the home for protection leads to accidental burglars will think twice before attempting to break into
deaths. And, perversely, criminals may be more likely a house where owners may keep firearms.
to carry weapons if they think they are in danger from
homeowners.
There is a correlation between the leniency of a country’s A country is more able to defend itself if many of its citi-
gun laws and its suicide rate—not because gun owners zens are proficient with firearms. Some countries require
are depressive, but because the means of quick and effec- adult citizens to maintain weapons and periodically train

PROS CONS
tive suicide is at hand. The state should discourage and in their use. Of course, such widespread ownership of
restrict the ownership of something that wastes so many weapons is also a safeguard against domestic tyranny.
lives.
Sample Motions:
This House calls for stricter controls on gun ownership.
This House believes there is no right to bear arms.
Web Links:
• Guide to Gun Laws, Gun Control and Gun Rights. <http://www.jurist.law.pitt.edu/gunlaw.htm> The site, maintained by the Le-
gal Education Network, offers resources on all sides of the gun control debate.
• Hodgdon. <http://www.hodgdon.com/liberty/gcn.htm> Site outlines a campaign for stricter gun control in the United Kingdom.
• National Rifle Association of America. <http://www.nra.org/> America’s most powerful pro-gun lobby offers information on cam-
paigns to limit gun control.
Further Reading:
Carter, Gregg Lee. Gun Control in the United States: A Reference Handbook. ABC-CLIO, 2006.
Lott, John R. The Bias Against Guns: Why Almost Everything You’ve Heard About Gun Control Is Wrong. Regnery Publishing, 2003.
Spitzer, Robert J. The Politics of Gun Control. CQ Press, 2003.

HATE SPEECH ON CAMPUS

Over the past few decades, a number of American colleges have reported incidents of verbal abuse and hate speech directed against minori-
ties and homosexuals on their campuses. In response, many schools have adopted codes prohibiting speech that is racist, sexist, homophobic,
or offensive to religious groups.
PROS CONS
The rights we enjoy come with responsibilities. Minori- Free speech is one of our basic rights and should be
ties have a right to be free from verbal abuse and fear. upheld at all costs. College administrations may abuse
If such rights are not informally respected, the college these speech codes, using them to silence those whom
administration has the right and obligation to adopt they consider disruptive. Upholding the right to hate
codes prohibiting offensive speech. speech will protect the free speech of everyone. Col-
leges should outlaw hate crimes, not hate speech. While
we may abhor such views, it would be wrong to censor
them.
The constant repetition of hate speech promotes offen- Stereotyping is a result of the underrepresentation of
sive racial stereotypes. If children and youths grow up minorities among students, faculty, and administrators
without hearing such views, they will mature without on most campuses. University authorities should recruit
the bigoted attitudes engendered by constantly hearing more members of these minorities.
hate speech.
Adopting a speech code sends a strong message. It shows Codes can often lead to resentment that can cause a
minorities that the authorities support them and, thus, backlash against minorities.
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PROS CONS
will help in minority recruitment. It also shows bigots
that their views will not be tolerated and helps marginal-
ize and punish them.
Minority students cannot learn in an environment of fear Ensuring freedom of speech is especially critical in uni-
and hatred. If all students are to achieve their potential, versities. The needs of education are served best in an
they must be allowed to work without harassment. environment in which free thought and free expression
are actively encouraged.
Sample Motions:
This House would censor hate speech on campus.
This House may not agree with what you say, but will defend to the death your right to say it.
Web Links:
• American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU): Hate Speech on Campus. <http://www.aclu.org/studentsrights/expression/
12808pub19941231.html> Section of the ACLU Web site explaining its stand on hate speech on campus.
Further Reading:
Fiss, Owen. The Irony of Free Speech. Harvard University Press, 1996.
Heumann, Milton, Thomas W. Church, and David P. Redlawsk. Hate Speech On Campus: Cases, Case Studies, and Commentary.
Northeastern University Press, 1997.
Shiell, Timothy. Campus Hate Speech on Trial. University Press of Kansas, 1998.

HEALTH CARE, UNIVERSAL

The provision of health care to the citizens of the United States has been a contentious issue for decades. Currently, some people are cov-
ered under government health plans through programs like Medicaid, Medicare, and CHIP (Children’s Health Insurance Program).
But more than 46 million people in the United States do not have health insurance. The health statistics for the uninsured are far worse
than the statistics for those with insurance. Almost every industrialized country has a system of universal health care. These systems are
single-payer programs: The government is the single payer for health care services. Citizens of those countries pay for their own health
insurance, but they do not pay as much as we do in the United States. The cost of insurance is income-sensitive, so you pay more if your
income is higher. Some believe that the United States should move to a system of universal health care so all our citizens can have access
to quality medical care. Others say there are better ways to fix the system.
PROS CONS
With universal health care, people are able to seek pre- Universal health care will cause people to use the health
ventive treatment. For example, in a recent study 70% care system more. If they are covered, they will go to the
of women with health insurance knew their cholesterol doctor when they do not really need to and will become
level while only 50% of uninsured women did. Ulti- heavier users of the system. As seen in other countries,
mately, people who do not get preventive health care will this heavier utilization results in delays and ultimately
get care only when their diseases and illnesses are more the rationing of care.
advanced and their care will cost more.

PROS CONS
Health insurance premiums are very high. Even Many programs are already available where people can
employer-subsidized programs are expensive for many get care. Many employers offer health insurance plans.
Americans. These plans often have high co-payments Health insurance plans can be purchased by individu-
or deductibles. For those without insurance, a relatively als with no need to rely on an employer. Low-income
minor illness can be financially ruinous. Incremental individuals qualify for Medicaid and seniors qualify for
plans like the ones currently in existence, which cover Medicare. Eligible children benefit from the Children’s
only individuals who meet certain age or income criteria, Health Insurance Program. Health insurance is a neces-
will never provide true universal coverage. Even the Chil- sity and, like other necessities, people must pay for their
dren’s Health Insurance Program, which was intended to fair share and not expect the government to provide for
extend health insurance benefits to more children, has them.
not been able to meet the needs of our nation’s children.
Since CHIP was enacted, the number of uninsured chil-
dren has increased.
The current system of health maintenance organizations With government control of health care, ceilings on costs
(HMOs) has destroyed the doctor-patient relationship will be placed and many doctors will not be rewarded for
and patient choice of health care providers. Patients find their long hours and important roles in our lives. The
that their doctors are not on their new plan and are forced road to becoming a doctor is long and hard; without the
to leave doctors with whom they have established a trust- monetary rewards in place, good people will not enter
ing relationship. Also, patients must get approval to see the field of medicine. Current doctors may find that they
specialists and then are permitted to see only selected do not want to continue their careers in a government-
doctors. Doctors usually can’t spend enough time with controlled market. The American Medical Association
patients in the HMO-controlled environment. Patients does not endorse a government-controlled, single-payer
would have many more choices in a universal health care universal health care system.
system. The HMOs that put profits before people would
become obsolete.
The United States as a whole spends 14% of GDP on The US government cannot afford to fund universal
health care. This includes the amount spent by the fed- health care. Other universal social welfare policies like
eral government, state governments, insurance compa- Social Security and Medicare have encountered major
nies, and private citizens. Many studies have shown that problems with funding. We should not add another
a single-payer system would cut costs enough to enable huge government-funded social program. The nations
everyone in the United States to have access to health that provide universal health care coverage spend a sub-
care without the nation spending any more than cur- stantial amount of their GDP on the service.
rently. Medicare, a government-administered health care
program, has administrative costs of less than 2% of its
total budget.
In the current system the employee and the employee’s The current system of offering group insurance through
family often depend on the employer for affordable employers covers many Americans with good quality
health insurance. If the employee loses his or her job, health insurance. The group plan concept enables insur-
the cost to get new health insurance can be high and is ance companies to insure people who are high risk and
often unaffordable. Even with the current federal laws low risk by mixing them into the same pool. The issues
related to transportability of health insurance, the costs of transportability of coverage are covered by federal
to the employee are too high. With a single payer, uni- laws that mandate that employers must continue to offer
versal health care system, health insurance would no health insurance to qualified employees for at least 18
longer be tied to the employer and employees would not months after the employee leaves the company. These
have to consider health insurance as a reason to stay with laws give employees time to find new insurance or to
a given employer. find a new job if they leave or lose their job. These laws
mandate that former employees will not have to pay sub-
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PROS CONS
stantially more for health insurance than employees who
continue employment.
Universal health care would reduce the burden on human Human resources professionals will still be needed to
resources personnel in companies. Currently, they must comply with the many other personnel regulations man-
comply with many federal laws related to provision of dated by the federal government. Instead of employ-
health insurance. With a single-payer system, these reg- ees being able to exercise control over their health care
ulations would not apply and the costs of compliance choices and work with people in their company, patients
would be eliminated. will be forced to deal with the nameless, faceless mem-
bers of the government bureaucracy.
Sample Motions:
This House would adopt a universal health care system.
This House believes that universal health care is more important than financial concerns.
This House believes that it is immoral that US citizens do not have equal access to health care.
Web Links:
• American Medical Association. <http://www.ama-assn.org/> Link to the AMA’s position on universal health care.
• Kaiser Family Foundation Commission on Medicaid and the Uninsured. <http://www.kff.org/> Articles with varied perspectives
on the issue of health insurance and the uninsured.
• National Coalition on Health Care. <http://www.nchc.org/facts/coverage.shtml> Fact sheet on insurance coverage.
• New Yorker. <http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/articles/050829fa_fact> New Yorker article on America’s failing health care
system.
• Progressive Policy Institute. <http://www.ppionline.org/ppi_sub.cfm?knlgAreaID=111&subsecID=137> Links to articles on the
issue.
Further Reading:
Patel, Kant, and Mark E. Rushefsky. Health Care Politics and Policy in America. M. E. Sharpe, 2006.
Quadagno, Jill. One Nation, Uninsured: Why the U.S. Has No National Health Insurance. Oxford University Press, 2005.
Sered, Susan, and Rushika Fernandopulle. Uninsured in America: Life and Death in the Land of Opportunity. University of California
Press, 2005.
Woodhandler, Steffie, and David Himmelstein, M.D. Bleeding the Patient: The Consequences of Corporate Healthcare. Common
Courage Press, 2001.


HOMESCHOOLING
Approximately two million children in the United States currently learn at home. Homeschooling is increasing in popularity, with a
growth rate of 7% to 15% annually. Parents choose homeschooling for four reasons: dissatisfaction with the public schools, concern about
academic excellence, the wish to build stronger family bonds, and the desire to freely impart religious values. Research has shown that
homeschooled children do well on standardized tests and are welcome at even highly competitive colleges. As adults, they have a reputation
for being self-directed learners and reliable employees. Yet traditional educators have serious concerns, among them fear that the academic
quality of homeschooling may be substandard and that homeschooled children lose the benefits of interacting with their peers.
PROS CONS
Parents are responsible for ensuring that their children This debate should focus on how best to educate our
receive the best education possible. They do not have to children, not on parental rights. With their resources,
surrender that responsibility to the state; if they think experience, and expertise, traditional schools can do this
it best, they have the right to educate their children at best. High-minded arguments about parental rights are
home. Studies have shown that homeschooling can be as all well and good, but a child’s future is at stake. You
effective as traditional education. If some homeschool- cannot make up for bad schooling, and no one has devel-
ing has failed, so has state education. Moreover, this is a oped a reliable method for ensuring the quality of home-
debate about who has the greater right to guide a child— schooling. This debate is therefore not about a right and
the state or the parents. We stand firmly on the side of not about a choice—parents have no right to choose to
the parents; given the responsibilities inherent in raising fail their child in her or his education.
a child, parents should have the freedom to choice.
Parents are entitled to make judgments about the quality Hundreds of educational researchers and experts with
of public schools. If they think these schools are failing, many years of experience labor to ensure that schools
why shouldn’t they be allowed to make the considerable employ the best pedagogical methods. How presump-
sacrifice that becoming a “home teacher” constitutes? tuous of parents to think that they know better. Public
schools may not be perfect, but they will only get worse
as those who can afford to opt to educate at home.
Saying that homeschooling necessarily will be of poor It’s a pretty good bet that parents won’t be as good as
quality is ridiculous. Many parents will be fantastic a teacher, unless they are a member of that profession.
teachers. Furthermore, it’s not as if learning occurs in a Furthermore, even if parents excel in one area, will they
vacuum simply because education occurs in the home. cover all the things a school does? Support groups can’t
In the United States, a network of homeschool support make a parent into a teacher, any more than a book on
groups and businesses provides expertise on curriculum engineering makes one an engineer.
subjects and teaching methods. The Internet makes all
this possible in a way previously unattainable and allows
every home to have better research facilities than any
school library had 10 years ago.
Homes beat schools on two significant fronts: facilities Schools beat homes on the two fronts the affirmative has
and an atmosphere that encourages learning. The needs mentioned. For example, homes are very unlikely to have
of one or a very small number of students are the focus extensive science laboratories. Also, having a parent ask
of the entire educative process. Parents often find that a young child to switch from “learning mode” to “play
local and woefully ill-equipped public schools cannot mode” in the same environment must be very confusing.
address their child’s specific needs or adapt to a child’s For the older child, homeschooling gives ample oppor-
learning style. The home also lacks the many distractions tunities for abuse—for pushing activities they enjoy
found in schools: peer pressure, social stigma attached to instead of a lesson or manipulating the parent to slack
achievement, bullying, show-offs, general rowdiness. off “just this once.” Schools are for learning—that’s their
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PROS CONS
essence, their function. The home is an altogether more
complex environment, ill-suited to instruction.
Classroom education often fails the bright and the slow The benefits of education in a wider context more than
and those with special needs. A teacher must, of necessity, offset this objection. Of course, the state doesn’t just
teach to the group rather than to a specific individual. leave high achievers and strugglers to rot! While students
This leaves some unchallenged, some humiliated, and may not get individual attention, the experience of grow-
some under- or unserved. Special needs students, in par- ing up alongside less and more able students and those
ticular, often suffer because large school systems cannot with special needs produces individuals with a greater
individualize instruction. Home education avoids this understanding of their society. Furthermore, students
pitfall. Indeed, parents willing to take on the enormous with special needs are those that most need the state’s
task of educating their child at home are relieving the enormous resources.
state of the burden of doing so—but continue to pay
their taxes to benefit others.
Homeschooling doesn’t just offer a better education; Parents and children spending day after day at home are
it encourages family bonding. Family bonding is an sometimes subject to a phenomenon sociologists call the
extremely important element of a child’s development, “hothouse relationship.” The closeness between them
one that’s constantly undermined in modern society. becomes exclusive, with reaction to outsiders almost
Isn’t it appropriate to educate a child in an environment aggressive by instinct. Such a relationship makes adapta-
that cements family bonds? tion to life in a wider community even more difficult
when the time comes.
Public schools cannot teach the religious values so Those who wish their children to be educated in a reli-
important to many parents. Also, public schools teach gious environment have the chance to send them to a
subjects, such as evolution, that are antithetical to some religious school, the quality of which can be monitored
people’s religious beliefs. Parents have the right to teach by the state. Furthermore, what is the guarantee that
their child in an environment that caters to their reli- the moral structure parents might be instilling in their
gious needs. children is beneficial? Exclusivity of belief is extremely
unhealthy. Children should engage society as a whole
so that they can understand other people’s beliefs and
points of view. In addition, public schools must teach
the dispassionate conclusions of science, regardless of
parents’ religious beliefs.
Sample Motions:
This House supports homeschooling.
This House believes that the state does not know best.
This House would allow parents to educate their children at home.
Web Links:
• Cato Institute. <http://www.cato.org/pubs/pas/pa-294.html> Cato Institute policy analysis of homeschooling.
• FamilyEducation. <http://school.familyeducation.com/home-schooling/parenting/29861.html> Summary of pros and cons of
homeschooling.
• Home Schooling Today. <http://www.home-schooling-today.com/> Pros and cons, guidelines for dealing with various legal and
social issues that arise in homeschooling.


HUMAN CLONING
The cloning of “Dolly” the sheep in 1997 generated worldwide reaction. The United States imposed a moratorium on human cloning
and a ban on federal funding for cloning research, which will be reviewed every five years. Congress has rejected bills making human clon-
ing lawful as well as those demanding its prohibition. The opposition of international organizations to human cloning is clear. The Euro-
pean Parliament, the Council of Europe, UNESCO, and the World Health Organization (WHO) have passed resolutions asserting
that human cloning is both morally and legally wrong.
PROS CONS
The technology is unsafe. The nuclear transfer technique Cloning is no different from any other new medical
that produced Dolly required 277 embryos, from which technology. Research is required on embryos to quantify
only one healthy and viable sheep was produced. The and reduce the risk of the procedures.
other fetuses were hideously deformed, and either died
or were aborted. Moreover, we do not know the long-
term consequences of cloning.
Cloning is playing God. It is not merely intervention in This argument assumes that we know God’s intentions.
the body’s natural processes, but the creation of a new Moreover, every time a doctor performs lifesaving sur-
and wholly unnatural process of asexual reproduction. gery or administers drugs he is changing the destiny of
Philosophers and clerics of many faiths oppose human the patient and could be seen as usurping the role of
cloning. They caution that the failure to produce scien- God. Furthermore, we should be very wary of banning
tific reasons against the technology does not mean we something without being able to say why it is wrong.
should deny our strong instinctive revulsion.
Reproductive cloning injures the family. Single people This argument is wholly unsuited to the modern age.
will be able to produce offspring without a partner. Once Society freely allows single people to reproduce sexu-
born, the child will be denied the love of one parent, ally. Existing practices such as sperm donation allow
most probably the father. Several theologians have recog- procreation without knowledge of the identity of the
nized that a child is a symbolic expression of the mutual father. Surely a mother would prefer to know the genetic
love of its parents and their hope for the future. This sign heritage of her child rather than accept sperm from an
of love is lost when a child’s life begins in a laboratory. unknown and random donor? It might be better for the
child to be born into a happy relationship, but the high
rates of single parenthood and divorce suggest that this
is not always possible.
Many churches and secular organizations, including When people resort to talking in empty abstract terms
WHO, view reproductive cloning as contrary to human about “human dignity” you can be sure that they have no
dignity. evidence or arguments to back up their position. Why is
sexual intercourse to be considered any more dignified
than a reasoned decision by an adult to use modern sci-
ence to have a child?
Cloning will lead to eugenics. When people are able to Eugenics is much more likely to arise with develop-
clone themselves they will be able to choose the kind of ments in gene therapy and genetic testing and screening
person to be born. This seems uncomfortably close to than in human cloning. Clones (people with identical
the Nazi concept of breeding a race of Aryan superhu- genes) would by no means be identical in every respect.
mans, while eliminating those individuals whose charac- You need only to look at identical twins (who share the
teristics they considered undesirable. same genes) to see how wrong that assumption is, and
how different the personalities, preferences, and skills of
people with identical genes can be.
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PROS CONS
Cloning will lead to a diminished sense of identity and Children produced by reproductive cloning will not be
individuality for the resultant child. Instead of being copies of their parents. Different environmental factors
considered as a unique individual, the child will be an will mean that children will not be emotionally or men-
exact copy of his parent and will be expected to share the tally identical to the people from whom they are cloned.
same traits and interests. His life will no longer be his You would have to apply the same objection to identical
own. This is an unacceptable infringement of the liberty twins. A small proportion of identical twins do, indeed,
and autonomy that we grant to every human person. The suffer from psychological problems related to feelings of
confusion of the offspring is likely to be compounded by a lack of individuality. However, cloned children would
the fact that the “parent,” from whom he is cloned, will be in a better position than traditional twins because
be genetically his twin brother. There is no way of know- they will be many years younger than their genetic twins,
ing how children will react to having such a confused who are, of course, their parents. Therefore, they will not
genetic heritage. suffer from comparisons to a physically identical indi-
vidual.
Cloning will lead to a lack of diversity in the human Any reduction in the diversity of the human gene pool
population. The natural process of evolution will be will be so limited as to be virtually nonexistent. The
halted, and humankind will be denied development. expense and time necessary for successful human clon-
ing mean that only a small minority will employ the
technology. The pleasure of procreation through sexual
intercourse suggests that whole populations will choose
what’s “natural” rather than reproduce asexually through
cloning.
Human reproductive cloning is unnecessary. The devel- The desire to have one’s own child and to nurture it
opment of in vitro fertilization and the practice of sperm is wholly natural. The longing for a genetically related
donation allow heterosexual couples to reproduce where child existed long before modern reproductive technol-
one partner is sterile. In addition, potential parents ogy and biotechnology, but only recently has medicine
might better give their love to existing babies rather than been able to sometimes satisfy that longing.
attempt to bring their own offspring into an already
crowded world.
Cloning treats children as commodities. Individuals will The effort required to clone a human suggests that the
be able to have a child with desired characteristics as a child will be highly valued by its parent or parents.
symbol of status, rather than because they desire to con- Furthermore, we should not pretend that every child
ceive, love, and raise another human being. conceived by sexual procreation is born to wholly well-
intentioned parents.
Sample Motions:
This House would ban human cloning.
This House would not make a mini-me.
This House would not reproduce itself.
Web Links:
• American Life League. < http://www.all.org> Pro-life organization offers information on a variety of reproductive topics.
• The Ethics of Reproductive and Therapeutic Cloning. <http://www.wits.ac.za/bioethics/genethics.htm> Academic article arguing
that there is no ethical reason to prevent research in reproductive cloning.
• Human Cloning Foundation. <http://www.humancloning.org> Offers resources, books, and essays in support of human cloning.

Further Reading:
Burley, Justine, ed. The Genetic Revolution and Human Rights. Oxford University Press, 1999.
Harris, John. Clones, Genes and Immortality: Ethics and the Genetic Revolution. Oxford University Press, 1998.
Nussbaum, Martha, and Cass Sunstein. Clones and Clones: Facts and Fantasies About Human Cloning. Norton, 1998.

HUMAN ORGANS, SALE OF

Advances in surgical and diagnostic techniques have substantially increased the success of organ transplant operations. In 2005, nearly
27,000 organs were transplanted in the United States. However, during the past decade, the waiting list for organs grew five times
faster than the number of transplants. The sale of human organs can be considered as a possible solution to the crippling shortage; in
1984, however, Congress passed the National Organ Transplantation Act, which prohibits the sale of human organs from either dead
or living donors. However, the black market trade in human organs is thriving. Americans go to China, which has sold the organs of
executed prisoners, and entrepreneurs offer the opportunity for British patients to receive privately financed transplant operations in
India and Malaysia.
PROS CONS
The seriously ill are entitled to spend their money on A single kidney has a black market price of $20,000.
saving their lives. It is preferable that some individu- Consequently, the sale of organs will highlight and sup-
als receive organs, and survive, than that they die. The port the most egregious discrimination between rich and
wealthy will not be the sole beneficiaries of a policy of poor. Those who cannot afford to purchase an organ will
organ purchase. For each successful kidney transplant have no opportunity to receive one. What family, if pre-
operation, valuable hours on a dialysis machine will pared to donate the organs of a relative, would decide
open up. The expense of palliative care for individuals to decline a payment of tens of thousands of dollars?
requiring a transplant will be eliminated. Donated organs will disappear. The poor will die and
only the rich will survive.
The donor of an organ, or his family, will benefit consid- The black market works in one direction—from the
erably from the sale. Both a kidney and a piece of liver can Third World to the First. The relative absence of regula-
be removed without significant harm to the individual. tion and the comparative value of the rewards mean that
Any assertion that an individual cannot make a reasoned healthy individuals in Asia and Africa fall victim to scav-
decision to donate or sell these organs is patronizing. enging organ merchants. The financial rewards make the
The family of a recently deceased individual also ought decision to sell an organ one of compulsion rather than
to be able to save the life of another and simultaneously consent. Where colonialists raped the land, the neocolo-
receive remuneration. nialist surgeon steals from bodies.
Legalizing organ sales will eliminate the corruption that The sale of organs will lead to appalling human rights
has led to reported executions and subsequent “thefts” of violations. Chinese judicial officials are reported to exe-
organs. A successful transplant operation is dependent cute prisoners for their body parts. The lawful sale of
upon medical knowledge of the donor. The black market organs would legitimize human sacrifice.
cannot be regulated, but its purpose would be defeated
once organ sales became lawful.
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PROS CONS
The transplant surgeon, the nursing staff, and even the Putting a price on the human body invites only exploita-
pharmaceutical companies producing the anti-rejection tion by the unscrupulous.
drugs receive payment for each operation performed.
Why should the donor of the organs, arguably the most
important actor in any transplant, not also receive remu-
neration? What is remarkable is that a lifesaving treat-
ment should apparently have no financial value.
Sample Motions:
This House would legalize the sale of organs.
This House would have a heart—with a price tag.
This House would buy body parts.
Web Links:
• Living Bank. < http://www.livingbank.org/site/PageServer> Site maintained by the largest donor education organization in the
United States; offers information designed to encourage organ donation.
• Organ Donor. <http://www.organdonor.gov/> Provides information and resources on organ donation and transplant issues and
promotes organ and tissue donation awareness.
• United Network for Organ Sharing. <http://www.unos.org/> The Web site of the organization that maintains the US organ
transplant waiting list, it provides a wide variety of resources on transplantation and transplantation issues, including bioethical
concerns.
Further Reading:
Cherry, Mark. Kidney for Sale by Owner: Human Organs, Transplantation, and the Market. Georgetown University Press, 2005.
Goodwin, Michele. Black Markets: The Supply and Demand of Body Parts. Cambridge University Press, 2006.
Taylor, James Stacey. Stakes and Kidneys: Why Markets in Human Body Parts Are Morally Imperative. Ashgate Publishing, 2005.
Wilkinson, Stephen. Bodies for Sale. Routledge, 2003.

HUMAN RIGHTS: EXISTENCE OF

The concept of human rights is central to modern Western culture. But what does “human rights” mean? Do we have such rights, and if
we do, why are they needed? The United Nations adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) in 1948 in response
to the savage inhumanities of World War II. This document sets out a declaration of fundamental entitlements including the political
and civil rights common to Western democracies as well as economic, social, and cultural rights that Western nations have not historically
considered fundamental. However, the document includes no enforcement mechanism, and states are obliged only to “move towards” a
realization of these rights. Thus, while important steps have been made toward an international understanding of rights, there is a long
way to go.
PROS CONS
By their nature and birth, human beings possess certain Do animals have the same inalienable rights by virtue
inalienable rights. As Article I of the UDHR states, “All of their nature and birth? Isn’t this claim a bit arbitrary?
human beings are born free and equal in dignity and Why should everyone have a “right” just because they
rights.” are born?

PROS CONS
The simple sharing of a common humanity establishes This argument is arbitrary and nebulous. It bases funda-
human rights. We extrapolate from this humanity the mental human rights on extrapolating from “feelings.”
norms that secure the basic dignity with which we all How accurate can this be? Furthermore, isn’t this just a
want to live. wish list of ways we want to be treated? A desire to be
treated in a certain way doesn’t give one the right to be
so treated.
Desires are not what grounds human rights. What If human rights are requirements of reason, then why do
human rights are based on is the universal need for basic we see so much ambiguity and confusion over what they
security in our bodies, our possessions, and our relation- are? There is huge debate over what rights we have, and
ships within society. This security isn’t just desirable; it many people cannot agree that we have basic economic
is vital. Human rights are those things that rationally or development rights. This seems odd if human rights
assure these vital requirements. Thomas Hobbes recog- are rational requirements that are vital to life.
nized that all people benefit from this security because
human beings are equal in their capacity to harm one
another.
Our understanding of human rights has evolved over This is a very subversive trail to start down. These
several hundred years. The rights contemporary West- “requirements of reason” are both subjective and depen-
ern societies consider basic are more extensive than those dent on specific circumstances. Does that mean that
found in past societies because these Western societies humans really don’t have inalienable rights, but instead
have a higher standard of living. People often must expe- transform accepted standards of living into actual rights?
rience the lack of something to appreciate how vital it In that case, two cultures could have radically different
is—this is true of human rights. but valid interpretations of a specific human right. Can
this be a satisfactory basis for concrete and actual rights?
Human rights are not meant to be subject to artificial, This all suggests that human rights can be extremely
academic analysis. They are practical guides to life, useful. However, something can be useful, indeed nec-
standards of how we should be able to live. They are an essary, without it being your right. None of these argu-
objective standard that people can use when calling on ments establishes that human beings have inherent
their governments for justice. “rights.”
Sample Motions:
This House believes in fundamental human rights.
This House believes rights are right.
Web Links:
• Amnesty International. <http://www.amnesty.org/> Provides information on contemporary human rights issues.
• Human Rights Web. <http://www.hrweb.org/> General site offering an introduction to human rights, biographies of individu-
als important in the human rights movement, documents relating to human rights, and links to other resources.
• Universal Declaration of Human Rights. <http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html> Text of the document.
• University of Minnesota Human Rights Library. <http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/> Site provides links to over 7,000 docu-
ments on human rights.
Further Reading:
Donnelly, Jack. Universal Human Rights in Theory and Practice. Cornell University Press, 2002.
Hayden, Patrick. The Philosophy of Human Rights. Paragon House, 2001.
Ignatieff, Michael. Human Rights as Politics and Idolatry. Princeton University Press, 2003.
Ishay, Micheline. The History of Human Rights: From Ancient Times to the Globalization Era. University of California Press, 2004.
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HUMAN RIGHTS: IMPOSITION BY FORCE?
During the 1990s the international community intervened to end massive human rights violations in the former Yugoslavia. But less dra-
matic infringements of human rights continue. China regularly cracks down on pro-democracy activists, Tibetans, and Christian groups,
while civilians “disappear” in Colombia. How should those concerned about human rights address the issues? Intervention, whether by
military force, through peacekeeping forces, or by diplomatic means, might curtail human rights abuses, but it poses practical and moral
problems.
PROS CONS
As good international Samaritans, we must intervene to Using force to uphold human rights is hypocritical.
halt human rights violations. The 1948 Genocide Con- Force inevitably involves infringing one right (to life or
vention calls on countries to “undertake to prevent and property) for the sake of another. For example, Indone-
to punish” genocide. sian intervention in East Timor involved the imposition
of martial law: Amnesty International described this as
“complaint and cure” being the same.
Because all people have the same rights, countries We cannot assume that Western ideas of human rights
with the best human rights records have the authority extend throughout the world. Buddhism, for example,
to impose their standards on other nations. Certainly, places more emphasis on “human nature” and on the
when one country perceives a breach of human rights as effects of individuals’ actions than upon “rights.” In any
it understands them, it must use force to uphold these case, which country has the best human rights record?
rights. The United States often takes the initiative in launching
intervention, but many nations see its use of the death
penalty as a human rights violation.
Careful planning can minimize the military violation of This is totally impossible. Despite tremendous increases
human rights. It is possible to hit military bases, run- in the accuracy of weapons over the past decade, the
ways, bridges, and so on without killing a single civilian US still hit civilians when bombing Iraq. The only safe
or destroying anyone’s personal property. answer is not to bomb.
Force need not mean “violence.” Throughout its history The international community deploys peacekeeping
the United Nations has deployed peacekeeping missions forces only in the aftermath of violence. Even peacekeep-
to stop violence and protect human rights. Individual ing forces have violated individual rights and resorted to
nations, too, have carried out successful campaigns. If violence.
Britain had not deployed troops in Northern Ireland
over the past decades, unchecked sectarian violence
would have claimed thousands more lives.
The nations that are party to international human rights Guns and unstable peace are a volatile combination; in
conventions have a responsibility to see that other coun- these situations even the smallest incident can lead to
tries accept these noble ideals. human rights violations.
“Force” does not necessarily involve the military. Diplo- Sanctions harm diplomatic relations well before they
matic pressure, including sanctions, can force oppressive effect any change. No substantial evidence has been
regimes to respect human rights. offered on the efficacy of sanctions. International sanc-
tions against Iraq, for example, have not led to improved
human rights. Instead, they have increased the suffering
of the civilian population.

PROS CONS
A nation can overthrow a cruel regime only with inter- Nations do not need outside intervention to remove an
national support. oppressive dictator. In 2000, for example, Vojislav Kos-
tunice won the presidential elections that helped oust
Serbian dictator Slobodan Milosevic, in part, because he
did not side with Western powers. Had the West inter-
vened more forcefully to oust Milosevic, he might have
clung to power longer.
Force is the only way to send a clear message that those Military intervention never provides a lasting solution to
who infringe on human rights are in the wrong. human rights abuses.
Sample Motion:
This House would use force to uphold human rights.
Web Links:
• Amnesty International. <http://amnesty.org> Information on Amnesty International and its campaigns for human rights as well
as current news on potential human rights violations.
• Human Rights Watch. <http://www.igc.org/hrw> Information on human rights by issue and geographical area.
• United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). <http://www.unhchr.ch> Information on the
operations of the OHCHR and its campaigns for children’s rights, women’s rights, and general human rights. Includes links to
information on key human rights issues.
Further Reading:
Forsythe, David. Human Rights in International Relations. Cambridge University Press, 2006.
Gray, Christine. International Law and the Use of Force. Oxford University Press, 2001.
Power, Samantha. A Problem from Hell: America and the Age of Genocide. Harper Perennial, 2003.

|137

IMMIGRATION REFORM
Although precise numbers are hard to come by, the PEW Hispanic Research Center, working in conjunction with the US Bureau of
Labor and Statistics, estimates that at least 50,000 illegal immigrants gain entry into the United State every year; about one million
legally enter the country annually. The motives that drive these immigrants are varied: some join families already in the United States,
others hope to pursue citizenship, and yet others, “migrant” workers, enter and leave the country seasonally to perform agricultural and
other work. Illegal immigration is a particularly contentious issue in modern American politics, particularly given post–9/11 concerns about
border security and the presence of foreign nationals in the United States. In 2004, President George W. Bush proposed a “guest worker”
program that would help register immigrants to the United States who would otherwise be purely illegal under current policy; Congress
began drafting several different responses to this suggestion in 2005, leading to massive protests throughout 2006.
PROS CONS
Illegal immigrants represent a pressing security concern. The fear of immigrants is irrational, and politicians
The United States needs to strengthen its borders and exploit it for votes. Focusing on illegal immigration is
should aggressively patrol them to prevent terrorists a red herring that draws attention away from the real
from entering the country. Moreover, many immigrants threat: terrorists, like the 9/11 hijackers, who use sophis-
already in the country represent a potential threat to ticated methods to infiltrate the United States. Initiatives
national security—both how many are here and their to curb or expel immigrants who are here for largely eco-
identities are unknown. nomic reasons are an irresponsible and dangerous waste
of attention and funds.
Illegal immigrants drain the American economy. The The problem of “free-riders,” people who derive benefits
estimated 11 million illegal immigrants in the United from a system to which they do not contribute, is not
States are not taxpayers, yet derive social benefits paid for as straightforward as the proposition suggests. Illegal
by US citizens. These range from police protection and immigrants play a fundamental role in keeping the US
emergency response to public transportation. Moreover, economy functioning by taking work that Americans are
because illegal immigrants are willing to work for low not willing to do. Moreover, industries such as agricul-
wages, they compete unfairly for jobs. Immigrants send ture and construction depend on illegal workers—with-
much of the money they earn in the United States to out these workers the industries could not function,
relatives in their home countries (remittances), dimin- American workers in these industries would lose their
ishing the American money supply and lessening invest- jobs, and Americans in general would not have the ser-
ment in American goods. vices and products they need. Finally, economists believe
that impact of remittances on the US GDP is negligible.
In fact, an outflow of dollars actually can stabilize and
vastly improve the standard of living in other countries,
potentially preventing or slowing further illegal immi-
gration.
An influx of illegal immigrants chips away at any notion America has a history of nativism. Many immigrant
of American national identity. Illegal immigrants are iso- groups that were once despised and discriminated against
lated and do not try to assimilate into American society eventually become bedrock members of American soci-
as other groups do; some statisticians correlate illegal ety. Theories attributing crime and other negative social
immigration with higher levels of crime. Expelling ille- behaviors to illegal immigrants are an easily disproved
gal immigrants—or at least forcing them to register for a pseudo-science that cloaks racism and prejudice. Finally,
guest worker program— would allow the government to although guest worker programs might serve to cut
perform background checks and track immigrant behav- down on some exploitation of immigrants, establishing
ior, thus ensuring overall security and peace of mind for social programs—including Spanish-language immi-
citizens. grant community centers and outreach clinics—would
go much further to ensure the safety and peaceful inte-
gration of new participants in the American Dream.

Sample Motions:
This House would deny amnesty for illegal immigrants.
This House would expel illegal immigrants.
This House would close the nation’s borders.
Web Links:
• The American Immigration Law Foundation. <http://www.ailf.org/ipc/ipc_index.asp> Facts on immigration and the impact of
immigrants on the US.
• The Brookings Institution Center for Immigration Studies.<http://www.brookings.edu/gs/projects/immigration.htm/> Com-
mentary and resources on immigration policy.
• Center for Immigration Studies. <http://www.cis.org/> Links to recent developments and historical background.
• National Public Radio’s Questions and Answers on the Immigration Debate. <http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.
php?storyId=5310549> NPR stories and Q & As on the immigration debate.
Further Reading:
Daniel, Roger. Guarding the Golden Door: American Immigration Policy and Immigrants Since 1882. Hill and Wang, 2004.
Ngai, Mae M. Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America. Princeton University Press, 2005.
Zolberg, Aristide R. A Nation by Design: Immigration Policy in the Fashioning of America. Harvard University Press, 2006.

INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT

In 1998, the Rome Statute established the International Criminal Court (ICC) with jurisdiction over genocide, crimes against human-
ity, war crimes, and aggression. US President Bill Clinton authorized the signing of the statute in December 2000 but said the treaty
was “significantly flawed” and recommended that the US Senate not ratify it. Congress and the Bush Administration have been even
more hostile. In November 2001, President George W. Bush signed into law an act prohibiting the use of funds of several federal agen-
cies, including the Departments of State, Commerce, and Justice, for cooperation with the ICC. Congress passed a bill restricting use of
Defense Department funds the following month. Despite US opposition, the Tribunal came into force on July 1, 2002.
PROS CONS
The ICC will lead to political prosecution. It will subject The US should have nothing to fear if it behaves lawfully.
American service members and senior military and polit- Moreover, determining if a violation of international law
ical strategists to criminal charges for military actions that (by the US or any other nation) has taken place should
are legitimate and necessary. Any nation can ask the ICC be easy as the ICC prosecutor concerns himself only with
prosecutor to investigate an issue, and the prosecutor has the gravest offenses. The US certainly would not approve
the power to investigate ex proprio motu. The UN Secu- a strategy of genocide or systematic mass violations of
rity Council cannot override or veto his actions or deci- human rights that would come under the jurisdiction of
sions. Political prosecution is evident in the preliminary the ICC. The prosecutor’s power is also limited by the
investigation by the International Criminal Tribunal for requirement that he obtain the approval of three judges
the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) into the NATO bombing before issuing an arrest warrant or initiating proceed-
of Kosovo and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The ings. A preliminary investigation could benefit the US
prosecutor chose to investigate a campaign that had been because it would end doubts about the justifiability of its
undertaken with clinical precision, that had received the actions. The US accepted the jurisdiction of the ICTY
support of the Security Council (although after the fact), prosecutor because it did not expect its forces to commit
and that had been directed against a military carrying the crimes they were deployed to prevent.
out a brutal policy of genocide. This grim precedent
suggests that a prosecutor will not hesitate to investigate
other good faith and successful military actions across
the globe.
|139

PROS CONS
The US holds a unique position in maintaining inter- The very preeminence of the US demands that it adhere
national peace and security. It might be appropriate for to the rule of international law. A nation can commit
other countries to consent to the jurisdiction of the ICC war crimes while conducting a military campaign to pro-
because they do not have the same responsibilities and tect human rights and save lives. The ICC can demand
risks. US armed forces have responded to many more that the US, or any other state, pursue its lawful ends by
“situations” during the 1990s than during the whole of lawful means. Moreover, victims of gross human rights
the Cold War. More than ever, the world looks to the violations do not care who the perpetrator is. Other
US to ensure peace and safety. US military dominance nations with significant military commitments overseas,
increases the likelihood of prosecution. When rogue such as the UK and France, have ratified the Rome Stat-
regimes are incapable of defeating the US militarily, ute without hesitation. These states accept the principle
they are likely to challenge the US in the ICC. This will that nations intervening in another state to uphold or
damage US interests far more than any conventional establish human rights must respect those same human
military action and will result in US reluctance to inter- rights.
vene in the future. The indispensable nation must be
permitted to dispense with the ICC.
The Rome Statute has created the novel crime of “aggres- This objection to the ICC is purely hypothetical because
sion,” which increases the likelihood of political pros- the ICC has not yet defined “aggression.” In addition,
ecution. One state could accuse another of aggression the “crime” of aggression is not novel. Intervening in the
for intervening to protect human rights. Governments domestic affairs of a sovereign state is contrary to norms
carrying out a policy of genocide could request that a of conventional and customary law. The UN Charter
nation be prosecuted for preventing genocide. Moreover, prohibits both the unauthorized use of force against
by a quirk of the statute, a state that refuses to accept another state and intervention in its domestic jurisdic-
ICC jurisdiction can nevertheless request the prosecution. The US should ratify the Rome Statute so that its
tion of foreign nationals for crimes allegedly committed negotiators can play an active role in the Assembly of
in its territory. Thus Yugoslav President Slobodan Milos- State Parties, which is currently working on drafting a
evic could have demanded the investigation of NATO definition of this crime.
forces for activities during Operation Allied Force but
could have prevented an investigation of the Bosnian
Serb army in the same territory.
The ICC will not deter war crimes or genocide. The You cannot claim that the ICC will not deter atroci-
Third Reich accelerated its campaign to exterminate ties when such an institution has never before existed.
Jews when it became clear that the Allies would be vic- Moreover, the offenders must be apprehended, tried,
torious. Similarly, Milosevic and the Bosnian Serb army and punished. Retribution and protection of society are
conducted a campaign of genocide in Kosovo while the objectives not only for domestic criminal justice systems
ICTY was sitting in The Hague. War criminals do not but also for the new international system.
commit gross human rights violations based on reason.
The existence of a court, however well intentioned, will
have no effect on those states that would commit such
crimes.
ICC expenses will be crippling. Cautious estimates sug- The ICC’s budget might seem excessive, but no price
gest an operating budget of $100US million per year. should be put on justice for thousands of victims of hei-
The costs of the ICTY and the international criminal nous crimes.
tribunal for Rwanda spiraled out of control, and the
latter left a legacy of misadministration and internal cor-
ruption.

Sample Motions:
This House believes that the United States should not support the International Criminal Court.
This House believes that the creation of the ICC is a crime.
Web Links:
• The Coalition for an ICC. <http://www.iccnow.org/index.html> Country-by-country report on the status of the Rome Statute.
• Crimes of War Project. <http://www.crimesofwar.org/> Provides up-to-date information on possible violations of human rights
and war crimes as well as the status of humanitarian law and justice.
• ICC Resources at the University of Chicago Library. <http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/~llou/icc.html> Bibliography of Web and
print resources on the ICC.
Further Reading:
Broomhall, Bruce. International Justice and the International Criminal Court: Between Sovereignty and the Rule of Law. Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 2004.
Driscoll, William, Joseph P. Zompetti, and Suzette Zompetti, eds. The International Criminal Court: Global Politics and the Quest for
Justice. International Debate Education Association, 2004.
Sands, Phillipe. From Nuremberg to The Hague: The Future of International Criminal Justice. Cambridge University Press, 2004.

INTERNET CENSORSHIP
The Internet (World Wide Web) is the fastest growing and largest tool for mass communication and information distribution in the world.
In the last 10 years concern has increased about the Internet disseminating content that is violent and sexual, that gives bomb-making
instructions, that abets terrorist activity, and that makes available child pornography. In response, some have called for censorship. But even
if censorship of the Internet can be morally justified, practical problems with regulation arise.
PROS CONS
Although democratic nations value freedom of speech, Censorship is usually evil. Governments should avoid
all put some restrictions on the right. Such restrictions it wherever possible. Child pornography is an extreme
usually surround hard-core and child pornography, but example; sufficient legislation is already in place to handle
some nations restrict hate speech as well. The Internet those who attempt to produce, distribute, or view such
should be no exception to these basic standards. Truly material. Other forms of speech may well be offensive,
offensive material is no different because it is published but the only way a society can counter such speech is to
on the Web. be exposed to it and have it out in the open. Without
such freedom, these groups are driven underground and
can take on the aspect of martyrs.
Censorship is tailored to the power of the medium. The distinction between censorship of print and broad-
Accordingly, a higher level of censorship is attached cast media is becoming increasingly irrelevant. Print
to television, films, and video than to newspapers and media are comparatively unregulated because they are the
books: We recognize that moving pictures and sound are primary means of distributing information in society. In
more graphic and powerful than text, photographs, or the near future, the Internet may become this prime dis-
illustrations. Videos are normally more regulated than seminator. Thus the Internet must be allowed the same
films seen in theaters because the viewer of a video has protections now enjoyed by print media. When English
control of the medium—the power to rewind, view philosopher John Stuart Mill considered freedom of
again, and distribute more widely. The Internet, which speech and the Founding Fathers of the United States
increasingly uses video and sound, should be regulated spoke in the Constitution of freedom of the press they
accordingly. were concerned about the primary and most powerful
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PROS CONS
organ of information distribution at that time, the print
press. Nowadays they would more likely be concerned
with preventing censorship of the broadcast media and
the Internet.
The Internet would be hard to control, but we must not Even allowing for the extreme problems surrounding
use that as an excuse not to try. Preventing the sale of curtailment of freedom of speech, Internet censorship
snuff movies or hard-core pornography is extremely dif- would be more or less impossible. Governments can
ficult, but some governments do so because they deem attempt to regulate what is produced in their own coun-
it important. A more intractable issue is the anonym- tries but regulating material originating outside national
ity that the Internet provides pornographers and crimi- borders would be impossible. What is the point in the
nals. Asian countries have experimented with requiring US removing all domestic links to hard-core pornogra-
citizens to provide identification before posting content phy when such material from the UK or Sweden could
on the Web. If universally adopted, such a requirement be readily accessed and downloaded? Individuals could
could be a relatively simple way of enforcing laws against also produce banned material and store it in an overseas
truly offensive and harmful content. domain. True freedom of speech requires anonymity in
some cases to protect the author. Governments that have
introduced ID requirements for Internet use also deny
many basic rights to their citizens. The Internet allows
citizens to criticize their government and distribute news
and information without reprisal from the state. These
freedoms clearly could not survive Internet ID require-
ments.
In many countries producing libelous material or mate- Internet service providers (ISP) are certainly the wrong
rial that incites racial hatred incurs multiple liability. people to decide what can and cannot be placed on the
Where the author or publisher cannot be traced or is Internet. Big business already controls far too much of
insolvent, the printers can often be sued or prosecuted. this new technology without also making it judge and
The relatively small number of Internet service providers jury of all Internet content. In any case, the sheer bulk
(ISPs) should be made liable if they assist in the provi- of information ISPs allow to be published is such that
sion of dangerous or harmful information. reviewing it all would be impossible. Were ISPs to be
held liable for allowing such material to be displayed,
they would inevitably err on the side of caution to pro-
tect their financial interests. This would result in a much
more heavily censored Internet.
The issues at stake in this debate—protection of chil- Many ISPs have shown themselves to be responsible in
dren, terrorist activity, crime, racial hatred, etc., are all immediately removing truly offensive content where
international problems. If a global solution is required, they have been alerted to it. What is required is self-reg-
it can be achieved by international cooperation and trea- ulation by the industry, not the imposition of arbitrary
ties. All societies consider censorship justified where and draconian restrictions on Internet content and use.
harm is caused to others by the speech, words, or art. Parents can install software that will filter out offensive
All the examples cited above are clearly causing harm to sites and sites inappropriate for children.
various groups in society. By a combination of the initia-
tives listed above, we could limit that harm.
Sample Motions:
This House would censor the Internet.
This House calls for Net filters.
This House would limit freedom of speech.

Web Links:
• Electronic Frontier Foundation. <http://www.eff.org/blueribbon.html> Offers summaries of issues involving Internet censor-
ship as well as information on fair use and privacy on the Web.
• Internet Censorship FAQ. <http://www.spectacle.org/freespch/faq.html> Responses to frequently asked questions about Inter-
net censorship by authors of a book on the subject.
Further reading:
Herumin, Wendy. Censorship on the Internet: From Filters to Freedom of Speech. Enslow, 2004.
Kolbert, Kathryn. Justice Talking: Censoring the Web: Leading Advocates Debate Today’s Most Controversial Issues. New Press, 2001.
Peck, Robert. Libraries, the First Amendment and Cyberspace: What You Need to Know. American Library Association, 1999.

INTERNMENT WITHOUT TRIAL

Internment can be defined as the indefinite detention of a person by a government and the denial of the normal legal processes that
would usually be available to them, such as the right to know the charges and evidence against them, the right to a public trial, the right
to appeal to a higher judicial authority, etc. While governments often resort to internment in period of national emergency, such as a war
or during a terrorist campaign, the practice raises questions about the balance between security and liberty. Following September 11, the
Bush Administration interned hundreds of Al-Qaeda and Taliban suspects in Guantanamo Bay under military authority without appeal
to the US legal system. The action generated severe criticism from parts of the international community and prompted a series of legal
challenges from civil liberties groups that have resulted in Supreme Court decisions recognizing the government’s right to detain illegal
combatants but finding illegal the special military commissions established to try such combatants.
PROS CONS
Governments must have the power to address threats The war on terror is not like past, conventional conflicts,
to the nation. Everyone would recognize that laws that and the administration cannot assume wartime powers
apply in peacetime might not be appropriate during war. simply on its own declaration. The September 11 attacks
Captured enemy combatants, for example, should not were horrific, but they did not threaten the existence of
have the rights of habeas corpus and trial by jury that the nation—the economy has rebounded surprisingly
citizens enjoy. The war on terror is in this respect a war quickly, and no one believes that even a successful attack
like earlier, more conventional conflicts. Just because our on the White House or the Capitol would have ended
enemies do not wear uniforms or conform to a normal American democracy. Nor is the war on terror winna-
military structure does not make them any less of a threat ble—there is no likely endpoint at which we will declare
to our society. victory and so allow detained “enemy combatants” to go
home. So these harsh but supposedly temporary wartime
measures will become the norm.
We must reach an appropriate balance between security Giving the government the power to detain suspects
and freedom. Everyone recognizes the importance of without due process will not make society safer. The
protecting rights and liberties, but this cannot be done proposition’s arguments rely on the accuracy of secret
at all and any cost. The first duty of our political leaders intelligence, which supposedly identifies individuals
is to protect us from harm, and the voters will rightly planning terrorist acts but which cannot be revealed in
hold them accountable if they fail. open court. Recent history suggests that such intelligence
is often deeply flawed. Intelligence failures in the cam-
paign against Al-Qaeda point to the difficulties Western
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PROS CONS
intelligence services have in penetrating and understand-
ing terrorist groups, while intelligence on Iraq’s weapons
programs was also clearly flawed. So not only will many
innocent people be unjustly interned, many dangerous
ones will be left at liberty.
At a time when our society is under threat, protecting Not only is intelligence often badly flawed, internment
our intelligence sources is more important than giving simply doesn’t work as a strategy to combat terrorism. It
suspected terrorists public trials. Charging and trying is counter-productive, making martyrs of the individu-
terror suspects in open court would require governments als detained. And, as Britain’s experience with the Irish
to reveal their intelligence sources, thus risking the iden- Republican Army has shown, internment can radical-
tification of their spies. These revelations might lead to ize detainees. Moreover, the harsh measures undermine
the murder of brave agents and shut off crucial intel- the confidence of ordinary citizens in their government,
ligence channels that could warn us of future attacks. reducing their support for the war on terror. Indeed, if
Even if courts made special arrangements for present- we compromise aspects of our free and open societies
ing intelligence evidence, terrorists could use the trials to in response to pressure, then the terrorists who hate our
learn more about our intelligence capabilities and tactics. values are winning.
In these circumstances, detention without public trial is
the only safe option.
Tough measures are aimed only at very few suspects— Rights protect the few as well as the many. Indefinite
only a few hundred are interned at Guantanamo Bay. detention and lack of a normal public trial undermine
Exceptional circumstances call for special measures, but the key values of habeas corpus and the presumption of
these are so limited in scope that they do not threaten innocence. Try suspects if there is evidence and deport
our democratic values. them if they are foreign nationals, but release them if
the government cannot make a proper case against them.
The British government said that internment in North-
ern Ireland was aimed only at a tiny minority, but thou-
sands passed through the Long Kesh detention camp in
the four years it operated.
Although a normal public trial is not possible for security Regardless of the procedures that authorities use as
reasons, detainees’ rights are still respected. Safeguards window dressing to justify their actions, internment is
are built into the internment process so that each case open to abuse because trials are secret, with the executive
can be considered fairly, with the suspect represented essentially scrutinizing itself. Trials are held in secret with
before a proper tribunal and given a right to appeal to a crucial evidence frequently withheld from the accused
higher authority. If a trial is held (often to standards of and his defense team or given anonymously with no
evidence and procedure higher than in regular courts in opportunity to examine witnesses properly. Appeals
many countries around the world) and a sentence prop- are typically to the executive (which chose to prosecute
erly passed, then this is not internment as it has been them), rather than to an independent judicial body. In
practiced in the past. such circumstances, prejudice and convenience are likely
to prevent justice being done.
Sample Motions:
This House believes that internment is sometimes justified.
This House would choose the lesser of two evils.
This House supports Guantanamo Bay.
This House would detain terror suspects.

Web Links:
• Detention, Treatment, and Trial of Certain Non-Citizens in the War Against Terrorism. <http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/re-
leases/2001/11/20011113-27.html> President Bush’s 2001 order on treatment of enemy combatants.
• International Commission of Jurists. <http://www.icj.org/news.php3?id_article=2612&lang=en> Statement in opposition to
Bush Administration policy on internment.
Further Reading:
Berkowitz, Peter. Terrorism, the Laws of War, and the Constitution: Debating the Enemy Combatant Cases. Hoover Institution Press,
2005.
Fisher, Louis. Military Tribunals and Presidential Power: American Revolution to the War on Terrorism. University Press of Kansas, 2005.
Margulies, Joseph. Guantanamo and the Abuse of Presidential Power. Simon & Schuster, 2006.
Rose, David. Guantanamo: The War on Human Rights. New Press, 2004.

IRAN’S RIGHT TO POSSESS NUCLEAR WEAPONS

Since the revolution against the US-backed shah in 1979, the Islamic Republic of Iran has maintained a difficult relationship with the
West. A major regional military power, Iran wields considerable influence in the Middle East, and its emerging economy has grown
alongside complicated social and political tensions that mark its relations with its neighbors. Iran has declared its intentions of restarting its
nuclear technology program, and it has begun to develop centrifuges for refining uranium—the first step not only toward nuclear power but
also, the West fears, toward developing nuclear weapons. Because EU-led negotiations with Iran have failed, the UN, the United States
and its allies, and the world as a whole must now determine how to deal with Iran’s nuclear ambitions.
PROS CONS
Iran is a signatory of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Nothing prevents Iran from enriching uranium for weap-
Treaty, which permits the development of nuclear tech- ons purposes. Although Iran has permitted inspections
nology for peaceful purposes. Iran maintains that as it is of its nuclear facilities in the past, we have no guarantee
enriching uranium for peaceful purposes only, it is legally that it will continue to do so once it has the capacity
entitled to continue its nuclear program. Iran also draws to create weapons. Iran’s track record is poor: it hid its
comparisons between itself and three nuclear powers nuclear enrichment program from the world for many
(Israel, India, and Pakistan) who never signed the treaty. years prior to the current crisis. Its ongoing activities
to influence politics in other Middle Eastern states and
its president’s outspoken objection to Israel’s existence
are all ominous signs that it might pursue developing
nuclear weapons if given the chance.
Iran is a democratic state that has a right to determine Iran’s military and political institutions are unstable and
its own policies—both about nuclear energy and nuclear are not accountable to the Iranian public. Real power is
weapons. Moreover, religious leaders in Iran have in the hands of unelected religious leaders (the ayatol-
spoken against nuclear armament while still advocat- lah and the Council of Guardians) who can veto policies
ing the development of nuclear energy. In August 2005, and parliamentary candidates by invoking sharia (Islamic
Iran’s supreme political and religious leader, Ayatollah law). The military also includes Islamic fundamentalists,
Ali Khamenei, issued a fatwa (a religious edict) declar- who, like the clerics, believe that they answer to authori-
ing that Islam forbids the development, stockpiling, and ties higher than international law. If these groups are
use of nuclear weapons. He also stated that Iran should given access to the raw materials of nuclear weapons or
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PROS CONS
never possess nuclear arms. Moreover, Iran has the same to weapons themselves, we have no way of predicting
right to possess nuclear arms as other countries. As one how they might use them.
Iranian soldier said to the BBC, “If America has the right
to nuclear weapons after dropping bombs on Hiroshima
and Nagasaki, why doesn’t Iran have that right?”
Iran, like 116 other developing nations, is a member of We must not let nuclear weapons proliferate. Iran has
the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). The NAM holds a proven track record of supporting terrorism (includ-
that “all countries have a basic and inalienable right ing Hezbollah) both in the Middle East and beyond,
to develop atomic energy for peaceful purposes,” and and the country might provide nuclear arms to such
strongly opposes what it sees as a double standard— groups. Moreover, just as the rogue Pakistani scientist
one for developing nations and another for developed Abdul Qadeer Khan illegally sold nuclear technology,
nations. Iran has emerged as a leading member of the so Iran might sell such weapons on the black market if
NAM, and its fight to develop nuclear technology has given an opportunity. If the world hopes someday to
become a rallying cry for many NAM states. Many eradicate nuclear weapons, allowing other states, par-
developing nations see the distribution of nuclear arms ticularly a state like Iran, to acquire them is senseless
in the world as reinforcing Western hegemony and pro- and dangerous.
moting the interests of the United States and its allies. By
allowing nonaligned states to acquire nuclear arms, the
world can help counter-balance US imperialism and give
Third World nations more influence in global politics.
Sample Motions:
This House would permit Iran to develop nuclear capabilities as it sees fit.
This House believes that Iran is entitled to possess nuclear weapons.
This House believes that Iran’s nuclear program is not a threat to world stability.
Web Links:
• International Atomic Energy Agency. <ttp://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/Focus/IaeaIran/index.shtml> Links to documents, re-
ports, and newspaper articles on Iran’s nuclear program.
• Iran Daily. <http://www.iran-daily.com/1384/2347/html/index.htm> Ayatollah Khamenei’s fatwa forbidding nuclear weapons.
• Presidency of the Islamic Republic of Iran. <http://www.president.ir/eng/> Iranian president’s position on the controversy.
• U.S. Department of State. <http://www.state.gov/t/us/rm/60254.htm> Remarks by the undersecretary for arms control and in-
ternational security on the Iranian nuclear threat.
Further Reading:
Ansari, Ali. Confronting Iran: The Failure of American Foreign Policy and the Next Great Crisis in the Middle East. Perseus, 2006.
Cordesman, Anthony H., and Khalid R. Al-Rodhan. Iran’s Weapons of Mass Destruction: The Real and Potential Threat. Center for
Strategic & International Studies, 2006.
Timmerman, Kenneth R. Countdown to Crisis: The Coming Nuclear Showdown with Iran. Crown Forum, 2005.


IRAQ, IMMEDIATE WITHDRAWAL FROM
In March 2003 a US-led coalition of forces invaded Iraq and toppled the regime of Saddam Hussein. Despite predictions by Bush
Administration officials, the coalition forces were not greeted as liberators and resistance to the occupation grew. Violence continued even
after the Coalition Provisional Authority handed over sovereignty to an interim Iraqi government in June 2004 and the 2005 elections
and constitutional referendum. Sectarian violence has continued to escalate and many worry that Iraq is or soon will be embroiled in a
civil war. More than 3,000 coalition troops and perhaps hundreds of thousands of Iraqis have died in the violence. The lack of success in
pacifying and rebuilding the country, together with the continuing death toll, has led to calls for coalition withdrawal.
PROS CONS
The United States and its allies should never have The Iraq war was fully justified. Saddam Hussein’s brutal
invaded Iraq. Claims that Saddam Hussein had links regime posed a threat to regional stability and to its own
to Al-Qaeda and that he possessed weapons of mass people. Invasion was legal because Saddam was in breach
destruction (WMD) have proved to be incorrect at best, of UN resolutions requiring him to cooperate with arms
lies at worst. The war was an illegal act of aggression, and nuclear inspectors. Whether he actually had WMD
without UN sanction, and the occupation is therefore is irrelevant—he acted to obstruct and deceive inspectors.
also illegal. For this reason alone, the coalition should The evidence suggests that if sanctions had been lifted,
withdraw its forces from Iraq as soon as possible. Also, he would soon have restarted his WMD program. Cer-
opinion polls show that most Iraqis want foreign troops tainly he would have continued repressing his people.
out immediately. Who can argue that Iraq and the world would be better
today if Saddam were still in power? Only a few die-hard
Baathists and foreign terrorists who continue to oppose
the creation of a new Iraq. The job we started in 2003
still isn’t finished while insurgents threaten security and
reconstruction efforts. By remaining in Iraq under a UN
Security Council mandate while Iraqis establish a fully
functioning democratic state, we safeguard the brighter
future we promised the Iraqi people. We are there because
the elected Iraqi government wants us to stay until it is
able to exercise effective control of the country. Now is
not the time to cut and run.
Insurgents kill US and allied soldiers every day. The We would be giving in to the terrorists if we withdrew.
death toll of US forces since the invasion is now near That so many US and allied soldiers have lost their lives
3,000. Polls show that many, perhaps most, Iraqis sym- in Iraq is a tragedy, but their sacrifice will be meaningless
pathize with attacks on coalition forces, so allied deaths if we cut and run now. Leaving Iraq before the nation
are likely to continue. Saddam is in jail, the US did not has a stable, democratic government would show the
find WMD, and Iraq is no longer a threat to the region. terrorists that we are weak and only embolden them
Why then can’t we declare victory and go home before further. Our allies would also be discouraged and view
more of our troops are killed unnecessarily? the United States as unreliable. Instead of running, we
must confront and defeat the terrorists in Iraq, sending
a message that we are determined to and are prepared to
persevere in the face of hardship for a noble cause.
Coalition forces are not stopping the violence—they Iraq will fall into civil war if coalition forces withdraw
are the cause of the violence. Iraqis are united only in too early. Shiites and Sunnis are already fighting each
their hatred of the invaders, and the presence of Ameri- other. Neighboring states such as Turkey, Syria, and Iran
can occupiers has drawn in thousands of foreign fight- could be drawn into the conflict in defense of their own
ers. Outrage at foreign occupation has been multiplied perceived interests. The insurgents are hoping to provoke
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PROS CONS
by brutal American tactics, such as the use of degrading civil war—only coalition troops can keep sufficient order
torture at Abu Ghraib. One study suggests that 600,000 to prevent such conflict until the fledgling Iraqi security
Iraqi civilians have died in violence since the 2003 forces are strong enough to take over the job. That coali-
invasion. Is it any wonder the coalition is detested and tion troops are not the cause of violence is shown by the
attacked? If the coalition forces withdrew, most of the fact that most attacks are against ordinary Iraqis.
violence would stop very quickly.
The coalition powers look forward to pulling their forces
Even if you believed the war against Saddam Hussein’s out of Iraq when the time is right but that point has not
regime was justified, the time has come to withdraw our yet come. Although the constitution and formation of
forces. Iraq has a new, elected government and has rati- a legitimate government are major achievements, much
fied a new, relatively liberal constitution. The new Iraqi work remains. Sunni Arabs must be convinced that the
army and police are gaining in numbers and capability. new settlement is in their interests and they have to be
In addition, withdrawal will force the Iraqi government included in the government. Foreign terrorists have to
to tackle the tough issues that have divided the country be tracked down and dealt with and border security
and deal with the warring factions that threaten the very tightened. Most of all, the Iraqi army and police must be
existence of the state. ready to take over security operations. Despite promis-
ing developments, you cannot realistically expect Iraq’s
own forces to be able to take over fully in the near future.
As regional police forces gain confidence and experi-
ence, and as individual army battalions become trained,
properly equipped, and battle-ready, coalition troops
can gradually withdraw over the course of the next few
years.
Occupying Iraq makes the United States and its allies The Iraq war has not made us more vulnerable to ter-
targets for terrorist attacks. The Madrid and London rorist attacks than before—we were already targets. A
bombings, as well as attacks on coalition interests world- number of Al-Qaeda attacks, including September 11,
wide (e.g., Australians in Indonesia) show that the Iraq took place before the Iraq war. In addition, more recent
war has made us less safe. Until their forces are with- attacks in Indonesia and France have shown that even
drawn from Iraq, the citizens of coalition countries will countries opposed to the Iraq war are not safe from
continue to be unnecessarily at risk from terrorism. Islamic terrorists.
America and its allies would benefit internationally Withdrawing too early from Iraq shows weakness that
from withdrawing their forces. Mending relations with will do nothing for our international image. Antagonism
the Arab and Muslim world, as well as the many other toward the US and its allies that resulted from the inva-
countries that opposed the war, would make fighting the sion will still remain. Getting out too soon will simply
war on terror easier. It would also advance other diplo- reinforce the views of those who thought the invasion
matic goals, such as restraining Iran’s and North Korea’s wrong in the first place. On the other hand, staying
nuclear ambitions. Withdrawal would also make it easier in Iraq to secure peace, democracy, and human rights
for an overstretched United States to focus on a broader will set a positive example for other countries and show
antiterrorism strategy aimed at building democracies that the values for which the war was publicly fought
and promoting human rights in the Middle East and were genuine. In any case, anti-Americanism is fueled
elsewhere. Recalling all the CIA’s Arabic speakers from by other factors, from religious hatred and envy of US
Baghdad’s Green Zone would also allow the restructured prosperity and freedom to the Israel/Palestine issue—not
US intelligence agencies to concentrate on preventing merely by Iraq.
future terrorist attacks.
The Iraq war and subsequent occupation have been a You cannot put a price on freedom and security. We
hugely expensive mistake. Some estimates suggest that should be proud that the United States and its armed
they have incurred $400 billion in direct and indirect forces have risen to the challenge of rebuilding Iraq and
costs. In addition, the US military has been put under confident that their brave efforts will make the world

PROS CONS
massive strain. Many troops are already on their third both safer and freer. Apart from our moral commitment
tour of duty in Iraq. National Guard units are also being to the Iraqi people and the desirability of spreading free-
asked to do much more than has ever been expected of dom, we have an interest in securing a stable Middle East.
them, and they, too, are struggling to retain and recruit Our free society and our economic prosperity depend on
personnel. Disasters like the abuse at Abu Ghraib prison international peace and stability, so our future is threat-
have also damaged the proud reputation of the US mili- ened if we give in to terrorism in Iraq or elsewhere.
tary, both at home and abroad.
Sample Motions:
This House believes the United States and its allies should withdraw their forces from Iraq immediately.
This House would withdraw from Iraq.
This House would bring the troops home.
Web Links:
• Daily Mail. <http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=410175&in> Remarks by head of
British armed forces on withdrawal.
• Dick Cheney. <http://www.aei.org/events/filter.all,eventID.1202/transcript.asp> Vice President Cheney’s position on withdrawal.
• John Murtha. <http://www.house.gov/apps/list/press/pa12_murtha/statement_051117iraq.html> Rep. John Murtha’s position
on troop withdrawal.
Further Reading:
Arnove, Anthony. Iraq: The Logic of Withdrawal. Haymarket Books, 2006.
McGovern, George, and William R. Polk. Out of Iraq: A Practical Plan for Withdrawal Now. Simon & Schuster, 2006.

ISLAM AND DEMOCRACY

The growth of Islamic fundamentalism and the absence of democracy in the Muslim areas of the world have raised the question of
whether Islam is compatible with democracy. Some suggest that Islamic doctrine or culture make the development of democracy impossible,
while others insist that historical factors, not religion, are responsible for authoritarian tendencies among Islamic nations.
PROS CONS
Islam is an antidemocratic religion as it is incompat- Islam is inherently democratic. Qur’anic notions such as
ible with the pluralism necessary for a democratic state. shura (consultation) and ijma’ (consensus) are indicative
Muslim societies (such as Saudi Arabia) are authoritar- of an Islamic version of democracy and the importance
ian, the natural consequence of the legal and doctrinal of democratic values in the teachings of the faith. Some
rigidity that makes a political culture of compromise Islamic countries seem capable of reconciling religion
impossible. Sharia law is viewed as perfect and divine. and democracy. For example, Turkey is a Muslim nation,
Consequently, laws are best made through theocratic yet constitutionally it is a secular democracy. Even the
interpretation rather than democratic debate. most pious nations make concessions to democracy: for
example, the Islamic Republic of Iran holds regular elec-
tions.
To talk of an Islamic democracy is to distort the con- Islamic democracy may not and need not look like its
cept of democracy to an unrecognizable extent. The fact Western cousin. Some commentators argue that Islam
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PROS CONS
that some scholars suggest that Islam can be conceptual- requires a democracy because the Qur’an requires Mus-
ized as democratic cannot compensate for the absence of lims to engage in mutual consultation in managing their
political democracy in Islamic countries. political affairs. Legislative assemblies can exist and elec-
tions can take place so long as they are not corrupt and
are consistent with Islamic teaching.
The basic features of democratic rule are absent from the Democratic reform is taking place throughout the
Muslim world. Most Muslim nations do not guarantee Muslim world: regular elections have been held in
freedom of expression. Elections are rare and dominated Turkey, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Malaysia, and Indonesia
by one party. Voters are harassed and election laws vio- as well as in Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, and Kuwait. Even
lated. Most elections are shams. In Iran, for example, the Saudi Arabia is beginning to consider limited democratic
religious leaders, who really rule the country, can veto reforms. Democratic elections show the compatibility of
any party or candidate on the grounds of incompatibility Islam and democracy and bode well for more extensive
with Islamic doctrine. democratization.
Islamic states lack a civil society that fosters democratic Civil society in the Muslim world is made up of a mix-
dialogue and debate. This is partly because a conserva- ture of professional and student associations and indig-
tive religious culture discourages questioning and open enously Islamic organizations. In Kuwait, for example,
exchange of differing views. discussion groups are emerging that create a political
space between the state and the individual. Civil society
also can include religious associations, which can foster a
consultative and open exchange of views.
Extreme Islamic fundamentalism is growing. Groups of Muslims are not the only people to take up arms for their
Islamic fundamentalists are motivated by religious zeal cause. For example, in Sri Lanka violence has been based
rather than by a desire for freedom or democracy. They on ethnicity rather than religion. Violence is incompatible
use Islamic concepts such as jihad (holy war) to justify with democratic values, but the use of violence by Islamic
terrorism, which is absolutely antithetical to democratic extremists is not indicator of the character of the faith.
values.
The Muslim world cannot be democratic until it reforms Women are a particularly significant and obvious example
its position on women. The Qur’an describes women as of both the interpretative differences of Islamic doctrine
complementary to men, but not equal. Consequently, and the balance of Western and Islamic values. Interpre-
polygyny is allowed, and in many Islamic countries, tations differ significantly over the role of women. For
women do not have the same civil and political rights example some claim that the Qur’anic reference allowing
that men enjoy. Some governments insist that women polygyny makes this contingent on the equal treatment
wear a full face veil or a headscarf (hijab). of wives, which, being impossible, results in the prohi-
bition of the practice. Conversely, in Muslim Turkey,
women are prohibited from wearing the hijab because
of the state’s commitment to secularism. The position of
women in Islam is one of the most contentious areas of
Islamic thought and, as such, open to interpretation.
Sample Motions:
This House believes that there is a Clash of Civilizations.
This House believes that Islam is at war with democracy.
This House believes in secularism.
Web Links:
• Boston Review. < http://bostonreview.net/BR28.2/abou.html> Detailed article on Muslim understanding of democracy.

• Cato Institute. <http://www.cato.org/pubs/pas/pa505.pdf> Policy paper on the prospects for democracy in Iraq and the Arab
world.
• Center for the Study of Islam and Democracy. <http://www.csidonline.org/index.php> Articles dedicated to the development of
Islamic democratic thought.
• United States Institute for Peace. < http://www.usip.org/pubs/specialreports/sr93.html> Special report on Islam and Democracy.
Further Reading:
Diamond, Larry, Marc F. Plattner, and Daniel Brumberg, eds. Islam and Democracy in the Middle East. Johns Hopkins University
Press, 2003.
Fadl, Khaled Abou El. Islam and the Challenge of Democracy. Princeton University Press, 2004.
Lewis, Bernard. What Went Wrong? Western Impact and Middle Eastern Response. Phoenix Press, 2002.

ISRAEL AND THE PALESTINIANS, US POLICY TOWARD

Since it was founded in 1948, the state of Israel has been in conflict with the Arab nations that surround it, and with the Arab people
living within its own borders—and the United States has been part of that conflict. The United States was one of the first countries to rec-
ognize the legitimacy of the Israeli government, and for more than 50 years it has supported Israel militarily, economically, and diplomati-
cally. The United States has also been instrumental in negotiating diplomatic agreements between Israel and the Arab world. The central
issue in the conflict today is the creation of a Palestinian state that would give autonomy to the Arabs living under Israeli rule (primarily
on the West Bank of the Jordan River). Israel has been reluctant to create this state, which Palestinians regard as their right. Although
the United States has voiced support for a Palestinian state, many observers see the Bush administration’s failure to denounce Israel’s assas-
sination of Hamas leader Abdel Aziz Rantisi and its support for Israel maintaining some settlements in occupied territory as openly siding
with Israel.
PROS CONS
US policy in the Middle East has been consistently on Do not forget that for most of its history, Israel’s neigh-
the side of Israel. The Bush administration’s tilt toward bors said that Israel had no right to exist and must be
Israel was evident since it came to office. George Bush destroyed. US support has been critical to Israel’s sur-
has refused to meet with Yasser Arafat because he views vival.
the Palestinian leader as an obstacle to peace.
American policy in the Middle East has been guided Throughout the world, the United States is committed
by politics, not principles. On the one hand, presidents to the development of open, democratic societies. Israel
have responded to the pressure from Jewish voters to is the only functioning democracy in the Middle East
support Israel. On the other, policy toward Arab states and shares many of America’s political values. It deserves
has been shaped largely by economic needs: The US has American support.
been friendly to countries with large oil reserves, e.g.,
Saudi Arabia, but has ignored poorer Arabs, e.g., the Pal-
estinians.
The US has claimed that it supports Israel because it is The US has always acted as an impartial broker, seeking
the only democracy in the region—but such support concessions from both sides. The US has used its influ-
of democracy has not been a firmly held principle and ence to have Israel consider Arab demands and to have
not acted on in other parts of the world. The US has Arab nations and negotiators consider Israel’s demands.
knowingly supported corrupt and unjust authoritarian
regimes in Arab countries when their oil policies favored
America.
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PROS CONS
The US has been inconsistent in the application of its The US has acted in good faith with the Palestinian
moral principles. It has routinely condemned Palestin- people, but negotiations have faltered because their
ians and other Arabs for terrorist actions, but it granted leader, Yasser Arafat, is corrupt, duplicitous, and unsta-
immediate recognition to the state of Israel, which ble. In 2000, Arafat rejected the best settlement he could
engaged in a terrorist campaign against the British. have won from Israel.
Sample Motions:
This House supports US sponsorship of a Palestinian state.
This House would value democracy more than votes and oil.
Web Links:
• Brookings Institution. <http://www.brookings.edu/views/papers/fellows/indyk_wittes20060519.htm> 2006 memo from the
director of the Saban Center for Middle East Policy.
• Helping Palestinians Build a Better Future. <http://www.state.gov/secretary/rm/2006/73895.htm> 2006 Keynote Address by
US Secretary of State at the American Task Force on Palestine Inaugural Gala.
• Palestine Center. <http://www.thejerusalemfund.org/carryover/pubs/20011112ftr.html> Summary of 2006 conference on US
Policy and the Palestinians held by pro-Palestinian group.
Further Reading:
Friedman, Thomas L. From Beirut to Jerusalem. Anchor, 1990.
Peters, Joan. From Time Immemorial: The Origins of the Arab-Jewish Conflict over Palestine. JKAP Publishers, 2001.
Said, Edward W. The End of the Peace Process: Oslo and After. Knopf, 2001.

ISRAEL’S SECURITY BARRIER

In June 2002 the Israeli government began erecting a nearly 400-mile barrier in the Occupied Territories of the West Bank to protect
Israelis from suicide attacks. The northern part of the barrier closely followed the Green Line (the pre-1967 boundary between Israel and
the area that is now the Palestinian Authority), but much of the rest of its route involved great loops eastward into Palestinian territory in
order to protect Israeli settlements. Most of the barrier is a fence in a 200-to-900-foot zone of military tracks and ditches, but some parts
are 26-foot-high concrete walls. The barrier has become extremely controversial. Those opposed to it argue that it breaches international
law and violates human rights. Those who support it argue that it is needed for security reasons.
PROS CONS
Israel’s security barrier is in breach of international law. The ICJ opinion is advisory and, therefore, largely sym-
In July 2004, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) bolic. In this case, the UN General Assembly asked the
ruled that the wall was in violation of the Fourth Geneva Court to comment on a resolution that was already anti-
Convention because its construction violates property Israel, so the form of the request prejudged the decision.
rights and helps maintain illegal settlements. Since Sadly, the ICJ has allowed itself to be politically manipu-
it restricts freedom of movement and the right to an lated. Moreover, Israel does not acknowledge the jurisdic-
adequate standard of living, health, and education, the tion of the ICJ and is therefore not bound to implement
wall also violates human rights conventions. Finally, the its rulings. The Occupied Territories were never part of
Court ruled that the barrier’s route could allow Israel to a recognized state, and so the various international con-
annex territory, jeopardizing the Palestinian right to self- ventions do not apply there. Finally, the Oslo Accord
determination. between Israel and the Palestinians stipulates that dis-
putes be settled by negotiation, not by unilateral appeal
to external bodies. For these reasons Israel boycotted the

PROS CONS
ICJ hearings. So did the United States and the European
Union, both major players in the peace process. They,
too, believe that the case could undermine peace talks.
Any short-term security gain will be counterbalanced by Israel has a legitimate right to defend itself and protect
growing Palestinian resentment, which could result in a its people. The barrier will prevent Palestinian suicide
greater number of suicide attacks in Israel. Israelis and bombers from crossing into Israel. Nine hundred Israelis
Palestinians must learn to live side by side, but building died in suicide attacks before the barrier was in place.
a 26-foot-high wall sends a clear message that Israel is If there were no terror threat, there would be no need
hostile to the Palestinians. East Jerusalem, in particular, for a barrier. A measure that can save the lives of count-
has been relatively peaceful, but the wall there will split less innocent people demands our support. Israel should
communities and disrupt everyday life. It boldly declares complete the barrier as soon as possible.
that shared sovereignty is no longer a solution for the
city both sides claim as their capital. A better way to
radicalize the inhabitants of East Jerusalem would be
hard to find.
The route of the barrier effectively means that Israel has The security barrier merely connects Israeli settlements
annexed Palestinian territory. Palestinian leaders assert in the West Bank. Civilians in these settlements deserve
that the route could lead to the annexation of almost half as much protection against terrorist attacks as anyone
of the cultivatable land in the West Bank. Most Western else. While the estimates that half of the West Bank could
governments have criticized the barrier because part of be annexed are blown out of proportion, Israel acknowl-
its route departs from Green Line, the internationally edges that the barrier does sometimes depart from the
recognized border. The route is not based on security Green Line and therefore includes parts of the so-called
considerations. It is clearly political, concerned with Palestinian territory. Yet “the barrier is not intended as
tying Israeli settlements in the Occupied Territories to a political border between two entities, but merely as a
Israel. It also violates property rights, because Israel has hurdle between terrorists and their victims,” as former
taken thousands of acres from Palestinians for the wall Israeli defense minister Benjamin Ben-Eliezer put it. Its
and the wide strip of access tracks beside it. route is dictated solely by security considerations, for
example, the need to prevent snipers from having a clear
line of fire on roads Israeli settlers use.
The security wall impedes Palestinians’ everyday activi- The security barrier reduces tensions because it separates
ties. A great number of Palestinians have jobs, use hos- Israelis and Palestinians. In time, procedures for enter-
pitals, and attend schools on the Israeli side of the wall. ing Israel will become more routine. A system of tunnels
To go to school or work they must use designated gates and viaducts will connect all Palestinian territories. The
that are often far from where they live. That takes time barrier will allow Israel to remove its heavy military pres-
as well as money. Moreover, Palestinians need hard- ence from the West Bank, along with the checkpoints,
to-obtain passes to enter Israel. Poverty is widespread, roadblocks, and searches that made Palestinian life so
and sick people have died because of problems getting difficult even before the barrier.
through checkpoints.
Even the Israeli High Court has said that the govern- The main priority of the Israeli government should be
ment should not provide security to West Bank settlers security for its people and for Palestinians. The barrier
at the expense of Palestinian rights. In 2004, the Court does cause some problems, but protecting Israel from
forced the government to reroute the wall because of the suicide attacks is of primary importance. Israel’s High
“severe and acute” injury it brought to tens of thousands Court agreed that a barrier was a legitimate means of
of Palestinians along the proposed route. providing security and that it served a real military need.
The government has rerouted the barrier to take the
Court’s concerns into account.
|153

PROS CONS
By carving up the West Bank, Israel is preventing the The Palestinian Authority must show that it can be
development of a viable Palestinian state. The barrier and trusted to run a viable state before Israel relaxes its secu-
the settlements it protects will ensure that the Palestin- rity measures. Fatah’s corruption and ineptitude led
ian people remain desperate and that their government to 10 years of misrule and increased poverty that the
will be unable to control its own territory effectively. Yet Islamic militant group Hamas exploited in the 2006
Israel’s long-term interests are served by promoting the parliamentary election. The Palestinian government has
development of a stable, viable Palestinian state. Only a been and remains unwilling or unable to restrain terror-
strong Palestinian government that can give its people an ists. At present, Israel has no partner for peace and must
economic future and enforce its decisions will be able to be free to protect its citizens as best it can.
negotiate a lasting peace with Israel.
The barrier harms Israel’s international image and weak- The barrier does not hurt Israel’s international position.
ens its support in the United States, a crucial ally. The The United States has accepted Israel’s right to build a
United States will not allow Israel to use US loan guar- security barrier, and President Bush has also agreed that
antees to pay for the wall’s construction. The barrier stirs any future peace settlement must respect the existence of
memories of the Berlin Wall, and global media coverage some Israeli settlements on the West Bank. Some coun-
has been mostly negative. Stories of pregnant women tries are strongly anti-Israel and will use any excuse to
dying on their way to the hospital because of the wall criticize the Jewish state. In any case, precedents exist for
damages Israel’s cause in the international community. erecting such a security barrier—for example the Peace
Walls in Belfast, Northern Ireland, or the security fences
erected by South Korea and India against potentially
hostile neighbors.
Sample Motions:
This House would bring down the wall.
This House would dismantle the Israeli security wall.
This House believes that high fences make bad neighbors.
This House would reconsider its security policy.
This House would cry, “Tear down this wall.”
Web Links:
• Economist.com. < http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=2119356> Special report on Israel’s security barrier.
• International Court of Justice. <http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/idocket/imwp/imwpframe.htm> Legal opinion on the construc-
tion of the barrier.
• Israel News Agency. <http://www.israelnewsagency.com/israelsecurityfence10020.html> Justification for constructing the barrier.
• Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. < http://www.jcpa.org/jl/vp513.htm> Article explaining Israel’s position.
Further Reading:
Ben-Ami, Schlomo. Scars of War, Wounds of Peace: The Israeli-Arab Tragedy. Oxford University Press, 2006.
Kershner, Isabel. Barrier: The Seam of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict. Palgrave Macmillan, 2005.
Sorkin, Michael, ed. Against the Wall: Israel’s Barrier to Peace. New Press, 2005.


IVORY TRADING
The African elephant population decreased from about 1.2 million in 1979 to approximately 600,000 in 1989, in part as a result of
intense poaching to supply the international ivory trade. In 1989 the United Nations Convention on International Trade in Endan-
gered Species (CITES) banned ivory trading. This resulted in population increases in some countries. In 1997 the ban was eased
for Botswana, Zimbabwe, and Namibia, giving them a one-time opportunity to sell their stockpiled ivory to Japan, the center of ivory
demand. The ivory was sold in 1999; in 2000, African nations agreed to a two-year freeze on sales, but in 2002, South Africa
announced that it would apply for permission to sell its stockpiles beginning in 2003. South Africa, Namibia, and Botswana received per-
mission from CITES to sell government ivory stocks beginning in 2004. At the same time, conservation groups were reporting increased
activity in the ivory market, with the markets in China, Thailand, Burma, and Nigeria larger than in the early 1990s.
PROS CONS
The elephant populations of southern African states are Elephants are highly intelligent animals; to kill them for
growing rapidly, placing a strain upon the national parks their ivory is unethical. Lifting the ban would legitimize
in which they live. This has necessitated government the view that humankind can exploit them in any way
culls that have resulted in large stockpiles of ivory (also convenient.
acquired from animals that died naturally) that these
nations are currently unable to sell. Relaxing the CITES
ban on trading ivory, subject to careful regulation, would
bring much-needed cash to the environmental programs
of these impoverished countries, helping them to safe-
guard the long-term survival of African elephants.
A trading ban does not choke off demand for ivory. At present demand for ivory is low and shrinking; prices
Instead, it raises the price to exorbitant levels, encour- are actually lower than before 1989. Lifting the trading
aging poaching. Japan is emerging from the economic ban would renew interest in ivory artifacts and increase
problems that depressed demand during the 1990s, and the size of the market, thus raising their price. Higher
China’s growing prosperity is creating a new market. prices present a long-term threat to elephants and
Consequently the illegal trade will generate higher encourage continued poaching. In any case, poverty in
profits in the future. Legitimate, regulated sales would Africa is so severe that even a drop in price will not stop
undercut the illegal market and drive the poachers out the poachers.
of business.
Poaching has been effectively eliminated in southern Although elephant populations in southern Africa are
Africa through effective management of game parks. viable and increasing, this is not the case elsewhere in
The development of ecotourism also gives local peoples Africa. Nor is it true of the wild Asian elephant popula-
an incentive to protect wildlife as a long-term economic tions of South Asia. Testing cannot reveal where carved
resource. To sustain this approach, parks must generate ivory originated or the subspecies from which it came.
greater income from their elephant populations. Realis- Consequently, lifting the trading ban would enable
tically, states can do this only by selling stockpiled ivory. poachers to sell ivory more easily, thus increasing their
If other countries have a poaching problem, they should profits and their motivation to kill more elephants. The
follow the example of South Africa and Botswana rather widespread corruption in Africa and parts of Asia allows
than seek to harm the successful conservancy programs poachers to mask the illegal origins of their ivory, which
in these states. they pass off as legally obtained.
Ivory is expensive to obtain (through culls or moni- Storage costs and depreciation are problems only if ivory
toring of very elderly animals) and store. It also is stored in the hope of eventual sale. Kenya’s game con-
degrades over time. Therefore, common sense tells servancy burns the ivory it obtains from culls or con-
us to allow its sale on a permanent, controlled basis, fiscates from poachers, avoiding both of these problems
|155

PROS CONS
rather than through one-off schemes such as the sale and showing its commitment to ending all possibility of
to Japan. renewed trade.
According to the South African government proposal to The relaxation of CITES controls coincided with a five-
lift the ban in 2000, “The experimental export of raw fold upsurge in poaching in Kenya and a similar increase
ivory in 1999 from Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe in India because criminals assumed that the ban would
(conducted under rigorous CITES supervision) was suc- soon be lifted.
cessful in all respects and took place under intense inter-
national scrutiny. It can categorically be stated that no
ivory, other than the registered stocks, was exported to
Japan.”
Sample Motions:
This House would allow trade in ivory.
This House would save the elephants.
This House believes conservation must justify itself economically.
Web Links:
• Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITIES). <http://www.cites.org/> Pro-
vides information on CITES and CITES programs, the text of the CITES convention, and links to resources on endangered
species.
• International Fund for Animal Welfare. <http://www.ifaw.org> Links to information on the status of elephants and projects to
save them.
Further Reading:
Pearce, David, ed. Elephants, Economics and Ivory. Earthscan, 1991.
Snugg, Ike. Elephants and Ivory: Lessons from the Trade Ban. Institute of Economic Affairs, 1994.

JUST WAR
War is always evil, but some thinkers have maintained that under limited circumstances it may be the lesser evil. From Cicero to St.
Augustine, Thomas Aquinas to Hugo Grotius, philosophers and theologians have proposed numerous criteria for determining if a war is
just. According to contemporary Just War Theory, a war is just only if it meets the six conditions presented in the following debate. The
theory has been formulated to prevent war, not justify it. A nation must satisfy all six conditions or the war is not just. The theory is
designed to show states the rigorous criteria they must meet to justify the use of violence and prompt them to find other ways of solving
conflicts.
PROS CONS
A Just War satisfies six criteria: The criteria for just war present several problems:
1. Wars are just if the cause is just. Nations should be 1. Just cause is an elastic concept. Who determines
allowed to defend themselves from aggression, just as what is “aggression”? Could violating a border or impos-
individuals are permitted to defend themselves against ing economic sanctions be aggression? And if a state is
violence. unable to defend itself, can another state intervene mili-
tarily on its behalf? These borderline cases make invok-
ing this criterion very problematic.

PROS CONS
2. The war must be lawfully declared by a lawful 2. Many nations wage war without an official declara-
authority. This prevents inappropriate, terrorist-style tion. Moreover, who is to decide which entities can and
chaos, and ensures that other rules of war will be cannot issue calls to arms? Legitimate authorities have
observed. For example, when states declare war, they sanctioned some of the most horrific wars in history.
generally follow specific legislative procedures; a guar-
anteed respect for such procedures is likely to ensure
that the nation will respect other rules of war, such as
the Geneva Convention.
3. The intentions behind the war must be good. States 3. Reality is a lot murkier than theory. How are we to
have the right to use war to restore a just peace, to help determine a state’s intent? Sometimes good intentions
the innocent, or to right a wrong. For example, the US are bound up with bad. And who is to determine if a
and NATO where justified in using force in Bosnia. peace is just or a wrong has been committed? The nation
Waging war was far more ethical than standing by and initiating the war will use its own values to justify its
permitting genocide. intentions, and these values may be at odds with those
of other the party in the conflict. Furthermore, the best
way to protect innocent lives is by peaceful means, not
by endangering them further through armed conflict.
4. War must be a last resort. The state is justified in 4. Sometimes going to war before all alternatives are
using war after it has tried all nonviolent alternatives. exhausted is the most moral action. For example, a
Sometimes peaceful measures—diplomacy, economic nation might decide to go to war if it determines that
sanctions, international pressure, or condemnation from waiting would enable the enemy to increase its strength
other nations—simply do not work. and to do much more damage than an early war would
have inflicted. Waiting might allow an invading state to
entrench itself so that far greater force would be neces-
sary to remove it at a later date.
5. The war must have a reasonable chance of success. 5. Sometimes it is morally imperative to fight against over-
War always involves a loss of life, but expending life with whelming odds, as resistance fighters did in World War II.
no possibility of achieving a goal is unacceptable. Thus, Also, this condition may give large nations free rein to
if a fighting force cannot achieve its goal, however just, bully small ones because they could not win a war. It also
it should not proceed. Charging an enemy’s cannons on may cause a country to surrender in a war it might actu-
horseback or throwing troops at a pointless occupation ally win. Weak countries have won wars against powerful
are clearly not just actions. ones—look at the American Revolution.
6. The goal of the war should be proportional to the 6. We have seen that a proportional response frequently
offense and the benefits proportional to the costs. For doesn’t work. Suicide bombers continue to blow up
example, when an attacker violates a nation’s border, a victims in the Middle East despite the response. Why
proportionate response might extend to restoring the should a nation tolerate continued aggression for the
border, not sacking the attacker’s capital. A war must sake of proportionality? And if a nation knows it is likely
prevent more suffering than it causes. to be attacked, why should it wait to disarm the aggres-
sor? Is not preemptive action justified to prevent the loss
of innocent life?
Sample Motions:
This House believes that war is sometimes justified.
This House believes swords are as necessary as ploughshares.
This House believes that justifying war is unjustifiable.
|157

Web Links:
• BBC Religion and Ethics. <http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/ethics/war/index.shtml> Excellent discussion of Just War Theory.
• The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy’s History of Philosophy. <http://www.iep.utm.edu/j/justwar.htm> Summary of Just
War Theory with review of the literature.
• Just War: The Stanford University Online Encyclopedia of Philosophy. <http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/war/> Philosophical
analysis of war in general and just war in particular.
• JustWarTheory.com. <http://www.justwartheory.com/> Overview of the just war theory with links to other sources for more
in-depth treatment.
Further Reading:
Johnson, James Turner. Morality and Contemporary Warfare. Yale University Press, 2001.
Temes, Peter S. The Just War: An American Reflection on the Morality of War in Our Time. Ivan R. Dee, 2003.
Walzer, Michael. Just and Unjust Wars: A Moral Argument with Historical Illustrations. Basic Books, 2006

LANDMINES, US PRODUCTION AND USE OF

The 1997 Ottawa Convention, signed by 135 nations, banned the use and stockpiling of antipersonnel mines. The United States is not a
signatory. The Ottawa Convention requires signatories to abandon the use of landmines within 10 years and also requires the destruction
of the signatory’s stockpile of landmines. The convention’s aims became official UN policy in 1998 with the adoption of General Assem-
bly Resolution 53/77.
PROS CONS
Landmines do great harm to people, but so do all weap- Landmines are a terrible, immoral tool of war. America
ons of war. Landmines are not uniquely unpleasant, and should neither practice nor condone this kind of warfare.
the debate about them has distorted public perception. Unlike other weaponry, landmines remain hidden long
In truth, they are little different from a hundred other after conflicts have ended, killing and maiming civil-
types of weaponry that remain legal under the Ottawa ians in some of the world’s poorest countries years, even
ban. decades later. Just because other weaponry has similar
effects, doesn’t mean that landmines are acceptable—it
means that other weapons are unconscionable , too. But
we must start somewhere. We can make a difference by
capitalizing on the global movement against landmines
and we should.
Landmines are an excellent way of defending a wide area The usefulness of landmines is significantly overstated.
for very little money and with very few military person- They are easily removed by quite low-technology mili-
nel. This is a legitimate aim in warfare, when military tary equipment, which means that they are not very
personnel are spread too thinly to protect all civilians, dangerous to armed forces, but are incredibly harmful
and in peacetime, when poor countries want to invest to civilians.
in infrastructure rather than in defense. In the future,
nations may not need landmines, but while armies still
depend on conventional weapons, using landmines to
defend borders is highly appropriate. Landmines can
slow or stop an advance, delaying or even halting con-
flict; they can deter invasion in the first place. By pro-
tecting wide areas from a swift military advance on civil-
ians, they can prevent genocide.

PROS CONS
The use of landmines is a totally separate issue from Suggesting that the use and removal of landmines are two
removing them. We can do the latter without banning separate issues is absurd—the two are inextricably inter-
the former. The proposition accepts that those who use linked. Most nations that deploy landmines, including
landmines must fund clean-up efforts, and the United those manufactured in the United States, never remove
States is doing this. The attention of the very humanitar- them. As history has shown, relying on goodwill or
ian organizations calling for a ban will ensure that this trust to remove landmines is folly. Simply put, if land-
obligation is met. mines are deployed, innocent people inevitably die. The
United States should not dirty its hands by trading in
these wicked weapons.
Banning landmines disproportionately punishes under- Landmines provide a false sense of security. Nations often
developed countries unable to acquire the higher-tech- use them in lieu of negotiating with their neighbors.
nology military capacity that has made mines less useful Landmines are the symbol of exactly the wrong approach
to richer nations. Banning landmines harms precisely to international affairs. Underdeveloped countries should
the nations most likely to need them for defensive pur- channel their efforts into improving their economies.
poses. The United States should not encourage them or frighten
them into to buying US military equipment.
The ban on landmines has an asymmetric effect: it only Obviously only those nations that stand behind their
stops nations that honor the ban. Nations that want to commitments will honor their commitments. That is a
use landmines will do so regardless of the US position rationale for never entering into international treaties.
(or that of any other nation)—as demonstrated by the Certainly some nations will ignore the ban—but as a ban
current prolific use of mines despite the large number of gains acceptance, such nations will eventually succumb
signatories to the Ottawa Convention. In addition, if we to pressure, especially if US diplomatic and moral might
might one day face an enemy deploying landmines, we is behind it. Even if other nations ignore such ban, doing
must expose our soldiers to their use in training so that the right thing in and of itself is very important. Ulti-
they learn how to deal with them. mately, this debate is about what kind of global society
you want to live in. Do you want to live in a society that
tries hard to stop the use of such horrible weapons and
occasionally fails, or one that never even bothers to try?
The ban fails to distinguish between different kinds of Faith in these so-called smart mines is hugely misplaced.
mines. The Americans have mines that can deactivate Testing cannot duplicate battlefield conditions, in which
themselves and can self-destruct. America only manufac- areas of deployment are often not properly recorded or
tures smart mines; since 1976, the US has tested 32,000 marked. Even if smart mines work as claimed, regimes
mines with a successful self-destruction rate of 99.996%. that use them may not want to deactivate them upon
The ban also fails to distinguish between responsible and a cease-fire, particularly if their dispute still smolders.
irresponsible users. Under American deployment, only The equipment required for deactivation may be lost or
smart mines are used, and they are used responsibly. destroyed. The best way to ensure that these weapons are
not left in the soil is never to put them there in the first
place. That some users might be responsible is not good
enough, since if anyone uses landmines everyone will.
Used in peacekeeping initiatives, these mines protect Suggesting that landmines are the prime protector of US
US troops and present little danger to civilians. Stop- forces, or even an important one, is absurd. The princi-
ping their use would endanger the lives of peacekeep- pal protection US troops (as opposed to those of other
ers and make the United States less likely to enter into nations) have in peacekeeping is the threat of using over-
such operations. This is one reason why the United whelming force if defied. The damage done to relations
States refused to sign the Ottawa treaty in 1997 and has with the civilian community from using landmines far
declined to do so since. outweighs any narrow military benefit garnered from
landmine deployment.
|159

Sample Motions:
This House believes the US should cease production and export of landmines and sign the Ottawa Convention.
This House would sign the Ottawa Convention.
This House would ban landmines.
Web Links:
• BBC News. <http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/talking_point/2149352.stm> Article and debate on the campaign to ban landmines.
• International Campaign to Ban Landmines. <http://www.icbl.org/> Information on the impact of landmines and on the cam-
paign to ban them.
• On Line Opinion. <http://www.onlineopinion.com.au/view.asp?article=2431> Article in support of using landmines.
• U.S. Department of State. <http://www.state.gov/t/pm/rls/rm/39749.htm> US statement on landmines.
Further Reading:
Harpviken, Kristian Berg. The Future of Humanitarian Mine Action. Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.
Maslen, Stuart. Anti-Personnel Mines Under Humanitarian Law: A View from the Vanishing Point. Transnational, 2001.
Maslen, Stuart. Mine Action After Diana: Progress in the Struggle Against Landmines. Pluto Press, 2004.

MANDATORY SENTENCING: THREE STRIKES

Early in the 1980s, national legislators became concerned that the criminal justice system had become inconsistent across the country.
Similar crimes were being punished with dramatically different sentences, even though the same laws applied. Accordingly, Congress
began to craft rules for mandatory prison sentences in federal cases; these rules were intended to ensure that similar crimes would be pun-
ished in similar ways, no matter where these cases were tried. Many state legislatures drafted parallel rules for lower courts. Over time,
mandatory sentences in state courts evolved to include “three-strikes” rules: If a newly convicted felon had a criminal record of two prior
felony convictions, the judge was obligated to impose the maximum sentence for the third crime. (There are some variations in the laws
from state to state.) There has been growing concern, however, that the punishments imposed by three-strikes laws are not simply too
severe, but also unconstitutional. In 2003, the US Supreme Court upheld the three-strikes law adopted in California in 1994.
PROS CONS
One of the fundamental principles of criminal justice It is a primary obligation of the criminal justice system
is that the punishment should fit the crime. That prin- to establish clear and certain penalties for crime. The
ciple is abrogated when a life sentence is automatically three-strikes laws offer such clarity, and their mandatory
imposed for a third felony—whether that felony is seri- nature makes punishment certain. These laws prevent
ous and violent, or minor and non-violent. Because inconsistency in the criminal justice system.
there is only one sentence possible for many kinds of
crimes, it follows that the sentence does not necessarily
correspond to the gravity of the offense.
It often happens that the third felony—that is, the one Historically, judges have abused the discretion that they
that triggers the automatic sentence—is relatively minor. have been given by the criminal justice system. Too
For example, a life sentence has been imposed on some- often, judges have imposed light sentences on criminals,
one for the attempted shoplifting of videotapes. A life even when those criminals have been repeat offenders.
sentence for such a crime is “cruel and unusual,” and, The mandatory sentences imposed by three-strikes laws
as such, is forbidden by the Eighth Amendment to the ensure that recidivists are punished appropriately.
Constitution.

PROS CONS
Historically, judges have had discretionary powers when The fundamental purpose of the criminal justice system
sentencing criminals; this practice recognizes that sen- is to protect the rights and the safety of law-abiding citi-
tencing should take into account the circumstances of zens. But these citizens are not protected by “revolving
the crime, the character of the criminal, and the amount door justice,” which allows criminals back on the street
of harm caused by the crime. Mandatory sentences rob after repeat offenses. Three-strikes laws remove repeat
judges of those discretionary powers that are properly offenders from society, and prevent them from commit-
theirs. Indeed, mandatory sentences are imposed, in ting further crimes.
effect, by the legislative branch—thus violating the inde-
pendence of the judiciary and the separation of powers
outlined in the Constitution.
Defenders of the three-strikes laws claim that these laws Since three-strikes laws have been introduced across the
have a powerful deterrent effect, and reduce the occur- nation, crime has dropped dramatically. The reason
rence of crime. Statistics show, however, that recidivism for this decline is obvious: Convicted recidivists are not
has not been reduced by the presence of such laws, and free to commit more crimes, and felons with one or two
the general reduction in crime, when and where it has strikes on their records are deterred by the punishment
occurred, is due to effective policing, rather than to that they know will follow a third offense.
harsh sentencing.
The three-strikes laws are, in effect, ex post facto laws: Opponents of three-strikes laws claim that these laws
that is, criminal sentences can take into account—as first give criminals no chance to rehabilitate and redeem
and second strikes—crimes that were committed before themselves. But studies have shown that rehabilitation
the law was passed. Moreover, the imposition of manda- is highly unlikely for recidivists. Someone who has com-
tory maximum sentences because of past history consti- mitted three felonies is not likely to reform; rather, it is
tutes “double jeopardy”: Criminals are being punished the destiny of the recidivist to keep committing crimes.
again for crimes for which they already served time.
Sample Motions:
This House would restore discretion in sentencing to the judiciary.
This House would make the punishment fit the crime.
Web Links:
• FACTS: Families to Amend California’s Three-Strikes. <http://www.facts1.com/> Web site of an advocacy group that focuses
specifically on California laws. Includes history and links to key texts and other Web sites.
• Rand Corporation. <http://www.rand.org/pubs/research_briefs/RB4009/index1.html> Research brief on California’s three
strikes law.
• The Sentencing Program. <http://www.soros.org/initiatives/justice/articles_publications/publications/agingbehindbars_
20010801/agingbehindbars.pdf> Assessment of California’s law.
Further Reading:
Reynolds, Mike, Bill Jones, and Dan Evans. Three Strikes and You’re Out: A Promise to Kimber: The Chronicle of America’s Toughest
Anti-Crime Law. Quill Driver Books, 1996.
Shichor, David, and Dale K. Sechrest, eds. Three Strikes and You’re Out: Vengeance as Public Policy. Sage, 1996.
Zimring, Franklin E., Gordon Hawkins, and Sam Kamin. Punishment and Democracy: Three Strikes and You’re Out in California.
Oxford University Press, 2003.

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MARIJUANA, LEGALIZATION OF
The debate about the legalization of drugs, particularly soft drugs like marijuana, could be characterized as pitting freedom of the indi-
vidual against a paternalistic state. Advocates of legalization argue that marijuana is not only less harmful than legal substances like alcohol
and tobacco, but has been proven to possess certain medicinal properties. Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Hawaii, Maine, Mary-
land, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Vermont, and Washington permit the medical use of marijuana. Those opposed to legalization argue
that it will act as an introduction to harder drugs, lead to addiction, and cause the crime rate to increase.
PROS CONS
Although marijuana does have some harmful effects, it Unlike alcohol and tobacco, marijuana has an inherently
is no more harmful than legal substances like alcohol dangerous hallucinatory effect on the mind. Further-
and tobacco. Research by the British Medical Associa- more, many individuals addicted to marijuana resort to
tion shows that nicotine is far more addictive than mari- crime to fund their addiction. The legalization of mari-
juana. Furthermore, the consumption of alcohol and juana will lead to the drug becoming more readily avail-
cigarette smoking cause more deaths per year than does able, which in turn will mean that many more people
marijuana. The legalization of marijuana will remove an will gain access to it and become addicted. The crime
anomaly in the law whereby substances that are more rate will inevitably rise. Data from the Netherlands show
dangerous than marijuana are legal, while the possession that the decriminalization and eventual legalization of
and use of marijuana remains unlawful. marijuana did lead to an increase in crime.
In recent years, scientists and medical researchers have The US has supported scientific research into the medi-
discovered that marijuana possesses certain beneficial cal benefits of marijuana. Although evidence may show
medicinal qualities. For instance, marijuana helps to that marijuana may have some medicinal benefits, we
relieve the suffering of patients with multiple sclerosis. should exercise caution about legalizing it because its
The latest research that was conducted by the Com- use also has harmful side effects. More important, the
plutense University in Madrid indicates that marijuana legalization of marijuana will give rise to a host of social
has the potential to kill some cancerous cells. Govern- problems. The negatives of legalization far outweigh its
ments should acknowledge such findings and legalize benefits. We can thus safely say that the present approach
marijuana. represents the most sensible and evenhanded response to
the issue at hand.
Individuals should be given the freedom to lead their The state is justified in introducing legislation to pre-
lives as they choose. Of course, such freedom is not abso- vent individuals from causing harm to themselves. For
lute, and laws should intervene to limit this freedom, instance, many countries have laws requiring the wear-
especially when the rights of others are infringed. In the ing of seatbelts in cars. Moreover, the use of marijuana
case of the use of marijuana, it is a victimless crime— does lead to medically and socially harmful outcomes
only the user experiences the effects of the substance. that affect other members of society.
The state should not act paternalistically by legislating
against something that harms only the actual user.
Where is the empirical evidence that the use of mari- The legalization of marijuana will lead to users moving
juana will certainly lead users into more dangerous on to harder drugs like morphine and cocaine. This
narcotic substances? There is none. Undeniably, a large would ultimately bring about an increase in social ills
number of people use the drug despite it being illegal. as well as the need to spend more government funds on
Rather than turn away from this problem, the govern- rehabilitation programs.
ment should face reality. The legalization of marijuana
will enable the government to regulate its use, thereby
protecting its many users from harmful abuse of the sub-
stance.

PROS CONS
Presently, organized crime sells marijuana. The legaliza- The same criminal elements that now sell marijuana
tion of marijuana will help facilitate the sale of the drug might, when the drug is legalized, diversify and set up
in establishments like Amsterdam’s “coffee houses.” This “coffee houses” themselves. Legalization will do noth-
will shift the sale of marijuana away from the criminal ing to separate the sale of marijuana from the criminal
underworld. Severing the “criminal link” will ensure that underworld. Conversely, it will give criminals a legiti-
the users no longer need to come into contact with orga- mate base from which to continue their activities.
nized crime.
Sample Motions:
This House believes that marijuana should be legalized.
This House supports the legalization of drugs.
This House advocates change in our present drug policy.
Web Links:
• Office of National Drug Control Policy. <http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov> Provides information on US government
drug policy, statistics on drug use, news stories and publications from an anti-legalization perspective.
• Legalise Cannabis Alliance. <http://www.lca-uk.org> Organization supporting the legalization of marijuana in Great Britain.
• National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws. <http://www.norml.org/> Information on marijuana facts, laws, and
medical use from the oldest US organization supporting legalization.
Further Reading:
Earleywine, Mitch. Understanding Marijuana: A New Look at the Scientific Evidence. Oxford University Press, 2005.
Iversen, Leslie L. The Science of Marijuana. Oxford University Press, 2001.
Rosenthal, Ed, Steve Kubby, and S. Newhart. Why Marijuana Should Be Legal. Thunder’s Mouth Press, 2003.

MINORITY LANGUAGES
Throughout human history, numerous languages have lived and died with their speakers. With the rise of nation-state ideology,
centralized governments, unified education, and mass media, languages are becoming extinct at a much faster pace than before. Argu-
ments for preserving linguistic diversity as part of the global human heritage and culture seem to be inherently in conflict with efforts
to build unified states and with increased globalization. Many of the languages that are considered “oppressively imposed” majority
languages in certain countries are themselves a minority language when viewed from an international perspective, their own existence
threatened by global languages.
PROS CONS
Any language is a reflection of human culture and is an In the course of human progress languages naturally
invaluable cultural artifact. Humanity suffers a great disappear; it is normal. History is replete with examples
loss when languages become extinct. Linguistic diver- of even the greatest languages dying out and new ones
sity deserves no less protection and care than does racial coming to prominence; this evolution has nothing tragic
diversity or biodiversity. about it. English, the predominant international lan-
guage, may itself break apart into several languages just
as Latin did.
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PROS CONS
Currently about 100 languages enjoy the status of offi- Existence of many languages within one state is destruc-
cial or state languages, promoted through national edu- tive and hinders its development. A healthy state and
cation systems. This is very disadvantageous for minority national ideology are impossible without a single lan-
languages. Minority languages deserve official protec- guage. Support of minority languages is potentially
tion. No language should be a victim in the name of dangerous because of the threat posed to national unity.
statehood. Only through one lingua franca were modern industrial
states able to reach their level of economic development.
Unity means progress.
The spread and domination of “global” languages are the Other than the mother tongue, the speaker has a choice
legacy of colonialism; these languages are an example of and a right to speak the language he pleases. Globaliza-
cultural imperialism. Depriving minorities of their lin- tion supports multilingualism. As in any evolutionary
guistic rights is denying their right to an identity. process, humans discard languages that are no longer
useful and adopt those that are most practical for them.
The death of minority languages negatively reflects on The adoption of widespread languages brings many eco-
the intellectual linguistic capacity of humans. Because nomic gains and results in more efficient communica-
language is the means of developing the intellect, less tion and education programs. Historically, those nations
linguistic diversity equals less intellectual diversity. that were able to unify their language were also able to
Moreover, each extinct language contained irrecover- reach the greatest level of development.
able information that could have greatly contributed to
human knowledge had it survived.
Sample Motions:
This House supports protection of minority languages.
This House would not give special status to minority languages.
This House agrees that there should be only one official language.
Web Links:
• Language Rights. <www.linguistic-declaration.org/index-gb.htm> Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights represents a move-
ment for equal rights for all language communities.
• U.S. English. <http://www.us-english.org> American nongovernmental organization lobbying to make English the official lan-
guage of the United States.
• World Languages. <http://www.ethnologue.com> A comprehensive resource on languages of the world, with a database of
6,500 languages.
Further Reading:
Crystal, David. English as a Global Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, 2003.
———. Language Death. Cambridge University Press, 2002.
Fishman, Joshua A., ed. Can Threatened Languages Be Saved? Multilingual Matters Limited, 2001.
Nettle, Daniel, and Suzanne Romaine. Vanishing Voices: The Extinction of the World’s Languages. Oxford University Press, 2002.


MINORITY SCHOOLS
In 1954, the US Supreme Court ruled that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. In the decades that followed, school
systems took steps—often unwillingly—to obey that ruling, sometimes busing students considerable distances to achieve integration. Even
so, de facto segregation has remained common, largely because of demographic patterns. In recent years, however, sentiment has grown for
a new kind of de jure segregation, one that is deliberate rather than accidental: it has been argued that black males in particular are better
served educationally in all-black (and all-male) schools—and that public school systems should provide such an option. Opponents of
single-race schools are skeptical about the purported benefits of such institutions, and they reject any system, however well intentioned, that
violates the judicial ban on segregation.
PROS CONS
The civil rights movement fought segregation because Constitutional principles are fundamental and not open
schools for blacks were inferior to white schools; the real to negotiation. Segregation in public institutions is
issue was the quality of the education black students unconstitutional and permitting it in schools, for what-
received. If studies show that black students will be ever reason, will justify other kinds of segregation that
better educated in all-black schools, then school systems are less well intentioned.
must act to serve these students.
Even though the state requires mandatory education, The Constitution respects the right of free association
the Constitution respects the right of free choice and in the private sector, but the public sector is distinctly
free association. Catholics, for example, are free to different. Citizens are guaranteed access to public ser-
attend church schools with all-Catholic populations, vices, irrespective of race, sex, or creed. The state cannot
and girls can go to private schools that serve only girls. create schools that, by design, exclude any part of the
The result is that students are allowed to attend the population.
schools that serve them best. But this should not be
a privilege given only to those who can afford private
schooling. Public school students, too, deserve options
that serve them—and those options should include
single-sex, single-race schools. Equality under the law
does not mean sameness.
Society benefits from single-race schools. Students who The logic behind single-sex, single-race schools is patron-
attend such schools perform better academically because izing and self-defeating. It assumes that African-Ameri-
the schools give them a proud sense of their cultural can males cannot learn when there are white students
identity and a disciplined sense of responsibility. These present or when there are girls present. Would anyone
qualities will make them better citizens after they leave suggest that white students are incapable of learning
the school system. when blacks are present? The assumption that blacks are
incapable breeds a feeling of inferiority, not pride.
Integration does not necessarily represent the blend- Society must respect the cultural identity and cultural
ing of disparate cultures into a unified whole; often, it heritage of all of the people who make up America.
means the dominance of one culture. African-American This may require some reforms in the way schools cur-
students learn in distinctive ways, and they should not rently operate. Nevertheless, we must aspire to common
be forced into schools that promote white culture and understandings and common ways of doing things. A
white learning styles. fragmented, atomized country cannot function or pros-
per. We must not endorse schools that promote a sense
of separation rather than a sense of unity.
After graduation, either in college or in the workforce, The working world is not segregated; indeed, one of
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PROS CONS
African Americans will have to function as members of a the most dominant characteristics of American society
minority. It is important for them, while still in school, is its diversity—ethnic, racial, and religious. One of the
to have a “majority experience”—that is, to be part of primary purposes of schooling is to prepare students for
a community in which they are regarded as the norm the working world; preparing them with a faulty model
rather than the exception. makes no sense. If the world at large is not segregated,
the school should not be either.
Sample Motions:
This House supports the creation of single-race public schools.
This House would serve public school students in the best ways possible.
This House believes in separate but equal.
Web Link:
• Smith, Stacy. “Voluntary Segregation.” Philosophy of Education Yearbook. <http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/EPS/PES-yearbook/96_
docs/smith_s.html#fn20> Article in support of voluntary segregation in schools.
Further Reading:
Hale, Janice E. Learning While Black: Creating Educational Excellence for African American Children. Johns Hopkins University Press,
2001.
Howard, Gary R. We Can’t Teach What We Don’t Know: White Teachers, Multiracial Schools. Teachers College Press, 1999.
Kunjufu, Jawanza. Black Students/Middle Class Teachers. African American Images, 2002.
Murrell, Peter C., Jr. African-Centered Pedagogy: Developing Schools of Achievement for African American Children. State University of
New York Press, 2002.

MONARCHY, ABOLITION OF
Although the United Kingdom has perhaps the best-known monarchy in the world, it is far from unique. Denmark, Sweden, Norway, the
Netherlands, Belgium, and Spain also function as constitutional monarchies, as do Japan and Thailand. Hereditary rulers in Africa and
the Middle East (e.g., Morocco, Jordan, Lesotho, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia) still retain a great deal of real power. Are these heads of state
anachronisms who should be swept away in the spirit of true democracy, or do they have much to commend them at a time when the lead-
ers of many new republics still struggle to find popular legitimacy?
PROS CONS
The concept of monarchy is undemocratic. If the mon- Constitutional monarchy is a very effective political
arch retains any significant political powers, these are system. A hereditary head of state acts as an important
unjustifiable. Why should the opinion of one person, in element of continuity within a democratic system. The
office by accident of birth, be able to influence the out- real powers of European monarchs are negligible. (In
come of elections or of political decision making? Mon- theory a British ruler can veto an act of Parliament, but
archy may also be used to prop up other unjustifiable none has done so since the early eighteenth century.) As
elements within government, for example the House of figures above the political conflicts of the day, monarchs
Lords in the UK. retain an important symbolic role as a focus for national
unity. In Britain their right “to advise, encourage and
warn” the prime minister has acted as a check against
overly radical policies. In Spain, King Juan Carlos actu-
ally faced down a military coup in the 1980s.

PROS CONS
The concept of monarchy is also inegalitarian. Even if Monarchy acts as a guardian of a nation’s heritage, a
the monarchy retains little or no political power, its pres- living reminder of the events and personalities that have
ence sustains the traditional class system, sending a mes- shaped it. As such it is a powerful focus for loyalty and a
sage that the class you are born into matters more than source of strength in times of crisis, as well as a reminder
what you make of yourself. This can stifle aspirations of enduring values and traditions. Separating the posi-
and lead to a culture of deference that does not value tions of head of state and head of government also makes
the entrepreneur or individual ability and initiative. A great practical sense: The monarch undertakes much of
system of royal honors may be used to tie achievers into the ceremonial work at home and abroad, leaving the
the traditional social structures, making radical social prime minister free to focus more on governing.
and political change less possible.
The costs of monarchy are unjustifiable. Typically mon- Monarchy is highly cost-effective when compared to the
archs and their immediate family receive substantial expense of maintaining a president with a large staff and
amounts of money from the state to maintain luxurious equally stringent security requirements. Royal residences
lifestyles. The state also spends a great deal to maintain are held in trust for the nation and would incur the same
and run palaces and other royal residences, which are upkeep costs whether a monarch inhabited them or not.
seldom accessible to the general public that supports Monarchy more than pays its way through its genera-
them through taxes. Security costs are also very high. tion of tourist revenue as millions visit sites associated
with royalty and through its role in promoting trade and
industry abroad on royal visits.
Royal families have become national embarrassments. In Monarchy is preferable to an elected presidency. Presi-
an age of mass media, monarchies are no longer able to dents inevitably are associated with partisan politics and
maintain the mystique that once set them apart from the thus cannot represent the nation as monarchs can. Public
common folk. Instead kings, queens, princes, and prin- trust of politicians is sinking to new lows in all countries,
cesses are revealed to be mortal, fallible, and sometimes another reason why an elected president fails to provide
foolish. As their wardrobes, squabbles, and failing mar- a focus for national feeling. Constitutional monarchy is
riages have become constant sources of media scrutiny, also a more effective system of government because it
any remaining respect for monarchy as an institution has vests real power clearly in the hands of democratically
waned. How many people traveling abroad like to find accountable leaders with a mandate to govern but avoids
their head of state, and by extension their whole country, all the dangers of political gridlock that can result from
a source of amusement? conflict between elected branches of government.
Monarchs no longer claim divine right to rule. For cen- Monarchs can both form and lead public opinion.
turies the main justification of royal authority was a reli- Although above party politics, modern monarchs have
gious one. Roman Catholic rulers had their legitimacy proved able to raise important and sometimes unpopu-
supported by the Pope; Protestant rulers often headed lar issues that would otherwise have been ignored. For
their own state churches. In both cases the monarch’s example, in the UK Prince Charles has legitimized dis-
rightful authority was preached in church every Sunday, cussion of environmental issues and stimulated a lively
while the ruler in turn protected a single national church. debate about the purpose of architecture, while Princess
Today societies include many faiths, and many people Diana’s work with AIDS sufferers helped shift public
have no religion at all. Hardly anyone believes the mon- opinion.
arch has a spiritual right to exercise authority. Indeed,
those whose religion differs from that of the monarch
(often ethnic minorities) may be alienated by the privi-
leges granted a particular faith.
|167

Sample Motions:
This House would abolish the monarchy.
This House would storm the palace.
This House would rather be free citizens than loyal subjects.
Web Links:
• Australians for Constitutional Monarchy. <http://www.norepublic.com.au/> Australian organization opposing the creation of a
republic and supporting the continuation of a constitutional monarchy.
• The Centre for Republican Democracy. <http://www.centreforcitizenship.org> Articles in support of a British republic from a
radical point of view.
• Republic. <http://www.republic.org.uk/> Offers policy statements and articles in support of an elected head of state for Great
Britain.
Further Reading:
Freedland, Jonathan. Bring Home the Revolution: The Case for a British Republic. Fourth Estate, 1999.
Winterton, George. Monarchy to Republic: Australian Republican Government. Oxford University Press, 1995.

MULTICULTURALISM VS. INTEGRATION

One of the biggest questions facing societies today, particularly in light of the rise of fundamentalist Islam, is how to deal with a culturally
diverse citizenry. Different religions and traditions exist side by side in many cities. Historically, the United States has had a continuing
debate about how completely immigrants should adopt the dominant language and culture. Facing growing immigrant communities deter-
mined to retain their identity, Europe has had to address the issue. On one side are those who want to enforce a certain degree of integra-
tion—a basic knowledge of the national language, the national history, and civil customs. On the other are those who believe that a mul-
ticultural society is strong enough to accommodate numerous cultures within it and that it might even gain from the diversity this entails.
PROS CONS
Multiculturalism is clearly better; how can you expect If you decide that you want to live in a country, you
people to give up their heritage? Immigrants do not leave have to respect its traditions. Expecting new citizens or
a country to leave their cultural identity behind. residents to conform to certain national norms is not
unreasonable.
If a society claims to be tolerant of personal choice, it What some people call social engineering, integrationists
must respect the choice of immigrants to retain their call ensuring that society is as harmonious and conflict-
heritage. Anything less smacks of social engineering. free as possible. If difference breeds contempt, then the
least difference the better.
Clinging to an idea of monolithic, national identity is We totally reject the notion of the demise of the nation-
anachronistic. The nation-state model for society is state. It is still the primary mode of national identity. As
crumbling and is being outstripped by transnational US history has shown, a nation can absorb millions of
models, such as the European Union. As a result, there is immigrants and yet maintained a unique identity.
less emphasis on national identity. Such exclusive nation-
alism is destructive, and history shows it to be so.
Perpetuating a national identity inevitably leads to the There is a middle point between denying anyone the
alienation of those who for religious or other reasons right to practice their religion openly and denying any

PROS CONS
choose not to conform. If the national identity does not sort of national identity or conformity. A shared sense
include the wearing of a turban, headdress, or robe, then of belonging and purpose is vital for national coherence
those who do wear these garments are excluded from and serves the nation and the nation’s peoples well in
the mainstream. Such exclusion gives rise to the notion times of war. In addition, we want everyone to cheer
of the “other” and leaves those perceived as the “other” their favorite ball team.
open to physical assault.
We should embrace the fact that people can support This is naïve and presumes, arrogantly, that we have
both their old and new nations. It shows that we have moved beyond the point where we are at risk from ene-
moved beyond the divisive national stereotyping that mies. As the rise in extremism and its support from some
causes conflict. The more tolerance of difference and of our own citizens show, we have been too liberal. We
embrace of other cultures we can achieve, the less con- have forgotten why nationhood is important and why
flict there will be. we all need to feel a communal belonging and affinity
with the basic values of our society.
Sample Motions:
This House would be multicultural.
This House believes in multiculturalism.
This House believes that the nation-state is dead.
Web Links:
• Australian Government Immigration Website. <http://www.immi.gov.au/multicultural/> Australian government policy on mul-
ticulturalism.
• Diversity & Multiculturalism: The New Racism. <http://multiculturalism.aynrand.org/> Critique of multiculturalism by the
Ayn Rand Institute.
Further Reading:
Barry, Brian M. Culture and Equality: An Egalitarian Critique of Multiculturalism. Harvard University Press, 2002.
Kymlicka, Will. Politics in the Vernacular: Nationalism, Multiculturalism, and Citizenship. Oxford University Press, 2001.
Kymlicka, Will, and Wayne Norman, eds. Citizenship in Diverse Societies. Oxford University Press, 2000.
Miller, David. Citizenship and National Identity. Polity Press, 2000.

|169

NATIONAL TESTING
Responding to mounting concerns that the US educational system was failing its students, Congress passed the No Child Left Behind Act
(2001), which mandates that states develop annual assessments (tests) of learning and skills mastered. The scores on these state tests are
then compared with those from a sampling of state students who have taken the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP).
The intent is to use the results of these tests to chart national academic progress and provide extra help for schools and students who are
falling behind. Education in the United States has historically been the responsibility of states and localities; this measure vastly expands
federal involvement in education. Many advocates believe this approach to improving the nation’s schools is wrong and will not accomplish
its objective. Others argue that the only way to know how schools and students are performing is to measure them against other schools and
other students in other states. As Congress prepares to consider reauthorizing the act in 2007, the debate over national testing continues.
PROS CONS
A national curriculum for most core subjects already The mandate for a national test makes every local-
exists without school boards and local communities even ity teach the same curriculum. Each state and local-
realizing it. Most high school students are preparing for ity should be able to determine its own curriculum as
standardized college entrance exams and therefore study schools across the country are very different and should
what is needed to do well on these tests. Also, only a few be able to make decisions at the local level on what will
textbook companies produce texts for high school stu- be taught within their classrooms. Requiring national
dents. When localities select one of these textbooks, they testing removes the traditional rights of localities to
are, in effect, agreeing to what amounts to a national adapt to community standards and desires when making
curriculum. Besides, students across the country should curriculum decisions.
learn the same skills.
As long as school boards and localities follow the national Mandating a national test will result in teachers “teach-
curriculum, student success on the test will follow. Drill- ing to the tests.” Students will face days of learning how
ing and “teaching to the test” occur only when schools to take tests at the expense of learning skills and knowl-
make a decision to test without altering their curricu- edge that will help them become good citizens and con-
lums. Students undeniably need to have certain basic tribute in meaningful ways to society. They will become
skills and subject mastery when they graduate. The good test takers but will miss out on the joy of learning
National Assessment of Educational Progress and the for learning’s sake. Subjects like art and music that are
state-developed assessments will test those; the school not covered on the standardized tests could be cut. Our
day affords plenty of time for students to learn the basics children’s education would become narrowly focused on
and still participate in additional activities and attend a yearly test.
classes that go beyond the basics.
The entire reason that public education in America was Using a national test to determine if schools and stu-
founded was to develop a more productive workforce. dents are working oversimplifies education. Advocates of
Although education by itself is a worthy goal, ultimately national testing use terms that are more specific to busi-
what we want for our children is for them to be success- ness, as if children are simply widgets coming out at the
ful individuals who are able to earn a living when they end of an assembly line. Proponents of national testing
graduate from high school or college. Focusing on word use terms like “setting objectives,” “getting results,” and
choices that may also be used in the business world is “the bottom line” when talking about our nation’s chil-
just a distracter, used by opponents of national testing to dren. We cannot let the unethical, corrupt, and profit-
shift the debate away from what really needs to happen driven world of business encroach into our nation’s class-
in our nation’s schools. rooms.
In a society where education is so important to success, Using a national test to determine if students are master-
we must make sure our schools are performing for our ing material is unfair and will drive good teachers out
nation’s children. The primary reason for national stan- of our classrooms, making existing problems worse. A
dards and assessment is to make schools and teachers better alternative is a broad-based assessment, which

PROS CONS
accountable for what goes on in the classroom. If schools looks at multiple measures of what a student has learned.
and teachers are doing a good job, they have nothing to Instead of testing a student on one day, a multiple-mea-
fear as we move to a national system of accountability sure assessment uses teacher evaluations, teacher-created
through assessment. tests, and student demonstrations that occur over the
entire school year. This would especially benefit students
who are not good test takers.
Developing acceptable national standards is not easy, The idea of national standards may seem like a good one
but other countries have demonstrated that creating until you start to actually try to create the standards that
good standard tests that motivate students and teach- teachers must teach to. Agreeing what must be taught is
ers is possible. Excellence is created by bringing together difficult enough in a local setting; nationally such agree-
the right people, examining textbooks, and looking at ment is probably not achievable. Which historic figures
standards already put in place by many national teachers should all students learn about? What parts of history
associations. In the United States, the quality of educa- are most important? Also, good standards are difficult to
tion that students receive depends on what state, county, craft. Standards are either too vague so the test makers
and town they live in and even in what part of town and teachers do not know what material to focus on, or
they reside. This violates the principle of equality that is they are too detailed so that teachers and students are
fundamental to the values of our country. If all teachers overwhelmed by the sheer number of subjects that must
are expected to achieve the same standards, the quality of be mastered.
education for all children can go up.
Sample Motions:
This House would ban national testing.
This House believes that national standards are more valuable than locally developed curriculums.
This House believes that national standards will have a detrimental effect on education.
This House believes that national standards promote equality in education.
Web Links:
• Education Commission of the States (ECS). <http://www.ecs.org/ecsmain.asp?page=/html/issues.asp?am=1> Offers a wealth of
information about the practical implications of national testing.
• National Education Association (NEA). <http://www.nea.org/accountability> Site maintained by the major national organiza-
tion that opposed national standards; currently focuses on the implementation of the initiative.
• PBS Frontline: Testing Our Schools. <http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/schools> This companion Web site to
the PBS show Frontline presents a balanced overview of the issue of national testing.
Further Reading:
Jones, M. Gail, Brett D. Jones, and Tracy Hargrove. The Unintended Consequences of High-Stakes Testing. Rowman & Littlefield,
2003.
Meier, Deborah, et al., eds. Many Children Left Behind: How the No Child Left Behind Act Is Damaging Our Children and Our Schools.
Beacon, 2004.
Orfield, Gary, and Mindy Kornhaber, eds. Raising Standards or Raising Barriers: Inequality and High Stakes Testing in Public Educa-
tion. Century Foundation Press, 2001.
Sunderman, Gail L., James S. Kim, and Garry Orfield. NCLB Meets School Realities: Lessons from the Field. Corwin Press, 2005.

|171

NUCLEAR VS. RENEWABLE ENERGY
Since the mid-1980s, nuclear power has been a major source of electricity in the United States, second only to coal. Yet the future of
nuclear power in the US and the rest of the world is uncertain. Although the US has the most nuclear capacity of any nation, the U.S.
Department of Energy predicts that the use of nuclear fuel will have dropped dramatically by 2020, by which time more than 40% of
capacity will have been retired. The Bush Administration has supported nuclear expansion, emphasizing its importance in maintaining a
diverse energy supply, but currently the US has no plans to build additional reactors on its soil. Many fear nuclear energy, fueled by acci-
dents such as those at Chernobyl and Three Mile Island and concern about disposal of nuclear fuel. But are there viable alternatives?
PROS CONS
Currently, the majority of the world’s electricity is gener- Estimates of how long fossil fuel resources will last have
ated using fossil fuels. Although estimates vary greatly remained unchanged for the last few decades. Predicting
about the world’s supply of fossil fuels, some estimates when these fuels will be depleted is virtually impossible
suggest that oil could be exhausted within 50 years and because new deposits may be discovered and because
coal within 25 years. Thus we must find a new source the rate of use cannot be predicted accurately. In addi-
of energy. We must start to convert to nuclear energy tion some experts estimate that the world has 350 years
now so there is not a major crisis when fossil fuels do of natural gas. We have no current need to search for
run out. a new power source. Money spent on such exploration
would be better spent on creating technology to clean
the output from power stations.
Nuclear energy is clean. It does not produce gaseous Even apart from the safety issues, nuclear power presents
emissions that harm the environment. Granted, it does a number of problems. First, it is expensive and relatively
produce radioactive waste, but because this is a solid it inefficient. The cost of building reactors is enormous and
can be handled easily and stored away from population the price of subsequently decommissioning them is also
centers. Burning fossil fuels causes far more environmen- huge. Then there is the problem of waste. Nuclear waste
tal damage than using nuclear reactors, even if we factor can remain radioactive for thousands of years. It must be
in the Chernobyl catastrophe. Consequently, nuclear stored for this time away from water (into which it can
energy is preferable to fossil fuels. Furthermore, as new dissolve) and far from any tectonic activity. Such storage
technologies, such as fast breeder reactors, become avail- is virtually impossible and serious concerns have arisen
able, they will produce less nuclear waste. With more over the state of waste discarded even a few decades ago.
investment, science can solve the problems associated
with nuclear energy, making it even more desirable.
Unfortunately, the nuclear industry has a bad reputation The nuclear industry has a shameful safety record. At
for safety that is not entirely deserved. The overwhelm- Three Mile Island we were minutes away from a melt-
ing majority of nuclear reactors have functioned safely down, and at Chernobyl the unthinkable actually hap-
and effectively. The two major nuclear accidents, Three pened. The effects on the local people and the environ-
Mile Island and Chernobyl, were both in old style reac- ment were devastating. The fallout from Chernobyl
tors, exacerbated in the latter case by lax Soviet safety can still be detected in our atmosphere. True, modern
standards. We are advocating new reactors, built to the nuclear reactors are safer, but they are not perfectly safe.
highest safety standards. Such reactors have an impec- Disaster is always possible. Nuclear power stations have
cable safety record. Perhaps the best guarantee of safety had a number of “minor” accidents. The industry has
in the nuclear industry is the increasing transparency told us that these problems will not happen again, but
within the industry. Many of the early problems were time and time again they recur. We have to conclude
caused by excessive control due to the origin of nuclear that the industry is too dominated by the profit motive
energy from military applications. As a civilian nuclear to really care about safety and too shrouded in secrecy to
industry develops, it becomes more accountable. be accountable. In addition, the nuclear industry has had
a terrible impact on those living around power plants.
The rate of occurrence of certain types of cancer, such

PROS CONS
as leukemia, is much higher in the population around
nuclear plants.
We must examine the alternatives to nuclear energy. For Although alternative energy is not efficient enough to
the reasons explained above, we can rule out fossil fuels serve the energy needs of the world’s population today,
immediately. We also see enormous problems with other it could, with investment in all these methods, be made
forms of energy. The most efficient source of renewable efficient enough to serve humankind. We are not advo-
energy has been hydroelectric power. However, this usu- cating a blanket solution to every problem. Many dam
ally creates more problems than it solves. Building a large projects could have been replaced by solar power had the
dam necessarily floods an enormous region behind the technology been available. In addition, most countries
dam, displacing tens of thousands of people. Dams also usually have at least one renewable resource that they
cause enormous damage to the ecology and incur enor- can use: tides for islands, the sun for equatorial coun-
mous social and cultural costs. Solar energy has never tries, hot rocks for volcanic regions, etc. Consequently,
lived up to expectations because it is hugely inefficient. any country can, in principle, become energy self-suf-
Wind energy is only marginally better, with an unsightly ficient with renewable energy. The global distribution
wind farm the size of Texas needed to provide the energy of uranium is hugely uneven (much more so than for
for Texas alone. The great irony is that not only are most fossil fuels); accordingly, the use of nuclear power gives
renewable sources inefficient but many are also ecologi- countries with uranium deposits disproportionate eco-
cally unsound! The opposition to building wind farms in nomic power. Uranium could conceivably become sub-
certain areas has been just as strong as the opposition to ject to the same kind of monopoly that the Organization
nuclear power because wind farms destroy the scenery. of Petroleum Exporting Countries has for oil. This pre-
vents countries from achieving self-sufficiency in energy
production.
The nuclear industry is a major employer. It creates Suggesting that nuclear power is the only employment
numerous jobs and, with investment, will create even provider is completely fatuous. Energy production
more. will always provide roughly the same number of jobs.
If spending on the nuclear industry were redirected to
renewable energy, then jobs would simply move from
the one to the other.
Sample Motions:
This House would look to the atom.
This House would go nuclear.
Web Link:
• Greenpeace Nuclear Campaign. <http://www.greenpeace.org/~nuclear/> Information on the organization’s campaigns against
nuclear fuels and weapons.
Further Reading:
Caldicott, Helen. Nuclear Power Is Not the Answer. New Press, 2006.
Makhijani, Arjun, and Scott Saleska. The Nuclear Power Deception: U.S. Nuclear Mythology from Electricity “Too Cheap to Meter” to
“Inherently Safe” Reactors. Apex, 1999.
Sweet, William. Kicking the Carbon Habit: Global Warming and the Case for Renewable and Nuclear Energy. Columbia University
Press, 2006.

|173

NUCLEAR WEAPONS, ABOLITION OF
The nuclear bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, in 1945 forever changed the face of war, and the half century of Cold
War that followed was dominated, above all, by the threat of nuclear destruction. The Soviet Union and the United States raced to pro-
duce increasingly powerful arsenals, eventually resulting in their ability to destroy the world several times over. This nuclear arms race
led to the concept of “Mutually Assured Destruction,” a stalemate in which both sides knew that the use of their weapons would totally
annihilate each other and potentially the whole world. The end of the Cold War changed the global situation substantially. The fear of
nuclear war between superpowers disappeared and in the early 21st century was replaced by the fear of nuclear proliferation, particularly by
rogue states and terrorist groups. The fear escalated in 2006 following North Korea’s testing of a nuclear weapon.
PROS CONS
Nuclear weapons are morally repugnant. Over the past The use of nuclear weapons would indeed be a great
50 years, we have seen a movement toward limited war- tragedy; but so, to a greater or lesser extent, is any war.
fare and precision weapons that minimize the impact on The reason for maintaining an effective nuclear arsenal is
civilians. Nuclear weapons have massive, indiscriminate to prevent war. The catastrophic results of using nuclear
destructive power. They can kill millions and cause cata- weapons discourage conflict. The Cold War was one of
strophic harm to the world environment. the most peaceful times in history, largely because of the
nuclear deterrents of the two superpowers.
The idea of a so-called nuclear deterrent no longer applies. The deterrent principle still stands. During the Persian
During the Cold War, peace was maintained only by a Gulf War, for example, the fear of US nuclear retaliation
balance of power; neither superpower had an advantage was one of the factors that prevented Iraq from using
large enough to be confident of victory. However, a bal- chemical weapons against Israel. A similar fear may pre-
ance of power no longer exists. With the proliferation vent rogue states from using nuclear weapons. Moreover,
of nuclear weapons, some rogue states may develop the although the citizens of the current nuclear powers may
ability to strike at nations that have no nuclear weapons. oppose the use of force against civilians, their opinions
Would the major nuclear powers then strike back at the would rapidly change if they found weapons of mass
aggressor? The answer is unknown. In addition, most destruction used against them.
of the emerging nuclear threats would not come from
legitimate governments but from dictators and terror-
ist groups. Would killing thousands of civilians ever be
acceptable in retaliation for the actions of extremists?
By maintaining a strategic deterrent, the current nuclear The nuclear genie is out of the bottle and cannot be put
powers encourage the proliferation of weapons of mass back in. The ideal of global nuclear disarmament is fine
destruction. Countries believe that being a member of in theory but it will not work in practice. Nations will
the “nuclear club” increases their international status. not disarm if they fear a rogue state has secret nuclear
Also, nations at odds with a country with nuclear capa- capability. Without the threat of a retaliatory strike, a
bility feel that they must develop their own capability rogue nuclear state could attack others at will.
to protect themselves. Therefore, nuclear powers must
take the lead in disarmament as an example for the rest
of the world.
Nuclear weapons can fall into the hands of rogue states We do not have to abolish nuclear weapons to prevent
and terrorists. In 2004, Dr. Abdul Quader Khan, who nuclear terrorism. Through global cooperation, we can
led Pakistan’s nuclear program, admitted that he had ensure that all nuclear material is secure and accounted
provided Iran, Libya, and North Korea with nuclear for. If we can control access to nuclear material, we can
materials and technology to aid in weapons develop- ensure that terrorists and rogue states cannot make a
ment. Only destroying the weapons will end the danger bomb. Simply put: no material, no bomb.
of someone stealing a weapon or extremists taking over
a nuclear base.

Sample Motions:
This House would abolish nuclear weapons.
This House would ban the bomb.
Web Links:
• Abolition 2000. <http://www.abolition2000.org/> Links to sites offering general information in support of global elimination
of nuclear weapons.
• Federation of American Scientists: Nuclear Forces Guide. <http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/index.html> Maintained by an or-
ganization of scientists advocating elimination of nuclear weapons, the site offers in-depth information on the status of nuclear
proliferation, terrorism, and weapons of mass destruction.
Further Reading:
Allison, Graham. Nuclear Terrorism: The Ultimate Preventable Catastrophe. Owl Books, 2005.
Campbell, Kurt M., Robert J. Einhorn, and Mitchell B. Reiss, eds. The Nuclear Tipping Point: Why States Reconsider Their Nuclear
Choices. Brookings Institution Press, 2004.
Ferguson, Charles D. The Four Faces of Nuclear Terrorism. Routledge, 2005.
Sagan, Scott D., and Kenneth N. Waltz. The Spread of Nuclear Weapons: A Debate Renewed. 2nd ed. W. W. Norton, 2002.

OVERPOPULATION AND CONTRACEPTION

Despite scientific advances, no amount of technological innovation will solve the problem that Earth has only finite resources. Atten-
tion has therefore turned to the question of population growth; preserving the environment would be far easier if natural resources were
shared among fewer people. Environmental degradation will accelerate if the rate of global population increase is not slowed. Over the
years, much debate has been heard about whether widespread use of contraception is the solution to the population explosion in the
developing world.
PROS CONS
Population is a major problem today; the world popu- Many population forecasts are exaggerated and do not
lation of 6.6 billion is expected to reach 9.4 billion by take into account the different phases of population
2050. Given the current strain on global resources and growth. A nation’s population may grow rapidly in the
the environment, an environmental disaster is clearly early stages of development, but with industrialization
waiting to happen as the population time bomb ticks and rising levels of education, the population tends to
on. While reproduction is a fundamental human right, stabilize at the replacement rate. Even if the quoted figure
rights come with responsibilities. We have a responsibil- of 9.4 billion by 2050 is true, this is likely to remain
ity to future generations, and population control is one steady thereafter, as the developing nations of today
method of ensuring that natural resources will be avail- achieve maturity. Developed nations can use alternative
able for our descendants. methods to solve the environmental and social problems
arising from overpopulation. All available options should
be exhausted before making the drastic decision to curb
reproductive rights.
Contraception is an easy and direct method of slowing Implementing widespread contraception presents tech-
population growth. The popularity and success of con- nical difficulties. The cost can be prohibitive, especially
traception in the developed world is testament to this. when considered on a national scale. Large numbers of
trained workers are required to educate the public on the
correct use of contraceptives. Even with an investment in
training, birth control methods may be used incorrectly,
especially by the illiterate and uneducated.
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PROS CONS
Contraception can reduce family size. With smaller fam- Many agricultural families need to have as many children
ilies, a greater proportion of resources can be allocated to as possible. Children’s farm work can contribute to the
each child, improving his or her opportunities for educa- family food or be a source of income. In an undeveloped
tion, health care, and nutrition. nation without a good social welfare system, children
are the only security for old age. Furthermore, having a
large number of children usually ensures that some reach
adulthood; child mortality is very high in the developing
world. Until the child mortality rate is reduced, families
will not use contraception.
Contraception empowers women by giving them repro- Women may not have the choice to use contraceptives.
ductive control. Delaying pregnancy gives opportuni- In many developing nations, males dominate in sexual
ties for education, employment, and social and political relationships and make the decisions about family plan-
advancement. Birth control can therefore be a long-term ning. Religious pressure to have as many children as pos-
investment in political reform and offers some protec- sible may also be present. Birth control may not even
tion of women’s rights. be socially acceptable. Are women’s rights advanced by
contraception? We don’t really know. In reality, contra-
ception typically is one element of a national popula-
tion control policy. Such policies (e.g., China’s one-child
policy), when considered as a whole, often violate wom-
en’s rights.
Contraception can help save the lives of women in the While birth control should be a priority of many devel-
developing world. The lack of obstetric care and the oping nations, such nations often need to address other,
prevalence of disease and malnutrition contribute to more pressing, issues. Providing basic health care and
a high rate of mortality among pregnant mothers and proper sanitation can improve the health of an entire
their newborn children. This risk can be over 100 times family, in addition to reducing child mortality (often a
that of mothers in developed countries. major reason for parents wanting to have a large number
of children). Spending on such infrastructure and ser-
vices is a far better long-term investment than providing
contraception.
Supporting contraception is an easy way for the devel- Contraception is a controversial issue in both developed
oped world to help the developing world cope with the and developing nations. Some religions prohibit it. This
population crisis and the consequent stifling of devel- can reduce the success of birth control programs in the
opment. Contraceptives, compared to monetary aid, are developing world and diminish the political appeal of
less likely to be misdirected into the pockets of corrupt (and thus funding for) pro-contraception policies in the
officials. developed world.
Sample Motions:
This House supports contraception in developing nations.
This House would cap population growth in the developing world.
This House believes that there are too many people.
This House believes that there isn’t enough room.
Web Links:
• OverPopulation.com. <http://www.overpopulation.com/> Extensive site with information on a wide variety of population is-
sues. Includes a good overview essay on the overpopulation controversy.

• Population Reference Bureau. <http://www.prb.org> Provides a comprehensive directory of population-related resources.
• The United Nations Population Information Network. <http://www.un.org/popin/> Offers links to population information on
the UN systems Web sites.
Further Reading:
Huggins, Laura E., and Hanna Skandera. Population Puzzle: Boom or Bust? Hoover Institute Press, 2005.
Leisinger, Klaus M. Six Billion and Counting. International Food Policy Research Institute, 2002.

OVERSEAS MANUFACTURING
In the new era of globalization, American companies often locate their manufacturing operations in countries outside the United States.
Many countries are eager to attract American industries and the employment they bring; overseas factories usually can be run at sub-
stantially lower costs largely because wages for foreign workers are much lower than wages for American workers. The treatment of these
foreign employees has engendered many questions and raised many issues. Their working conditions may not be safe; they may be asked to
work unreasonable hours; they may be paid less than a living wage. In some parts of the world, many factory workers are school-age chil-
dren. Increasingly, the public is putting pressure on American corporations to improve the treatment of their foreign workers and to provide
the same kind of safeguards that protect American workers.
PROS CONS
Companies build factories overseas for one primary Manufacturers know that mistreating workers does not
reason: Foreign workers are cheaper. When companies pay in the long run. They know that a healthy and a
are driven by the profit motive, they have an incentive happy workforce is going to be more productive and give
to pay as little as possible and to skimp on equipment their operation long-term stability. Certainly manufac-
and procedures that would provide comfort and safety turers care about the bottom line, and it is precisely that
to workers. Workers need to be protected from corpora- concern that motivates them to treat their workers well.
tions that care more about profits than people.
Some foreign governments are so eager to attract Ameri- The presence of American companies has a direct ben-
can investment that they favor management over labor. efit on the economies of their host countries. Workers are
They do not protect their own citizens with strong labor taught skills and exposed to new technology. Moreover, a
laws, and they do not guarantee workers the right to form strong industrial economy has been proved to be the best
unions. Workers are at the mercy of their employers. way to lift people out of poverty. In time, foreign workers
will achieve wages and working conditions comparable to
those enjoyed by American workers today.
American companies located in foreign countries have Wages may be low compared to US standards; how-
no incentive for making commitments to the local com- ever, the cost of living in these countries is also low. It
munity. If the workers become too expensive, or if the is absurd, therefore, to expect American companies to
companies are forced to spend money to improve condi- pay the standard minimum US wage in a country where
tions, they simply pull out and move to another country that wage has 10 times the buying power that it has in
with cheaper workers and lower standards. America.
Because they have no union protections, workers are Activists like to say that factory jobs in foreign countries
often asked to work absurdly long hours, with no extra are intolerable and undesirable, but the facts do not sup-
pay for overtime, and in dangerous conditions with port that assertion. People are eager to work in a factory,
hazardous materials. They fear that if they complain, or when their alternative is making less money for a full day
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PROS CONS
refuse to work when demanded, they will be fired and of backbreaking agricultural work. To the workers, jobs
replaced by someone who is desperate for a job. in American factories represent opportunities to gain a
higher standard of living.
Child labor is condoned in many countries where Amer- The American objection to child labor is founded on the
ican companies do business, but American companies idealistic notion that children should be in school. But
should refuse to take part in this abuse. There is little in many countries where the factories operate, universal
hope for the future of countries where a child must pro- schooling is nonexistent, and the child who is thrown out
vide labor, instead of getting an education. of a factory job goes back on the street. In many cases,
the child who does not work in a factory will simply
work someplace else; in poor families, it is expected that
anyone who is able to work will earn a wage to support
the family.
Sample Motions:
This House will not buy materials made in foreign sweatshops.
This House would force American companies to let foreign workers unionize.
Web Links:
• Ending Sweatshops. <http://www.sweatshops.org/> This Web site is sponsored by the activist organization Co-op America. It
discusses “sweatshop” conditions in foreign countries and encourages citizens to take action to eliminate them.
• Sweatshops for the New World Order. <http://www.fee.org/publications/the-freeman/article.asp?aid=4628> This essay, from
the Foundation for Economic Education, argues that American protests about foreign factories are ill-informed and ahistorical.
Further Reading:
Elliott, Kimberly, and Richard B. Freeman. Can Labor Standards Improve Under Globalization? Institute for International Econom-
ics, 2003.
Featherstone, Liza, et al. Students Against Sweatshops: The Making of a Movement. Verso Books, 2002.
Moran, Theodore H. Beyond Sweatshops: Foreign Direct Investment and Globalization in Developing Nations. Brookings Institution
Press, 2002.

PACIFISM
Pacifism has a long history in the United States. Although their numbers have been small, pacifists have opposed every American war from
the Revolution to the Iraq War. Occasionally their voices have contributed to policy changes, as was the case in the Vietnam War. The
debate between nonviolent objection and the use of force to achieve a goal brings up issues like morality vs. practicality: Is violence ever
constructive; and, does pacifism in the face of a threat serve to increase or diminish evil. The debate also contrasts the lives lost in war with
the liberty that might be lost if war is avoided and thus raises the difficult issue of sacrificing lives to preserve a principle.
PROS CONS
Violence is never justified under any circumstances. Life We are not arguing that violence is of itself a good thing.
is sacred, and no cause or belief allows a person to take We are saying that when others are using violence to
the life of another. endanger principles as fundamental as human rights,
people have a duty to stand up against them. Not to do
so would merely allow evil to spread unchecked.

PROS CONS
Neither side in a war emerges as a victor. War rarely set- Disputes do sometimes persist after wars, but often wars
tles issues. (For example, World War I created the con- can lead to the resolution of some issues. For exam-
ditions that led to World War II.) War always creates ple, World War II prevented fascism from taking over
suffering on both sides. Often the innocent suffer, as in Europe, and the Persian Gulf War led to Saddam Hus-
the case of the firebombing of Dresden or the dropping sein’s withdrawal from Kuwait. In these cases, the failure
of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima in World War II. to act would have led to the oppression of millions and
permitted an aggressor to triumph.
Pacifists believe that violence begets violence. Pacifists do Pacifism is a luxury that some can practice because others
not have to retreat completely from world and domes- fight. Pacifists claim moral superiority while enjoying
tic affairs. During World War I, conscientious objectors the liberty for which others have died. We fought both
stood up against the militarism and cynical diplomacy world wars to combat aggression and injustice. We did
that had led to the conflict. In many countries they were our moral duty in resisting tyranny.
executed for their beliefs.
When war is inevitable, pacifists can protest the cruelties This type of protest is not true pacifism, which rejects
of war, such as torture, attacks on civilians, and other war outright. By admitting that war is sometimes inevi-
contraventions of the Geneva Convention, in an attempt table, you are acknowledging that sometimes people
to curb violence’s excesses. cannot sit by and do nothing.
Great religious leaders, such as Jesus and Gandhi, have In practice, most world religions have adopted violence,
always advocated pacifism. They believe that “He who in the shape of crusades or holy wars, to serve their
lives by the sword dies by the sword.” For thousands of ends. And does not the Bible advocate “an eye for an
years the wisest thinkers have believed that violence does eye”? When an aggressor endangers liberty and freedom,
not end suffering, but merely increases it. humanity must use violence to combat him.
Sample Motions:
This House would be pacifist.
This House rejects violence.
This House would turn the other cheek.
Web Links:
• The Good War and Those Who Refused to Fight It. <http://www.pbs.org/itvs/thegoodwar/american_pacifism.html> PBS Web
site providing overview of pacifism in American history.
• Pacifism. <http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/p/pacifism.htm> Philosophical discussion of pacifism.
• The Paradox of War and Pacifism. <http://www.leaderu.com/socialsciences/clark.html> Historical discussion of pacifism from a
Christian point of view.
Further Reading:
Gan, Barry L., and Robert L. Holmes. Nonviolence in Theory and Practice. Waveland Press, 2004.
Zinn, Howard. The Power of Nonviolence: Writings by Advocates of Peace. Beacon Press, 2002

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PARENTAGE, RIGHT TO KNOW
Historically, virtually all adoptions in the United States were “closed,” meaning that the birth parents had no contact with their child or
the adoptive parents following an adoption. In recent years, many adopted children, as well as children conceived as a result of anonymous
sperm donations, have challenged this policy, insisting that they have a right to know who their biological parents are. Some biological par-
ents have contended that forcing them to reveal their identity infringes on their rights.
PROS CONS
The reassurance that comes from knowing one’s parent- The most important factor in raising a child is a secure and
age is a valuable source of psychological security. The loving home environment. Whether biological or adoptive
child’s desires and wishes must take precedence over the parents provide this is unimportant. If the genetic parents
wants of anonymous parents. wish to remain anonymous, then they should retain a
right to privacy. Removing the right to anonymity from a
sperm donor will greatly reduce the number of men will-
ing to become donors—for fear of unwanted contact or
even financial responsibility in later life.
Biological parents should not have to raise a child if they Giving adopted children the right to know the identity of
do not wish to, but children should have the right to their biological parents would simply cause greater emo-
learn the identity of their biological parents. Neither the tional distress for all concerned. The child may resent
biological nor the adoptive parents should make this his or her biological parents and even seek revenge. The
choice on the child’s behalf. adoptive parents may see their role undermined as the
child tries to connect with his or her biological parents.
Adopted children may end up feeling that they do not
truly belong anywhere. Similarly, when sperm donation
has been used to achieve pregnancy, the child’s contact
with his or her biological father may undermine role of
the mother’s partner, who is acting as the father.
Children who do not know their biological parents are Predicting disease through reviewing an individual’s
medically disadvantaged. Knowing parents’ medical genetic heritage is wrong and will likely result in higher
background and genetic profile is increasingly important insurance premiums and medical discrimination for the
in preventing and treating disease. child. Gathering and holding medical information on
parents who give up their children for adoption will
create a genetic underclass whose DNA will be stored for
no good reason.
Parents will not abandon a child to preserve their ano- Parents who do not wish their identity known would
nymity. The right to know parentage does not equal simply abandon a child rather than formally give him
the right to contact or depend on biological rather than or her up for adoption and have their identity recorded.
adoptive families, so parents are unlikely to act in these The child may well die of exposure or starvation before it
irresponsible ways. is found. In addition, some expectant mothers may fear
identification so much that they do not seek vital medi-
cal support when they give birth, but do so alone with all
the risks to mother and child that implies.
Sample Motions:
This House believes in the right to know parentage.
This House believes the rights of the child come first.
This House wants to know its parents/children.

Web Links:
• closedadoption.com. <http://www.closedadoption.com/> Article in support of closed adoption.
• FindLaw. <http://family.findlaw.com/adoption/adoption-types/open-adoption-comparison.html> Discussion of pros and cons
of open and closed adoption.
• open-adoptions.net. <http://www.open-adoptions.net/> Article in support of open adoption.

PARENTAL RESPONSIBILITY
“Parental responsibility” means different things in different contexts. Most countries have laws making parents or anyone biologically con-
nected to a child responsible for the child’s welfare. But in some countries, such the United States and Canada, state and local authorities
have gone further. In an effort to stop the rise of juvenile crime, they have taken the more debatable step of holding parents legally respon-
sible for the actions of their children.
PROS CONS
Legal requirements for parental action, particularly those The causes at the core of juvenile delinquency, abusive
that include sanctions for nonaction, provide an incen- families and child neglect are not necessarily the kind of
tive for parents to act responsibly. If parents are liable problems that can be solved by the leverage of criminal
for their inaction or the inappropriate actions of their or civil sanctions. In instances where parents are absent
children, they are more likely to make sure their children or neglectful, deep social problems are often the cause.
are supervised and well cared for. Problems such as alcoholism, poverty, poor education,
poor health and poor health care, and family histories
of abuse can lock a family into a negative cycle that con-
tinues to perpetuate behaviors that others might view as
irresponsible. There is a danger that the proposed sanc-
tions will make families trapped in such problems afraid
to seek help from social services for fear of punishment.
Minor children should not be held legally accountable While generally true, there are instances where the
for their actions nor should they be obligated to provide amount of influence of parents over a child’s life is neg-
for themselves until they have reached the age of major- ligible. Some children run away from home or forcibly
ity. Governments have established laws drawing distinc- separate themselves from their parents of their own
tions between adults and juveniles for a reason. These accord. On occasion, juveniles commit crimes so hei-
governments believe that juveniles make mistakes and nous, and so unexpected, that no reasonable person
are not necessarily mature enough to be fully respon- would think that the parents were ultimately responsible.
sible for or completely aware of the consequences of There are also significant differences between cultures as
their actions. Parents, and the community at large have to what age constitutes “adulthood.” The age of major-
a responsibility to raise children to act appropriately in ity varies significantly among the nations of the world.
society. If society or more specifically parents fail in the While many Western countries consider an 18-year-old
task, it is not reasonable for the children to be charged an adult, other cultures see the beginnings of adulthood
with sole responsibility for their acts. in the early teenage years. Adulthood can also be seen as
a phased-in process—a continuum of increasing respon-
sibility, with driving, leaving school, voting, drinking,
having sex, getting married without parental permission,
joining the armed forces, and standing for public office
considered as milestones. Thus, multinational or global
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PROS CONS
accords on parental responsibility or children’s rights are
potentially problematic.
Laws that enshrine parental responsibility improve This argument stems from two flawed assumptions: first,
family life. As parents are encouraged to take responsi- that parents who are separated or divorced cannot act
bility for their children, and such responsibility becomes responsibly and, second, that doing “the right thing”
a cultural norm, families will develop closer bonds, mar- necessarily equates with positive family values. A parent
riages will become stronger, and the problems of broken may play a very active role in the lives of her or his chil-
families will decrease. dren, yet still have a horrible marriage or mentally or
physically abuse the children. A parent who is not mar-
ried to a child’s other parent may still play an active and
valuable role in the life of the child, even if the parents
do not live in the same home.
Parental responsibility laws help compel parents who Decades of legal experience in countries that order child
are delinquent in their support of a child to become support from separated or divorced parents have demon-
involved—at least on a financial level. This can also strated that parents who want to sever ties (financial or
discourage irresponsible men from indulging in promis- otherwise) can do so, either by defaulting on payments
cuous and reckless sexual behavior, and thus possibly or hiding from the law. These laws may even have a
fathering a number of children by different mothers. negative effect by fostering resentment toward the child
or other parent within the parent compelled to provide
support. Child support orders may also harm any subse-
quent children an estranged parent may have by impov-
erishing a second family in favor of the first.
Children are less likely to engage in acts of delinquency Children prone to engage in acts of serious juvenile delin-
if they feel that their parents are likely to be held legally quency are rarely interested in the feelings of or effects
responsible for their actions. of their actions on parents. In fact, the worst juvenile
delinquents are probably more likely to act out if they
believe, first, that the action will result in harm to the
parents they seek to rebel against and, second, that their
parents will be held responsible in place of them.
Sample Motions:
This House believes parents should be held criminally liable for the illegal activities of their children.
This House believes parents should be held civilly liable for the illegal activities of their children.
This House believes that, on balance, parents are more responsible for the actions of children than the children are themselves.
This House believes an international convention on child welfare should be adopted.
Web Links:
• The Great Young Offenders Act Debate. <http://www.lawyers.ca/tgyad/debates/sep2000.htm> Online debate over the Ontario,
Canada, Parental Responsibility Act.
• National Conference of (U.S.) State Legislatures. <http://www.ncsl.org/programs/press/schoolviolence/LEGIS73.htm> Over-
view of parental responsibility in juvenile justice.
• Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. <http://ojjdp.ncjrs.org/pubs/reform/ch2_d.html> Site summarizes pa-
rental responsibility laws in the United States.
Further Reading:
Bainham, Andrew, et al. What Is a Parent?: A Socio-Legal Analysis. International Specialized Book Services, 1999.
van Bueren, Geraldine, ed. International Documents on Children. Martinus Nijhoff, 1998.
Wyness, Michael. Schooling, Welfare, and Parental Responsibility. RoutledgeFalmer, 1996.

POLITICIANS AND SPECIAL INTERESTS
Political dialogue in America is frequently peppered with accusatory references to “special interests.” These special interests are organized
groups that play active political roles, either through making contributions to parties and candidates, or through lobbying government offi-
cials in an attempt to influence legislation and public policy. Many of these groups have millions of dollars at their disposal. The question
is whether this money corrupts the political system—that is, are legislators more concerned with pleasing donors and lobbyists than they are
with responding to the will of average citizens? Long a concern, the issue came to the fore during the Administration of George W. Bush
as a result of a series of congressional scandals and the revelation of the K Street Project, an effort designed to encourage lobbying firms to
hire Republicans and to reward lobbyists loyal to the Republican Party with access to high congressional and Administration officials.
PROS CONS
No person who is financially dependent on someone else If a politician were dependent on only one source of
is truly free to serve the public good in a disinterested funding, undue influence might be a possibility. But so
way. When a politician depends on huge sums of money many special interest groups are active in Washington
contributed by an organization, his or her vote is inevi- that politicians get contributions from dozens, if not
tably influenced by the wishes of that organization rather hundreds, of them. The influence of any one group,
than by what is best for the country. therefore, is negligible; even a contribution of $10,000
is only a “drop in the bucket” when campaigns cost
millions.
The size of contributions has become so large that donors Accusations of undue influence are often vague and
certainly expect some kind of payback. A manufacturers’ unsupported by facts. Watchdog organizations like to
association will not give $100,000 away just as a ges- make statistical correlations between donations and
ture of good will; it expects to see its concerns favorably votes, but that is not real evidence that votes have been
addressed in legislation. “bought.” Don’t forget that actually buying votes is a
crime and is vigorously prosecuted.
For generations, lawmakers have recognized that the Special interests are condemned for having too much
power of special interests can lead to corruption; more influence, but the causal logic of the accusers is fun-
than 50 years ago, for example, Congress forbade unions damentally flawed. When the National Abortion and
from acting to influence federal elections. But the cre- Reproductive Rights Action League (NARAL) makes
ation of political action committees (PACs) and the contributions to politicians, it does not buy the votes of
proliferation of soft money have allowed special interest legislators who would have voted differently on repro-
groups to violate the spirit of the law while obeying its ductive issues. Rather, NARAL gives money to candi-
letter. dates who have already indicated their support for poli-
cies in line with NARAL’s position.
Money purchases access to politicians, who are more People who want to kill special interest groups are usually
willing to make time for donors than for average citizens. thinking of groups that support a position they oppose.
Access leads naturally to influence. The average citizen is Special interest groups span the political spectrum and
shortchanged by the current system, which favors cash- represent many points of view. Indeed, the variety of
rich organizations. groups with competing interests is an indication of a
healthy and vigorous political system.
Organizations often spend hundreds of millions of dol- Individuals should organize themselves into groups to
lars to lobby politicians. They would not spend such represent themselves more effectively. Congress passes
sums if they did not think such expenditures were effec- laws that affect the daily lives of teachers, for example;
tive in helping them get what they want. Again, money surely, teachers have the right to have their voices heard—
clearly is shaping legislation. through their unions—when those laws are drawn up.
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Sample Motions:
This House would change campaign finance laws to allow contributions from individuals only.
This House would lobby Congress to advance its interests.
Web Links:
• Missing the Point on Campaign Finance. <http://www.claremont.org/writings/precepts/20020321ellmers.html> An essay from
the Claremont Institute for the Study of Statesmanship and Political Philosophy that argues that the fear of special interest
groups has been exaggerated.
• Money and Politics: Who Owns Democracy? <http://www.network democracy.org/map/welcome.shtml> A project of Informa-
tion Renaissance and National Issues Forums Research, this Web page discusses the pros and cons of various proposals to change
the role of money in politics.
• Your Guide to the Money in U.S. Elections. <http://www.opensecrets.org/index.asp> Web site of the Center for Responsive
Politics provides data about campaign contributions by donor and by recipient. “News alerts” flag instances where contributions
may have influenced congressional voting.
Further Reading:
Continetti, Matthew. The K Street Gang: The Rise and Fall of the Republican Machine. Doubleday, 2006.
Drew, Elizabeth. The Corruption of American Politics: What Went Wrong and Why. Overlook Press, 2000.
Judis, John B. The Paradox of American Democracy: Elites, Special Interests, and the Betrayal of the Public Trust. Routledge, 2001.
Nownes, Anthony. Total Lobbying: What Lobbyists Want (and How They Try to Get It). Cambridge University Press, 2006.

POLYGAMY
Polygamy is the state or practice of having two or more mates at the same time. Both the Bible and the Qur’an condone it, but most
religions now ban the practice. In most countries, including all Western ones and some Islamic ones, polygamy is illegal, although some
Muslim states (e.g., Saudi Arabia) and traditional African societies do allow it. In the United States, polygamy is associated with the
Mormon church, which approved the practice until 1896, when church leaders agreed to abandon it in hopes of winning statehood for
Utah. Yet some fundamentalist Mormon splinter groups in Utah, Arizona, and Texas still openly practice polygamy, and in 2006 the
practice gained national attention when the FBI placed Warren Jeffs, president of the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-
day Saints, on its most wanted list for felony charges of accomplice rape. Although polygamy can involve both the union of one man with
more than one woman (polygyny) and the union of one woman with more than one man (polyandry), the focus of contemporary debate is
polygyny and its effects on women and children.
PROS CONS
The law should recognize freedom of choice. If I want to These rights are countered by the damage polygamy
marry more than one person, why should the state stop does to women and families. Polygamy harms children,
me? If my partner agrees to the addition to the family, who are presented with confusing signals about role
then why should the state presume to say it knows better? models and family life. It also reduces a woman’s free-
We have a right to privacy and a right to noninterference dom: Women often do not have a say in whether the
in our family life. husband takes another wife.
The addition of extra parental figures does not necessar- A polygamous family will develop a hierarchy, with a
ily undermine family units. Rather, more providers can “head wife” dominating the others. Why encourage and
make greater contributions to the home. Often there is institutionalize the very thing that leads to the break-up
love, not jealousy, between wives who are happy to have of the majority of family units—namely, jealousy and
others share their work. Hierarchies exist in monoga- sexual encounters with others? It is true that jealousy
mous families—between husband and wife, between exists outside marriages and in monogamous marriages,
siblings. That they can exist in polygamous marriages is but why set up a situation in which it is guaranteed?

PROS CONS
not a strong argument against such unions, which are
capable of producing stable homes. Some marriages are
good, some bad—that’s true of both monogamy and
polygamy.
The idea that the individual can love only one person is Marriage is about devotion to another, the giving of one-
false, a product of a particular time, place, and culture. self wholly to that person, granting love to them to the
Polygamy has been the norm in many societies through- exclusion of all others. How could one have such a rela-
out history. Polygamy is not about freedom to fornicate tionship with more than one person? It is not possible to
with anyone; it is about cementing relationships with love more than one person. Polygamy, therefore, neces-
individuals one wants to spend the rest of one’s life with, sarily involves the exploitation of at least one party and
just as in monogamous marriages. the denigration of the relationship that exists between
the others.
Polygamy reduces the desire for adultery by providing Adultery is based on a desire for someone outside the
alternatives for sexual exploration within the family unit. home. Adultery still occurs in polygamous societies.
This reduces the strains on family life and minimizes the Indeed, polygamy encourages adultery because it dilutes
likelihood of breakdown and divorce. the idea of fidelity to one person, substituting the legiti-
macy of intercourse with many.
Of course an individual should not belong to another. Legalizing polygamy would legitimize the idea of women
But this attack displays at best a lack of understanding as objects belonging to their husbands. This is exactly the
about the cultures of others and at worst veiled racism. thinking we want to discourage. While polygynous mar-
We should not stop people from practicing their faiths in riages are technically possible in the Muslim world, they
this country. Polygamy is acceptable within the Muslim are very rare because the requirement that all wives be
faith. Why should not the validity of such marriages be treated fairly (Qur’an 4:3) is almost impossible to meet.
recognized? It is not possible to love one person as much as another,
impossible to give one person as much thought or time
as another. The very low rate of polygyny in Islam points
to the problems innate in polygamy.
This is a cheap slur. Polygamy does not necessarily create Once allowed, polygamy will facilitate forced mar-
other offenses. You cannot say something should be riages and increase the potential for incest as men marry
illegal because there’s a theoretical link to other illegal close relatives to keep them within the closed commu-
things. Forced marriage is an issue in some monogamous nity structure polygamy so often creates. Indeed, where
societies. We agree that society needs to decide how it polygamy is found, a wealth of other offenses follows.
wants to handle that offense, but that question is entirely Child abuse, rape, welfare fraud, and incest are all staples
separate from the issue of allowing polygamy. of the polygamous communities in the United States.
Just as important, polygamy encourages the broader
exploitation of women.
Sample Motions:
This House would legalize polygamy.
This House believes monogamy is not the only way.
This House believes that three isn’t a crowd.
Web Links:
• Multi-faith Attitudes to Polygamy. <http://www.polygamy.com/> Site promoting plural marriage.
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• Tapestry of Polygamy. <http://www.polygamy.org> Utah-based organization formed to fight the abuses of polygamy and sup-
port former polygamous wives and family members.
Further Reading:
Barash, David P., and Judith Eve Lipton. Myth of Monogamy: Fidelity and Infidelity in Animals and People. Owl Books, 2002.
Chapman, Samuel. Polygamy, Bigamy and Human Rights Law. Xlibris Corporation, 2001.
Gordon, Sarah Barringer. The Mormon Question: Polygamy and Constitutional Conflict in Nineteenth-Century America. University of
North Carolina Press, 2002.
Tracy, Kathleen. The Secret Story of Polygamy. Sourcebooks, 2001.

PORNOGRAPHY, BANNING OF
Most adult pornography is legal in the United States, where it is protected by the First Amendment guarantee of freedom of speech. Nev-
ertheless, many campaigns to restrict it have been mounted. Initially such suggested restrictions were based on moral grounds, but in recent
years women’s groups have urged a ban because some studies have shown that pornography contributes to violence against women.
PROS CONS
Pornography debases human interactions by reducing Freedom of speech is one of our most cherished rights.
love and all other emotions to the crudely sexual. Sex Censorship might be justified when free speech becomes
is an important element in relationships, but it is not offensive to others, but this is not the case with por-
the be all and end all of them. Pornography also debases nography. It is filmed legally by consenting adults for
the human body and exploits those lured into it. It also consenting adults and thus offends no one. Pornography
encourages unhealthy, objectifying attitudes toward the injures no one and is a legitimate tool to stimulate our
opposite sex. Pornography is not a victimless crime. The feelings and emotions in much the same way as music,
victim is the very fabric of society itself. art, and literature do.
Pornography helps to reinforce the side of our sexual Pornography is a legitimate exploration of sexual fantasy,
identity that sees people as objects and debases both one of the most vital parts of human life. Psychologists
their thoughts and bodies. We have seen evidence of this have confirmed the important, if not driving, role that
in the way pictures of seminaked women (hardly ever sexual impulses play in shaping our behavior. Repressing
men) are used in advertising. Society’s acceptance of por- or denying this part of our personalities is both prud-
nography leads to the objectification of women and thus ish and ignorant. Consequently, pornography should
directly to sexual discrimination. be available for adults to vary their sex lives. Indeed, far
from “corroding the fabric of society,” pornography can
help maintain and strengthen marriages by letting cou-
ples fully explore their sexual feelings.
Society’s apparent tolerance of legal pornography This is not true; no “slippery slope” scenario exists.
encourages illegal forms, such as child pornography. Are People interested in child pornography will obtain it
we to allow pedophiles the “legitimate sexual explora- regardless of its legal status. Human sexuality is such that
tion” of their feelings? The opposition cannot let human mere exposure to adult pornography does not encourage
impulses override societal rules that protect children. individuals to explore child pornography.
Many rapists are obsessed with pornography. It encour- Sadly, rape will exist with or without pornography.
ages them to view women as objects and helps justify Rapists may use pornography, but pornography does
their contention that women are willing participants in not create rapists. The claim that pornography is rape

PROS CONS
the act. Indeed, feminists have proposed that pornogra- is invalid. Our legal system depends on the distinction
phy is rape because it exploits women’s bodies. Pornogra- between thought and act that this claim seeks to blur.
phy serves only to encourage brutal sex crimes. Pornography is a legitimate form of expression and
enjoyment. Government should not censor it in the
interests of sexual repression and prudery.
Sample Motions:
This House believes pornography does more harm than good.
This House would ban pornography.
This House believes that pornography is bad for women.
Web Links:
• American Civil Liberties Union. <http://www.aclu.org/FreeSpeech/FreeSpeechMain.cfm> Information on court challenges to
censorship, including arguments in support of a broad understanding of freedom of speech.
• Pornography as a Cause of Rape. <http://www.dianarussell.com/porntoc.html> Summary of scholarly book showing the rela-
tionship between pornography and violence against women.
Further Reading:
Cornell, Drucilla. Feminism and Pornography. Oxford University Press, 2000.
Harvey, Philip D. The Government vs. Erotica: The Siege of Adam & Eve. Prometheus, 2001.
Strossen, Nadine. Defending Pornography: Free Speech, Sex, and the Fight for Women’s Rights. New York University Press, 2000.

PREVENTIVE WAR
In 2002 the Bush Administration published The National Security Strategy for the United States, in which it articulated the doctrine of
preventive war. In a departure from international law as outlined in the UN Charter, which permits the use of force only in self-defense
against an actual or imminent armed attack, the Administration asserted that it would act against “emerging threats before they are fully
formed.”
PROS CONS
The UN Charter and international law have to catch up The Bush Doctrine of preventive war creates a precedent
with today’s reality. Nations and nonstate groups have that seriously threatens the integrity of the international
vastly more sophisticated ways of attacking a country legal order that has been in place since the end of the
than they did in the 1940s. The development of weap- World War II.
ons of mass destruction (WMD) has changed the way
we must look at security. The UN Charter should be
amended to reflect this. Until it is, states have a right to
defend themselves, even if it means engaging in preven-
tive war.
History has shown that the UN and diplomacy in gen- The US doctrine of preventive self-defense contradicts
eral are often ineffective. When its security is endangered the cardinal principle of the modern international legal
and diplomatic means have been exhausted, a state has to order and the primary rationale for the founding of the
the right to act unilaterally. Article 51 of the UN Charter UN after World War II: the prohibition of the unilat-
preserves the “inherent right of individual or collective eral use of force to settle disputes. The doctrine of pre-
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PROS CONS
self-defense if an armed attack occurs against a Member ventive war is a recipe for conflict, precipitating wars
of the United Nations, until the Security Council has that might never otherwise have begun.
taken measures necessary to maintain international
peace and security.”
The US has the military might and economic power The Bush Doctrine contributes to global tension. Some
to prevent its enemies from building up the strength to states will arm to defend themselves from a preventive
attack. Acting when the threat is still small and man- war, while others will arm because they want to attack an
ageable is more rational then dealing with it after it has aggressor who has killed innocent civilians. Some rogue
become serious. Preventing the proliferation of WMD nations will determine that they can avoid a preventive
is much more efficient than waiting until they have been war by acquiring nuclear weapons. Thus, the doctrine of
deployed. preventive war will stimulate nuclear proliferation. The
Bush Doctrine does not achieve the purpose for which it
was originally articulated.
The US is a superpower and should act like one when The UN was established with the supreme purpose
global stability is at stake. As the world’s only superpower, of taking collective action to remove threats to peace.
the US is responsible for maintaining global stability. It Moreover, the UN Charter requires that all members
does not have to resort to war if diplomacy proves suc- settle their international disputes by peaceful means. By
cessful; however, war must be an option if diplomacy initiating a preventive war without the UN’s consent,
fails. the US has the potential to destabilize the global politi-
cal situation and put in danger the peace, security, and
justice that states have tried to preserve since the UN was
established.
The US has the duty to protect its citizens. The world A preventive war lacks any moral justification because it
order established by the UN in 1945 could not protect runs counter to the UN Charter, which stipulates that
the US from terrorist attacks in 2001. Terrorists are not violence is permissible only in response to an imminent
concerned with international law or morality. The pri- threat or open aggression. As we have seen, US devia-
mary responsibility of the US government is to prevent tion from international law in this regard has had serious
future attacks on its people. consequences, creating instability in the Muslim world,
isolating the US from its allies, and contributing to the
growth of terrorism.
Sample Motions:
This House believes that the US should not engage in preventive war without the consent of the UN.
This House believes that the Bush Doctrine guarantees security from future attacks.
This House believes that states should pursue unilateral military action when acceptable multilateral solutions cannot be found.
Web Links:
• The Defense Strategy Review Page. <http://www.comw.org/qdr/preventivewar.html> Articles supporting and condemning pre-
ventive war.
• The National Security Strategy of the United States. <http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss.pdf> Document outlining the secu-
rity strategy of the Bush Administration.
• “Preventive War” and International Law after Iraq. <http://www.globelaw.com/Iraq/Preventive_war_after_iraq.htm#_
Toc41379606> Article presenting the legal position for opposing preventive war.
• U.S. Department of State. <http://usinfo.state.gov/journals/itps/1202/ijpe/ijpe1202.htm> Elaboration on the Bush Administra-
tion’s national security strategy by high administration officials.

PRIESTLY CELIBACY, ABOLITION OF
One of the requirements set by the Roman Catholic church for priests is that they remain celibate. Celibacy is the renunciation of sex and
marriage for the more perfect observance of chastity. This vow of celibacy has been propelled to the forefront of public discussion by charges,
which began arising in 2002, that the church conspired to protect priests accused of child molestation. The vow of celibacy is seen by some as a
cause of the pedophilia that seems to be rampant within the Catholic Church in America. The Vatican has not changed its stance on celibacy
in the wake of the controversy, but some within the church have called for the elimination of the requirement to be celibate.
PROS CONS
Until 1139, priests in the Western church were permit- The earliest church fathers, including St. Augustine,
ted to marry. The Bible does not mandate celibacy and, supported the celibate priesthood. In the fourth century,
in fact, St. Peter, the first pope, was married. The true church councils enacted legislation forbidding married
history and traditions of the Roman Catholic Church men who were ordained from having conjugal relations
include the option for priests to marry. with their wives. We do not know if any of the apostles,
other than Peter, were married, but we do know that
they gave up everything to follow Jesus. More impor-
tant, Jesus led a celibate life.
The number of priests in America is on the decline, and Protestant churches, which do not require celibacy, also
many parishes are without a priest. The prohibition are having problems recruiting clergy. Worldwide, the
on marriage pushes some men away from the priest- number of new priests is increasing. Only the developed
hood. The requirement of celibacy drastically reduces world has seen a decline in priestly vocations. A recent
the pool from which the church can select priests and study showed that vocations were on the rise in dioceses
means that the church is not always getting the “best in the US that were loyal to the teachings of the church,
and the brightest.” including priestly celibacy.
Protestant clergy successfully balance their work in the A celibate priest can devote all his time to his parishio-
church and their families. Were priests permitted to ners. A married priest must spend time with his family.
marry and have families, their families could serve as Protestant clergy have balanced their work for the church
examples to others. In addition, marriage can provide a with their family responsibilities only with difficulty.
priest with increased social support and intimacy. Many wives and families of Protestant clergy report feel-
ing second to the congregation.
Priestly celibacy is outdated. It sets the priest apart from The priest is set apart from the world. He has a unique
the world and the experiences of his parishioners. role: He represents Christ to his parishioners. Just as
Jesus led a life of chastity dedicated to God, a priest must
offer his life to God’s people.
Celibate priests can never experience the intimate and The celibate priest has a unique understanding of the
complicated marital relationship. They lack credibility power of self-control and the giving of the self, which
when conducting marital and family counseling. Mar- are key ideas in marriage. The priest is married to the
ried priests can better serve their parishioners because of church and can counsel couples and families using that
their marital and family experiences. knowledge.
The prospect of celibacy draws sexually dysfunctional Celibacy and pedophilia are not connected. Sexual abuse
men to the priesthood. They hope that by totally deny- also occurs in religions where clergy are permitted to
ing their sexuality, they will not engage in pedophilia, marry. Studies have shown that sexual abusers account
but unfortunately they often cannot overcome their for less than 2% of Roman Catholic clergy, a figure com-
deviant desires. Permitting priests to marry would bring parable to clergy in other denominations.
men with healthy sexual desires to the priesthood.
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Sample Motions:
This House would permit priests to marry.
This House would have the Vatican stop requiring priestly celibacy.
This House believes that a married priest is a better priest.
Web Links:
• Celibacy of the Clergy. <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03481a.htm> Offers a detailed article on the history and theology
of priestly celibacy.
• How to Refute Arguments Against Priestly Celibacy. <http://www.catholicity.com/commentary/hudson/celibacy.html> Clear
presentation of arguments against celibacy, with refutations.
• Let’s Welcome Back Married Priests. <http://www.uscatholic.org/1999/02/sb9902.htm> Article, written by a married former
priest, argues against priestly celibacy.
Further Reading:
Cozzens, Donald. Freeing Celibacy. Liturgical Press, 2006.
Schoenherr, Richard A. Goodbye Father: The Celibate Male Priesthood and the Future of the Catholic Church. Oxford University
Press, 2004.
Sipe, A. W. Richa. Celibacy in Crisis. Routledge, 2003.
Stravinska, M. J., ed. Priestly Celibacy: Its Scriptural, Historical, Spiritual and Psychological Roots. Newman House Press, 2001.

PRIVACY VS. SECURITY

In the aftermath of the terrorist attacks of September 2001, Congress passed the Patriot Act, which gave new rights and powers to law
enforcement agencies. For example, the act gives the FBI greater latitude in wiretapping and in the surveillance of material transmitted
over the Internet. Legislators have also proposed national identification cards, facial profiling systems, and tighter restrictions on immigra-
tion. All of these measures are aimed at protecting Americans from further terrorist attacks. But this increased security comes at a cost: The
government will be able to gather more information about the private actions of individuals. To some observers, this invasion of privacy is
unwarranted and represents an attack on fundamental freedoms guaranteed in the Constitution.
PROS CONS
The primary function of government is to “secure the The right to privacy underlies the Fourth Amendment to
general welfare” of its citizens. Security is a common the Constitution, which prohibits unreasonable “search
good that is promised to all Americans, and it must take and seizure.” When the government collects and shares
primacy over individual concerns about privacy. information about its citizens, it is conducting an elec-
tronic version of such prohibited searches.
Electronic surveillance—of financial transactions, for Any proposal that increases the power of government
example—is an essential tool for tracking the actions of agencies should be dismissed. Historically, government
terrorists when they are planning attacks. The govern- agencies (e.g., the IRS) have abused their power over
ment cannot stand by and wait until criminal acts are citizens. Increased power means a greater potential for
committed; it must stop attacks before they happen. abuse.
Tighter security controls at airports and borders will Tighter security controls can be used to target specific
help prevent damage and loss of life. In addition to their ethnic and religious groups in a way that is unfair and
deterrent effect, they will enable officials to stop attacks discriminatory.
as they are happening.
Tighter immigration laws and more rigorous identifica- Preventive measures affect the innocent as well as the

PROS CONS
tion procedures for foreigners entering the country will guilty. This is especially true in the case of foreign nation-
reduce the possibility of terrorists entering the country. als: Tighter immigration controls may exclude foreigners
whose presence in America would be beneficial to the
country.
The right to privacy is by no means absolute, and Ameri- History has shown that the invocation of national secu-
cans already allow the government to control some of rity has often led to the restriction of fundamental rights.
their private actions. (The government can require driv- For example, Japanese-American citizens were interned
ers to wear safety belts, for example.) Any intrusions on during World War II to increase security. We should not
privacy for the sake of security would be minimal, and allow the government to take even small steps in a direc-
fundamental rights would still be respected. tion that can lead to something worse.
Sample Motions:
This House supports the creation of a national identity card.
This House would give the government more power in time of war.
Web Links:
• Markkula Center for Applied Ethics. <http://www.scu.edu/ethics/publications/briefings/privacy.html> Analyzes the issue from
an ethics perspective.
• Privacilla.org. <http://www.privacilla.org> A Web site devoted to gathering information on privacy issues and links to privacy
Web sites.
• Privacy vs. Security: A Bogus Debate? <http://www.businessweek.com/technology/content/jun2002/tc2002065_6863.htm>
In an interview for Business Week, David Brin, author of The Transparent Society, argues that the conflict between privacy and
security is a false dichotomy.
• Privacy vs. Security in the Aftermath of the September 11 Terrorist Attacks. <http://www.scu.edu/ethics/publications/briefings/
privacy.html> From the Markkula Center for Applied Ethics at Santa Clara University, this Web site offers a framework for as-
sessing the conflict between privacy and security. Includes links to other sites.
Further Reading:
Cohen, David B., and John W. Wells, eds. American National Security and Civil Liberties in an Era of Terrorism. Palgrave, 2004.
Darmer, M. Katherine, Robert M. Baird, and Stuart E. Rosenbaum, eds. Civil Liberties vs. National Security in a Post-9/11 World.
Prometheus, 2004.
Dempsey, John X., and David Cole. Terrorism & The Constitution, Sacrificing Civil Liberties in the Name of National Security. First
Amendment Foundation, 2002.
Leone, Richard C., and Greg Anrig, Jr., eds. The War on Our Freedoms: Civil Liberties in an Age of Terrorism. PublicAffairs, 2003.
Sidel, Mark. More Secure, Less Free?: Antiterrorism Policy and Civil Liberties After September 11. University of Michigan Press,
2004.

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PROSTITUTION, LEGALIZATION OF
Prostitution has long been opposed on moral grounds, but recently concerns about sexually transmitted diseases, particularly AIDS, and
about the violence that surrounds prostitution have contributed to renewed demands to stop the selling of sex. Criminalizing prostitution
has not worked, and some nations have moved to regulate or legalize it to protect prostitutes and monitor the conditions under which they
work. In Singapore and Denmark, selling sex is legal; the Dutch city of Amsterdam and the Australian state of New South Wales have
no laws for or against prostitution. Nevada has made prostitution lawful in a limited number of licensed brothels. This arrangement also
has enjoyed notable success in the Australian state of Victoria.
PROS CONS
Prostitution is an issue of individual liberty. The control Prostitutes do not have a genuine choice. They are often
of one’s own body is a basic human right. We do not encouraged or forced to work in the sex industry before
impose legal penalties on men and women who choose they are old enough to make a reasoned decision. Many
to be promiscuous. Why should the exchange of money have their reasoning impaired by an unhappy family
suddenly make consensual sex illegal? background, previous sexual abuse, or drugs. They may
be compelled to enter prostitution by circumstances
beyond their control, such as substance addiction or the
necessity to provide for a family.
Prostitution has existed in all cultures throughout his- Governments have a duty to protect the moral and
tory. Governments should recognize that they cannot physical health of their citizens. Legalizing prostitu-
eradicate it. Consequently they should pass legislation tion would implicitly approve a dangerous and immoral
that makes prostitution safer, rather than persist with practice. Prostitution is never a legitimate choice for a
futile and dangerous prohibition. young girl.
Prostitutes have performed a valid social function for Prostitution harms the fabric of society. Sexual inter-
thousands of years. Prostitution actually helps maintain course outside of marriage or a relationship of love shows
marriages and relationships. A purely physical, commer- disregard for the sanctity of the sexual act and for the
cial transaction does not jeopardize the emotional sta- other partner in a relationship. Emotional commitment
bility of a relationship. In Italy, for example, visiting a is inextricably linked to physical commitment.
prostitute does not violate the law against adultery.
Many libertarian feminists believe that prostitution Feminists overwhelmingly oppose prostitution. The rad-
reflects the independence and dominance of modern ical feminist school that emerged in the 1990s supports
women. The majority of prostitutes are women. Once the idea that prostitution leads to the objectification of
the danger of abuse from male clients and pimps is women. Men who use women’s bodies solely for sexual
removed, the capacity of women to control men’s sexual gratification do not treat them as people. This lack of
responses in a financially beneficial relationship is liber- respect dehumanizes both the prostitute and the client
ating. Furthermore, many campaigners for the rights of and does not represent a victory for either sex.
prostitutes note that the hours are relatively short and
the work well paid. Prostitutes are paid for services other
women must provide without charge.
Some studies suggest that prostitution lowers the inci- How can you prove that some individuals who visit pros-
dence of sex crimes. titutes would otherwise have committed violent offenses?
Psychological therapies that recommended the use of
prostitutes have been widely discredited. The number
of reported attacks on prostitutes and the considerably
greater number of such crimes that go unreported sug-
gest that prostitutes are the victims of the most serious

PROS CONS
crimes. In Victoria, where prostitution is legal, two rapes
of prostitutes are reported each week.
Legalization would improve the sexual health of pros- More sexual health problems are inevitable. When prosti-
titutes and, as a result, that of their clients. The sexual tution is lawful and socially acceptable, a greater number
transaction would occur in a clean and safe environment of men will use prostitutes. Medical studies show that
rather than on the street. In areas where prostitution is the condom is only 99% effective. Moreover, during the
legal, prostitutes have regular health checks as a condi- period between each health check, a prostitute could
tion of working in the brothels. Furthermore, the use contract and transmit a sexually transmitted disease.
of contraception is compulsory and condoms are freely Consequently, the legalization of prostitution will result
available. in the transmission of more potentially fatal diseases.
Legalizing prostitution would break the link between The legalization of the Bunny Ranch in Nevada did not
prostitutes and pimps. Pimps physically abuse prosti- prevent the majority of prostitutes from continuing to
tutes and often threaten greater violence; they confiscate work outside of the licensed brothel and remain depen-
part, if not all, of their earnings, and often encourage the dent on pimps. Licensed brothels are expensive for pros-
women to become addicted to drugs. Providing a secure titutes to work in and for clients to visit. A legal business
environment in which to work frees men and women of has to pay for rent, health checks and security; prosti-
pimps. tutes working outside the “system” need not worry about
such expenses. Some prostitutes use private apartments,
while others work on the street. Legalizing prostitution
will not remove the street market or the dangers associ-
ated with it. The dangerous street environment is a con-
sequence of economics, not legal controls.
Licensed brothels will improve the quality of life for Prostitutes will continue to work on the streets and are
people who live and work in areas currently frequented unlikely to work near the competition offered by the
by prostitutes. Regulations can require brothels to locate licensed brothels. Furthermore, will local governments
in areas away from homes and schools. want to create “ghettos” of prostitution in certain areas?
Existing legal prohibitions against prostitution do not Merely because some individuals break a law does not
work. Prostitutes are regularly arrested and fined. To pay mean that the law itself is at fault or that it should be
the fines, they must prostitute themselves. The laws ban- abolished. The ease with which prostitutes can return to
ning prostitution are counterproductive. work suggests that penal sanctions should be more severe
rather than removed altogether.
Legalizing prostitution would give governments eco- An economic benefit cannot offset social harms that
nomic benefits. A tax on the fee charged by a prostitute result from the legalization of certain prohibited activi-
and the imposition of income tax on the earnings of ties. Otherwise we would encourage governments to
prostitutes would generate revenue. become involved in other unlawful trades including traf-
ficking in drugs. Moreover, sex workers are unlikely to
declare their true earnings from what is a confidential
relationship between the worker and client. Thus the
amount of revenue generated is likely to be slight.
The problem of a high concentration of “sex tourists” Legalizing prostitution would render the country in
in a small number of destinations will disappear once question a destination for sex tourists. Relaxed legal con-
a larger number of countries legalize prostitution. Sup- trols on prostitution in Thailand, the Philippines, and in
porting this motion, therefore, will reduce the problem the Netherlands have made these countries attractive to
of sex tourism. these undesirable individuals.
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Sample Motions:
This House would have lots more sex.
This House would legalize brothels.
This House would decriminalize prostitution.
Further Reading:
Chapkis, Wendy, Jill Poesner, and Annie Sprinkle. Live Sex Act: Women Performing Erotic Labor. Routledge, 1997.
Ivison, Irene. Fiona’s Story. Little, Brown, 1997.

REBUILDING AFTER DISASTERS, GOVERNMENT ROLE IN

The past several years have seen the United States buffeted by a series of disasters, from 9/11 to Hurricane Katrina. Traditionally, Amer-
icans have looked to government to play a major role in rebuilding efforts, but following recent allegations of corruption and inefficiency in
reconstructing the Gulf Coast after Katrina, citizens are reevaluating the roles of the public and private sectors in recovery.
PROS CONS
The government exists to protect citizens and to help Government intervention in rebuilding is not the answer
them recover from crises. When disaster strikes, be it a and only serves to cover up the government’s previous
summer of tornados, an earthquake, or a hurricane, the failures. Rather than being “acts of God,” many disasters
government bears primary responsibility for speeding its happen either because of government laxity (a terrorist
citizens’ lives back to order. Financing rebuilding efforts attack) or are made worse because of inadequate govern-
is the least the government can do to help individuals ment preparation (a lack hurricane warning systems or
recover from incredible personal loss and community earthquake building codes). Focusing on the role of gov-
tragedy. ernment in recovery encourages a mentality that excuses
earlier government negligence and does not help prevent
similar crises in the future.
The government has an obligation to promote the eco- To be sure, the government has a responsibility to fix
nomic redevelopment of regions hit by natural disasters. destroyed infrastructure; however, individuals should
Helping fund the rebuilding of private homes would be rely on their insurance to rebuild their homes. Individu-
one step. The individuals and families affected by disas- als who cannot afford disaster insurance should not live
ters are taxpayers, and if a disaster were to strike another in high-risk areas such as flood plains. They should not
region, their tax money would go to support citizens in look to government (and the taxpayers) to bail them out.
those areas. Citizens must accept this fact if they demand Government subsidies on flood insurance either coddle
benefits for themselves. the rich or allow the poor to take risks without suffering
the consequences. We live in an “ownership society”—
individuals and private institutions should take respon-
sibility for where they chose to locate.
Because of its huge resources, only the federal government Government-sponsored rebuilding efforts are noto-
can help regions recover from massive disasters quickly riously inefficient and prone to fraud. In the wake of
and efficiently. States simply do not have the financial Katrina, millions of dollars of government assistance
wherewithal to rebuild nor do they have the expertise were given to “victims,” who spent the money on fri-
to coordinate a massive reconstruction campaign. States volities ranging from exotic dancers to diamond rings.
must rely on federal entities like the Federal Emergency Government rebuilding efforts are by their very nature
Management Agency (FEMA) that have experience in bureaucratic and politically driven, and do not neces-
dealing with overwhelming and continuing crises. sarily respond to cases of greatest need. In contrast, the
private sector has a vested financial interest in efficiency
and fraud prevention.

Sample Motions:
This House believes that the federal government must rebuild New Orleans.
This House believes that the federal government bears primary responsibility for rebuilding after a disaster.
This House believes that when disaster strikes, government should employ all means necessary to assist affected areas.
Web Links:
• Hoover Digest. <http://www.hooverdigest.org/053/wilson.html> Advice from Pete Wilson (governor of California at the time
the state successfully recovered from a major earthquake) on rebuilding New Orleans.
• The Independent Institute. <http://www.independent.org/newsroom/article.asp?id=1589> Public policy institute analysis of
public vs. private organization response to Katrina.
• U.S. Department of Homeland Security. <http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/NRPbaseplan.pdf> Text of the National Response
Plan.
Further Reading:
Birch, Eugenie, et al. Rebuilding Urban Places After Disaster: Lessons from Hurricane Katrina. University of Pennsylvania Press,
2006.
Cooper, Christopher. Disaster: Hurricane Katrina and the Failure of Homeland Security. Times Books, 2006.
Posner, Richard. Catastrophe: Risk and Response. Oxford University Press, 2004.

RELIGION: SOURCE OF CONFLICT OR PEACE?
Religion has always been one of the most influential forces in the world. It has been a force for peace, but it also has served as a cause,
if not a genuine reason, for some of the greatest wars. Today, with the growth of Muslim fundamentalism in Islamic areas, the Western
world views religious extremism as the great threat. The events of September 11, 2001, proved that such concerns were justified; however,
the war on terror led by the West caused resentment among those for whom Islam was a peaceful source of spiritual stability. So what is
religion today? Is it harmful or good? If it can be a source of conflict, can it serve as an instrument of resolution as well?
PROS CONS
Religion is a stronger force than any material incentives. Religion is extremely dangerous because it can be used
It is far better at directing behavior toward social bet- to justify brutal actions. The Inquisition carried out its
terment than either laws or physical force. For example, torture in the name of God. Hitler’s followers, among
both Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr., conducted them the so-called German Christians, were also believ-
nonviolent protests based on religious values. ers in their Führer. Religion should never be involved
in politics because it can be used as an instrument of
control or to achieve a ruler’s aims.
The very existence of theocratic states, e.g., Iran, proves Theocratic states become totalitarian regimes because
that religion can be a legitimate source of political power. they are based on obedience to a ruler who is seen as
Governments in theocratic states are much more stable God’s representative rather than on a democratic con-
than in secular countries because leaders are viewed as stitution.
appointed by God. Political stability, in its turn, leads to
economic welfare.
Biblical commandments are the basis of Western ethi- Religions like Islam justify “holy” wars against the
cal and legal systems. Religion teaches us tolerance for “unfaithful,” meaning people of other religions. Reli-
people of other races and religions. Usually believers are gious convictions like these paved the way for the terror-
more peaceful and tolerant than nonbelievers. ist attacks of September 11.
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PROS CONS
In the states where religion develops freely and people Religion has led to the creation of great art but it has
have free access to places of worship, churches have also led to its destruction. Remember the Taliban’s
always served as a shelter for the poor. Some of the destruction of the great Buddhas in Afghanistan? Still
greatest works of art were created in the name of God. worse, religion can be a source of extreme nationalism.
Furthermore, Woodrow Wilson suggested that a strong In Islam, Christianity, and Judaism, God is described as
affinity exists between religious commitment and patrio- “mighty warrior,” “just king,” or “righteous judge.” He
tism. Love of country, just like love of God, certainly punishes the unjust, the unrighteous, and the disobedi-
inspires good deeds. ent. The idea that a nation is the instrument of God’s
will has led to war and the subjugation of people viewed
as ungodly.
Most wars are not started by religion, although religion Whether religion is a genuine reason for war or only its
often serves to justify them. Most wars are started for pretext is not important. What is vital is that religion can
economic reasons or for territorial gain. be and is often used to make people fight in the name
of high ideals to further aims of hatred. Thus, religion
causes more harm than good.
Western states grew as a result of religion and religious North American nations emerged only because of eco-
philosophy. Western European and North American nomic factors: the existence of famine and overpopula-
societies are still based on Protestant ideals of diligence, tion in Europe on the one hand, and the free markets of
thrift, and moderation. the United States on the other. The realities of capital-
ism, not the tenets of religious faith, prompt people to
be diligent and thrifty.
Sample Motions:
This House believes that religion is a positive influence on people.
This House believes that church and state must be kept separate.
Web Links:
• United States Institute of Peace. <http://www.usip.org/religionpeace/index.html> Site reports on the Institute’s Religion and
Peacemaking Initiative and presents reports on peacemaking efforts in religious wars.
• Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance. <http://www.religioustolerance.org> Presents information on various aspects of
religion and includes an extensive table of all contemporary religious wars with a brief description of each.
Further Reading:
Gopin, Marc. Holy War, Holy Peace: How Religion Can Bring Peace to the Middle East. Oxford University Press, 2005.
Kepel, Gilles. Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam. Translated by Anthony Roberts. Harvard University Press, 2002.
Smock, David R. Religious Perspectives on War: Christian, Muslim, and Jewish Attitudes. Rev. ed. United States Institute of Peace
Press, 2002.


RELIGIOUS BELIEF: RATIONAL OR IRRATIONAL?
The majority of the world’s population is at least nominally committed to some religion. Despite the perception in some parts of the
Western world that religious belief is in terminal decline, or that economic and social development go hand-in-hand with secularization,
in many parts of the world religious belief is firmly entrenched, including in the United States, arguably the most “developed” nation on
Earth. Religion offers a fascinating topic for debate: the question of the existence of God; the social, moral, and political questions about
the effects of religious belief on individuals and communities both now and in the past.
PROS CONS
Religious belief is completely irrational. God exists? Evidence that God is a reality is good. That we live in a
Where’s the proof? There is none. Reported miracles, heal- beautiful, orderly universe in which human beings exist
ings, etc., are never reliably proved. In any case everyone’s and have special moral and spiritual awareness points
religious experiences are different and show the psychologi- clearly to the existence of a divine creator of the universe.
cal differences between human beings rather than proving Billions of people have had religious experiences, all of
any objective divine reality. Belief in God is simply wish them revealing the existence of divine reality.
fulfillment. A loving all-powerful being watching over us
would be nice, but there isn’t any.
The world is full of the suffering and pain of the inno- Most suffering and pain can be accounted for by the free
cent. If God is good and all powerful then why is such will that humans exercise. God made us free, and we
suffering permitted? Either God does not exist or he is use that freedom for evil as well as for good. As for ill-
not worth believing in because he does not care about ness and disease, it is hard for us to know the mind of
human suffering. God, but it may be that these trials are a necessary part
of a world in which free and spiritual human beings can
evolve and develop.
Modern science has shown religious belief to be wrong. What an inaccurate caricature of the relationship between
From Galileo to Darwin to the modern day, scientists science and religion. In fact, most of the great scientists
have continually uncovered the true natural mechanisms of history have been religious believers. The more we
behind the beginning and evolution of the universe. learn about the physical world, the more it seems that an
These leave no gaps for God to act in; science has revealed intelligent God designed it to produce human life. The
a closed natural order governed by natural laws. Science physical side of reality does not, in any case, preclude a
has also proved that there is not a “soul,” but that all our spiritual dimension. Nor does the fact that the mind and
mental states are simply caused by brain activity. Accord- brain are closely correlated mean that they are the same
ingly, there is no reason to believe in life after death, one thing.
of the main tenets of religious belief.
Religions through the ages, and still today, have been Religion may have been the occasion for various social
agents of repression, sexism, elitism, homophobia, con- and political wrongs, but it is not the cause. You can be
flict, war, and racial hatred. The evils for which religion sure that if you took away all the world’s religions people
is responsible in the social and political worlds easily would still identify themselves with national and politi-
outweigh whatever small psychological comfort religious cal groups and go to war over territory, etc. Equally, elit-
belief may give. ism and bigotry are, sadly, parts of human nature with or
without religion. Serious and sincere religious belief is a
force for good in the world, promoting humility, moral-
ity, wisdom, equality, and social justice. Social justice is
at the heart of the Christian gospel.
Religious traditions and the irrational fervor with which We need religious traditions to provide us with morals
people adhere to them divide humanity. They provide and values in a rapidly secularizing age. Scientists and
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PROS CONS
a proliferation of incompatible and contradictory moral politicians cannot tell us how to distinguish right from
codes and values. The only prospect for a global moral- wrong. We need the moral insight of religious traditions,
ity is a secular one based on rational consensual views which are repositories of many generations of spiritual
and positions rather than on partisan, local, irrational wisdom, to guide us in ethical matters.
prejudices. In the interest of global harmony, we should
discard religious beliefs.
Sample Motions:
This House rejoices that God is dead.
This House does not believe.
This House believes that religion has done more harm than good.
Web Links:
• Counterbalance. <http://www.counterbalance.org> A “science and religion” site sympathetic to Christianity.
• The Secular Web. <http://www.infidels.org/> Contains essays and articles supporting a metaphysical philosophy of naturalism
that denies the existence of God.
• Theism, Atheism, and Rationality. <http://www.leaderu.com/truth/3truth02.html> Philosophical essay in support of a theistic
world view.

RUSSIA: STRONG LEADERSHIP VS. DEMOCRACY

Russia had a difficult transition to capitalism and democracy following the collapse of communism in 1991. Riding on a platform of fight-
ing the corruption, secession, and terrorist threats that had plagued the nation, Vladimir Putin won the presidency in 2000. A former
KGB officer, Putin emerged as a quiet yet powerful leader who asserted that Russia must “combine the principles of a market economy
and democracy with Russia’s realities”—the reality that Russians want a powerful leader and a strong, paternalistic state. Putin initially
won the hearts and minds of the Russian people, who had been disillusioned by a decade of economic, social, and political instability.
However, his political actions and powerful character risk turning him into more of an authoritarian leader than the president of a demo-
cratic country.
PROS CONS
Since the fall of communism, Russia has plunged into Transition is chaotic by definition, and reforms are dis-
a deep economic recession. The introduction of market ruptive by nature. Yet, only through these reforms is a
reforms and privatization has led to a swift increase in future of freedom and prosperity possible. While a long
inequalities coupled with an increase in corruption. transition process can certainly cloud minds and turn
The chaos of economic and political reform, along with people into distrustful and disillusioned individuals, one
the chaos of the break-up of former USSR, has left the must keep in mind that the risk of authoritarian tenden-
majority of the population both disillusioned and dis- cies reemerging is highest precisely at these moments.
trustful of their government. In a period of such chaos, Over and over again, polls show that the Russian people
stability seems more important than reform. A strong support democracy. We must not let the immediate
leader is the only way to provide such stability, setting chaos of reform scare us.
a clear direction and pulling a country at risk of falling
apart together again.
Putin is the strong leader whom Russia has been waiting Putin’s initial support was based mainly on strong prom-
for. His electoral success and consistently high approval ises, the arrest of corrupt businessmen, and tough action
rates show that the Russian people are ready for someone on Chechnya that at first seemed to yield positive results.

PROS CONS
who can rid their society of increasing corruption and His support has eroded as a result of his attempts to con-
restore a sense of calm and equality. His ability to main- trol the media and to replace elected governors with his
tain a high level of support despite what some have called own appointees as well as by scandals surrounding the
authoritarian tendencies shows that people are ready to disappearance and murder of several important journal-
sacrifice a certain degree of freedom for the promise of ists. He has lost the support of the NGO community
stability. Enthusiasm for Putin among the young also and most of the intelligentsia and also the originally
shows that he appeals to a more than those who only strong backing of the United States.
look back to past certainties.
Putin’s authoritarian style is not a threat to democracy Putting your hopes and trust in a single person can be
but rather a requirement for a successful and quicker dangerous, particularly in a period of transition. Putin
transition. Having Putin control the media is probably is not the state, and his ability to control and represent
healthier than having it controlled by a corrupt few who the state and the Russian people is questionable. Putin
promote their personal interests rather than the interest is also not a saint or an example Russian leaders should
of the state and thus of the population at large. Democ- follow. His authoritarian tendencies do not have insig-
racy is the goal. Russia is still working toward defining nificant effects. At this point, the state controls most
its own version of democracy and finding what works Russian media, decisions continue to be made behind
best in its case. closed doors, Russia has once again become the pariah of
the international community, and the Chechen conflict
has spilled into new attacks against civilians resulting in
the death of thousands, including children (at Beslan).
Putin’s stubborn refusal to accept international help in
the case of the submarine Kursk also resulted in the
unnecessary death of its crew.
There is no reason to believe that terrorist attacks would A fine line exists between enough authority to fight
not continue under a less authoritarian Russian leader. corruption and enough authority to oppress a popula-
In fact, increasing corruption might prove more danger- tion. Many corrupt, authoritarian leaders have risen to
ous than terrorist attacks since it would create powerful power through promises of reform. A society living in
drug, oil, and weapons cartels. Putin has been particu- fear and believing that a powerful leader will solve all its
larly strong on all of these issues and has taken important problems will never overcome them. Empowering indi-
steps toward curbing corruption. viduals and accepting risk is ultimately the only solution
to such problems. Even if Putin were above reproach,
centralizing power so completely gives great influence to
those advisers and ministers around him and makes cor-
ruption in government inevitable. Only by building in
proper democratic checks and balances, including criti-
cism from a free media, can accountability be created
and corruption or incompetence tackled.
Strong leadership is necessary for Russia to recover from Many of the reforms of the 1990s were badly handled—
the disastrous reforms of the 1990s. Productive state often because they didn’t go far enough—but today’s
assets were given away to political cronies and crooks problems have more to do with the bankruptcy of the
(we now call them oligarchs) in the name of privatiza- former Soviet system than with democracy’s failings.
tion. Government services collapsed, and millions saw Putin has done very little to make the lives of ordinary
their savings and pensions made worthless through infla- people better and has tackled individual oligarchs and
tion. During this period, democracy failed to protect their business empires only if they have seemed to be a
the people, and, instead, elected politicians sold out to political threat. Apparent recent economic progress has
shady businessmen and promoted their own self-interest. been solely based on temporary high oil prices and will
Meanwhile, the economy shrank and billions of dollars not last. Russia has seen no real reforms to secure prop-
of Russian money ended up in foreign bank accounts. erty rights, cut bureaucracy, and set free the talents of its
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PROS CONS
In contrast, Putin has not been afraid to stand up to people. Instead, Putin’s cynical use of power to attack
the oligarchs, correcting past injustices and leading the companies such as Yukos has shown how little the rule
country into a period of increasing economic prosperity of law means in Russia today and has put off investment
and stability. while encouraging capital flight.
Historically, Russia has always needed strong centralized History is not destiny, and a highly selective view of Rus-
leadership to make progress. This was true both in impe- sia’s past should not lead us to prefer authoritarian rule.
rial times under tsars such as Peter the Great (who made The tsars and their communist successors killed millions
Russia a European power and built St. Petersburg) and of people through brutal rule and failed policies—made
Alexander II (who freed the serfs), and, since 1917, under possible by the same lack of consultation and account-
Lenin and Stalin. Russia is too big, too diverse, and too ability that we see in Russia today. Only a vigorous
thinly populated for Western representative democracy. multiparty democracy, fully independent legal system,
Culturally its people are temperamentally suited to fol- and free media can ensure that the disasters of the past
lowing the decisive lead of a strong ruler who can unite are not repeated. Nor is there any reason why such a
them in the face of great challenges. Without such a ruler, system could not take root in Russia. Russia is no more
Russia will experience economic stagnation and will be diverse than many other countries, and modern com-
likely to fragment, with local strongmen grabbing power munications ensure that mere distance is not a problem.
in the regions and religious fundamentalism dominating And there is nothing in the culture or temperament that
much of the Caucasus and Central Asia. makes Russians uniquely unsuited to democracy.
Sample Motions:
This House favors a strong leader over democracy in Russia.
This House believes a strong leader is better for Russia than a liberal democracy.
This House prefers a stable Russia under a strong leader to an unstable democratic Russia.
Web Links:
• BBC News. <http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/415124.stm> Article on Putin’s rise to power.
• National Review On Line. <http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/pacepa200409200814.asp> Article critical of Putin.
• Taipei Times. <http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2005/06/03/2003257769> Article supporting Putin’s
strong statism.
• The Washington Post. <http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/06/06/AR2005060601723.html>
Article on Putin’s rollback of democracy.
Further Reading:
Baker, Peter, and Susan Glasser. Kremlin Rising: Vladimir Putin’s Russia and the End of Revolution. Scribner, 2005.
Collins, Dale R., and James F. Herspring. Putin’s Russia: Past Imperfect, Future Uncertain. Rowman & Littlefield, 2004.
Hadenskog, Jako. Russia as a Great Power: Dimensions of Security Under Putin. Routledge, 2005.
Pravda, Alex, ed. Leading Russia: Putin in Perspective. Oxford University Press, 2004.


SCHOOL UNIFORMS
Traditionally, students in American parochial schools and some private schools have worn uniforms. Only a smattering of public schools
had uniform policies until the mid-1990s, when Long Beach, California, mandated uniforms in an effort to stop school crime. The
apparent success of the measure combined with studies indicating that students in many schools with uniform policies performed better aca-
demically than those without, opened a floodgate of uniform adoption. President Bill Clinton even promoted uniforms in his 1996 State of
the Union message. To avoid legal challenges, school districts now make provision for students who cannot afford uniforms or for parents to
opt out of the uniform requirement.
PROS CONS
Uniforms help create a strong sense of community, thus Uniforms suppress individualism and discourage stu-
promoting discipline and helping raise academic stan- dents from accepting responsibility for aspects of their
dards. This is why educators frequently adopt them own lives. They encourage teachers to view students as
when trying to revive failing schools. a group rather than as individuals with different charac-
ters and abilities. Uniforms were better suited to an age
of rote learning and military-style discipline. They do
not belong in modern education, which encourages the
imagination and intellectual exploration that is becom-
ing increasingly important in the wider economy. Many
schools, indeed many countries, manage to maintain
high standards of discipline, community, and academic
performance without adopting uniforms.
Wearing uniforms acts as a social leveler; all students are Students always find ways to tease or bully others regard-
equal in the eyes of the school and of each other. In insti- less of what clothes are worn. The fashion-conscious will
tutions without uniforms students are often competitive own the same number of outfits regardless of whether or
in dress and worry endlessly about their appearance. not they can wear them to school; they will change the
Pupils without expensive, trendy clothes may become minute classes are over. Parents often find some uniform
social outcasts. Many parents prefer uniforms because items, such as jackets, very expensive and complain that
they save money. they can never be worn outside the school.
Uniforms have practical benefits outside the school Uniforms make students very identifiable. They empha-
building. If students are identified with a particular size the divisions between schools, increasing the possi-
institution, they may be more aware of their behavior. bility of bullying and fights between students from rival
They may act more considerately of others while travel- institutions.
ing to and from the school. On organized trips, teachers
find keeping track and monitoring behavior of students
easier.
Uniforms prepare students for life after graduation, The business world is increasingly relaxed about dress
when businesses will expect them to adhere to corporate codes, making the schools that insist on uniforms anach-
dress codes. ronistic. Adults who attended schools without uniforms
do not appear to struggle in the workplace.
Uniforms make it easy for teachers to monitor dress Often it is the uniform that is inappropriate—not warm
codes fairly. School administrators and students con- enough in winter or too hot in summer—largely because
stantly battle about what clothing is appropriate in it is badly designed and cheaply produced. Girls com-
schools without uniforms. plain about being forced to wear skirts even in the cold-
est months. Some groups, such as conservative Muslims,
may oppose specific uniform styles for cultural reasons.
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PROS CONS
Students will always attempt to subvert dress codes, so
the staff will have to be vigilant in any case.
Sample Motions:
This House would introduce school uniforms.
This House would create a stronger school ethos.
This House believes successful education rests on firm discipline.
Web Links:
• American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU): All Dressed Up and Nowhere to Go: Students and Their Parents Fight School Uni-
form Policies. <http://www.aclu.org/features/f110499a.html> Site summarizing one campaign against school uniforms with
links to information on other protests and ACLU legal action.
• ACLU: Litigation Resulting from Mandatory School Uniform Policies. <http://www.gate.net/~rwms/UniformLinksLitigation.
html> Links to information on ACLU challenges to dress codes as well as summaries of ACLU stands on the issue.
• ACLU: Philly Adopts School Uniform Policy. <http://www.aclu.org/news/2000/w050800a.html> 2000 press release presenting
opposing viewpoints on Philadelphia’s adoption of school uniforms.
• U.S. Department of Education: Manual on Uniforms. <http://www.ed.gov/updates/uniforms.html> 1996 summary of argu-
ments in support of school uniforms, guide to adopting uniforms, and sample school district policies on uniforms.

SCHOOL VOUCHERS
Over the past decades, Americans have been increasingly concerned about the quality of public education, particularly in inner-city neigh-
borhoods, where many public schools are failing. One of the most controversial suggestions for improving education for all children is to
establish school voucher programs. Although the specifics of these programs vary with locality, all would distribute monetary vouchers to
parents who could then use them to help pay the cost of private, including parochial (religious), schools. Critics fear that vouchers would
further damage public schools and argue that they subvert the separation of church and state. Supporters say they will help the children
most in need.
PROS CONS
The current public education system is failing countless The American public education system has been central
students, particularly in inner-city neighborhoods. In an to American democracy. It has provided education for
era where education is the key to success, these children all children regardless of their ethnic background, their
are not being provided with the chance to develop the religion, their academic talents, or their ability to pay. It
skills necessary to compete in the modern world. Vouch- has helped millions of immigrants assimilate and pro-
ers give poor parents the ability to send their children to vided the civic education necessary for future citizens
better schools. These children should not be sacrificed to understand American values. Establishing a voucher
while we wait for public school reform. system is saying that we are giving up on public educa-
tion. Instead of giving up, we should put our efforts into
reforming the system.
The competition for students will force all schools to The competition for students would destroy inner-city
improve. They will have to use their resources to educate public schools. Much of their student body would flee

PROS CONS
their students rather than squander them on bureau- to “better” private schools, leaving inner-city schools
cracies as many do today. Eventually, the unsalvageable with little to no funding. Most states’ funding of public
schools will close and the others will grow stronger, schools is determined by number of students enrolled. If
producing an overall better learning environment. The enrollment lags, then the school is not as well funded as
market will regulate the education produced. it was the previous year. If enrollment booms, then fund-
ing increases. Thus, even if urban schools are motivated
to improve they will lack the resources to do so.
The money would help some families, and that is worth The government vouchers are not monetarily substan-
the risks. Not all students in nonperforming schools tial enough to give true financial aid to students. They
will be able to attend a private school. However, after are not large enough to help poor students go to pri-
the students who can afford such an opportunity leave vate schools. The vouchers make private education more
nonperforming schools, more resources will be available affordable for people who could already afford it. In
at those nonperforming schools to educate the remain- addition, private schools may not be willing to accept all
ing students. Private schools would have no reason to students with vouchers. They could always raise tuition
change admission standards or tuition, nor is there or standards for admission, neutralizing any impact
reason to think that a great swell in private school enroll- vouchers would have.
ment would result.
Vouchers will eventually lead to a school system that Voucher programs would set up a school system that
is liberated from bureaucrats and politicians, enabling is not accountable to the public. Investigations of cur-
educators and parents to determine how best to educate rent programs in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and Cleveland,
children. Ohio, have found unlawful admissions requirements,
illegally imposed fees, and even fraud.
No violation of the separation of church and state would Vouchers involve the indirect giving of public funds
occur. No student would be forced to enter a religious to religious schools. This transfer of funds amounts to
school. Only families and students interested in a private a violation of the doctrine of separation of church and
or religious education would use the vouchers. Any stu- state.
dents who desired a more traditional curriculum would
be allowed to study in public schools.
Sample Motions:
This House believes that the government should cease the use of school vouchers.
This House recommends that educational vouchers be used for private and parochial schools.
This House believes that the issuing of vouchers by the government is justified.
Web Links:
• BalancedPolitics.org. <http://www.balancedpolitics.org/school_vouchers.htm> Discussion of the pros and cons of school vouchers.
• School Vouchers: The Wrong Choice for Public Education. <http://www.adl.org/vouchers/vouchers_main.asp> An anti–school
voucher Web site containing a detailed report outlining many reasons why vouchers are a poor policy option.
• Vouchers and Educational Freedom: A Debate. <http://www.cato.org/pubs/pas/pa-269es.html> This Web page from the Cato In-
stitute presents a debate on the issue of vouchers. Along with both sides of the argument, the site offers links and policy analysis.
Further Reading:
Bolick, Clint. Voucher Wars: Waging the Legal Battle over School Choice. Cato Institute, 2003.
Kahlenberg, Richard D., ed. Public School Choice vs. Private School Vouchers. Century Foundation, 2003.
Kolbert, Kathryn, and Zak Mettger, eds. Justice Talking: School Vouchers. New Press, 2002.
Moe, Terry M. Schools, Vouchers, and the American Public. Brookings Institution Press, 2002.
|203

SCIENCE: THREAT TO SOCIETY?
In the past few decades, science has extended the boundaries of human knowledge and understanding further than many people are com-
fortable with. Cutting-edge technologies, such as cloning, and other more established procedures, such as in vitro fertilization, have sparked
moral outrage and accusations of “playing God.” The development of nuclear weapons is just one illustration of the possible danger intro-
duced by scientific advances.
PROS CONS
Science gives humans the ability to “play God” and to Talk of “playing God!” Aside from assuming the existence
interfere in areas about which we know nothing. Sci- of a deity that many do not believe in, the talk of playing
entists have already cloned animals, and recently some God implies a violation of set boundaries. What bound-
scientists announced that they will attempt to clone aries? Set by whom? The proposition is simply afraid of
humans. Such irresponsible and potentially danger- things about which it knows nothing. The assertion that
ous meddling is taking place in the name of scientific we are meddling in areas we do not understand should
advancement. be replaced with a call for better regulation of scientific
enquiry, not its abolition.
Science has greatly increased the capability of men and Science does not kill; humans do. We cannot blame sci-
women to kill each other. Wars that used to be fought ence for the flaws in human nature, and we cannot attri-
face-to-face on the battlefield, with comparatively few bute suffering to science any more than to religion or
casualties, are now fought from miles away in anonym- philosophy, both of which have caused wars. The exam-
ity. The buildup of nuclear arsenals during the Cold War ple given illustrates how science brings with it accom-
gave humanity the capability of obliterating the entire panying responsibility. Mutually assured destruction
world 10 times over. At certain times in history, such as ensured that neither the United States nor the Soviet
the 1962 Cuban missile crisis, the world has stood on Union deployed nuclear weapons.
the brink of destruction.
Science has perverted the fundamental basis of human Science has greatly increased the ability of people to com-
relations. The word “society” itself comes from “social- municate. Telephones and e-mail now enable people on
ization”—the idea of interaction and communication. opposite sides of the world to stay in touch. The Inter-
With the Internet, television, and computer games, net allows people unprecedented access to information,
humans are communing with a lifeless collection of anything from sports scores to debating crib sheets. Any
microchips, not each other. study of preindustrial society will show that computer
games appear to have taken the place previously held by
recreational violence.
Science is despoiling the natural world. Power grids ruin Modern medicines have more than doubled our life
the countryside, acid rain from coal- and gas-fired power expectancy and prevented fatal childhood diseases. The
stations kills fish, and animals are cruelly experimented world’s population could not be fed without fertilizers
on to further research. Not only does science give us the and pesticides to increase crop yields and machinery
potential to destroy each other, it also takes a massive toll to harvest them efficiently. Science and technology are
on our natural surroundings. essential to modern existence. We must use them with
care and not abuse them. But condemning science as a
menace is ludicrous.
Sample Motions:
This House believes science is a threat to humanity.
This House fears science.
This House believes that scientists are dangerous.

Web Links:
• Institute of Science in Society (ISIS). <http://www.i-sis.org.uk> Maintained by ISIS, a nonprofit organization working for social
responsibility in science, the site offers information on current issues in science.
• International Center for Technology Assessment. <http://www.icta.org> Site provides information on the organization’s initia-
tives to explore the economic, social, ethical, environmental, and political impacts of technology.
• Scientists for Global Responsibility. <http://www.sgr.org.uk> UK-based organization promoting the ethical use of science pro-
vides news on scientific issues and information on its initiatives.
Further Reading:
Collins, H. M., and Trevor Pinch. The Golem: What You Should Know About Science. Cambridge University Press, 1998.
———. The Golem at Large: What You Should Know About Technology. Cambridge University Press, 1998.
Peacocke, Arthur. Paths from Science Towards God. One World Publications, 2001.

SEX EDUCATION IN SCHOOLS

For years conservatives and liberals in the United States debated whether schools should teach sex education or whether this responsibility is
that of the parents. With the rise of teenage pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases, particularly AIDS, the focus has shifted to what
should be taught, rather than where. Should schools advocate sexual abstinence (refraining from sexual activity until the age of consent or
marriage), or should society assume that the students will be sexually active and therefore encourage teaching safe sex?
PROS CONS
The primary cause of unwanted pregnancies and the Judging by the number of teenage pregnancies and the
spread of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) is igno- continuing spread of STDs, teenagers are not getting
rance about safe sex. The AIDS crisis of the 1980s and the message. Sex education in schools can be counter-
1990s has shown that sex education must be a vital part productive because teens find it fashionable to ignore
of the school curriculum and may be supplemented by what teachers advocate. The most effective channel for
frank discussion at home. sex education is the media, particularly TV, films, and
magazines.
As the US Guidelines for Comprehensive Sexuality Edu- This is the wrong approach. Sex education in the class-
cation (1991) state, “all sexual decisions have effects or room encourages young teenagers to have sex before they
consequences” and “all persons have the . . . obligation are ready and adds to peer pressure to become sexually
to make responsible sexual choices.” While Hollywood active. In addition, any class discussion may lead to ridi-
promotes casual, thoughtless sex as the norm, teacher- cule, thus devaluing the message. Sexual responsibility
led discussions can encourage responsible attitudes about should be discussed in a one-to-one context, either with
sexual relationships. older siblings or parents.
Abstinence is an outdated approach based on traditional Classroom education should promote abstinence. Sex
religious teaching. Some young people may choose it, education encourages sexual promiscuity. Advocating
but we cannot expect it to be the norm. Teenagers express both safe sex and restraint is self-contradictory. Children
their sexuality as part of their development. Having sex are at risk of severe psychological and physical harm
is not the problem; having unsafe sex or hurting people from having sex too young and should be encouraged
through sexual choices is. to abstain.
|205

Sample Motions:
This House believes that sex education should take place at home.
This House would rather not discuss it with its parents.
Web Links:
• Avert: AIDS & Sex Education. <http://www.avert.org/educate.htm> Information on sex education from a leading UK-based
AIDS education and medical research group.
• Sex Education Forum. <http://www.ncb.org.uk/sef/> Part of the larger UK National Children’s Bureau site promoting sex edu-
cation and offering information on questions involving sex.
Further Reading:
Irvine, Janice. Talk About Sex: The Battles over Sex Education in the United States. University of California Press, 2004.
Luker, Kristin. When Sex Goes to School: Warring Views on Sex—And Sex Education—Since the Sixties. W. W. Norton, 2006.
Moran, Jeffrey P. Teaching Sex: The Shaping of Adolescence in the 20th Century. Harvard University Press, 2002.

SEX OFFENDERS: PUBLICLY NAMING

During the 1990s the US Congress passed two laws designed to protect children from dangerous sex offenders released from prison. The
first law, the 1994 Jacob Wetterling Act (named after a child abducted at gunpoint), requires states to register individuals who have been
convicted of sex crimes against children. The second, Megan’s Law (1996), compels states to make information on registered sex offenders
available to the public but gives states discretion in establishing the criteria for disclosure. Megan’s Law was named after Megan Kanka,
a 7-year-old girl who was sexually assaulted and murdered by a paroled sex offender. States vary on how they have implemented this
law. Many post the name and address of offenders on Web sites or offer the public this information on CD. Others permit law enforce-
ment officials only to notify neighbors of the offender. Megan’s Law has generated heated discussion. Those supporting it maintain that it
will protect children; those opposing it say that it is ineffective and will force convicts who had served their sentences to wear a “badge of
infamy” for the rest of their lives.
PROS CONS
Sex offenders, even more so than other criminals, are This proposal is a fundamental violation of the principles
prone to repeat their crimes. Making their names public of our penal system, which are based on serving a set
enables parents to protect their children and reduce the prison term and then being freed. Registration imposes
rate of sexual crime by repeat offenders. a new punishment for an old crime, and, inevitably, will
lead to sex offenders being demonized by their neigh-
bors. Offenders have been forced out of their homes or
lost their jobs as a result of notification. Innocent people
will also suffer. Families of offenders have been subject to
threats, and inaccurate information made public by the
police has led to the harassment of innocent people. Such
a risk cannot be tolerated; we cannot as a society revert to
mob rule in place of justice.
Crimes of a sexual nature are among the most abhor- Psychological evaluations can determine accurately
rent and damaging that exist; they can ruin a child’s whether an offender is still a risk to society or not.
life. Those guilty of such crimes cannot be incarcerated Should the offender be found to still be a threat, he
forever, thus extra precautions must be taken on their should remain in custody. If the tests indicate that the
release to ensure that they pose no threat to the public. offender is no longer a threat, he should be freed and

PROS CONS
allowed to live a normal life. Megan’s Law eliminates this
distinction and stigmatizes those who have genuinely
reformed. Our penal system is based on the principle of
reforming offenders. Ignoring the possibility of change is
both ludicrous and unfair.
These laws help the police to track down re-offenders Registering offenders with the police may help law
more quickly, thus they are also brought to justice more enforcement, but making public the offender’s where-
swiftly and surely. These laws and their strong and swift abouts adds no advantage and might be counterproduc-
enforcement provide a strong deterrent against repeat tive. The abuse and harassment that offenders might
offenses. suffer could drive them underground, making police
monitoring more difficult.
We cannot know how many children were saved by these What evidence do we have that these laws have been
laws, but even one child saved from sexual assault justi- effective in protecting people and preventing crime? Very
fies them. little. As a result of the law, many prosecutors are reluc-
tant to charge juveniles as sex offenders because they do
not want children stigmatized for life. These offenders
are not getting treatment and could pose a future risk to
the public.
Sample Motions:
This House supports a national register of sex offenders.
This House would name and shame.
Web Links:
• Megan’s Law Legislation in All 50 States. <http://www.klaaskids.org/pg-legmeg.htm> Offers background information on the
Jacob Wetterling Act and Megan’s Law as well as links to summaries of state notification laws.
• Revising Megan’s Law and Sex Offender Registration: Prevention or Problem. <http://www.appa-net.org/revisitingmegan.pdf>
Detailed essay in opposition to Megan’s Law.

|207

SINGLE-SEX SCHOOLS
Studies have shown that boys gain more academically from studying in coeducational schools, but that single-sex schools promote greater
achievement in girls. But academic results are not the only criterion on which to judge the success of the education system. In 1996, a
long-standing controversy over the Virginia Military Institute’s male-only policy resulted in a landmark US Supreme Court ruling that
the Institute must admit women. However, the Court left room for private (i.e., not state-run) single-sex institutions and for the establish-
ment of such schools where needed to redress discrimination.
PROS CONS
Women benefit from a single-sex education. Research A 1998 survey by the American Association of Univer-
shows that girls in single-sex schools participate more sity Women, a long-time advocate of single-sex educa-
in class, develop much higher self-esteem, score higher tion, admitted that girls from such schools did not show
in aptitude tests, are more likely to choose “male” disci- academic improvement. That women from single-sex
plines such as science in college, and are more successful schools are more inclined to study math and science is of
in their careers. In Who’s Who, graduates of women’s col- questionable importance to society. As the report noted,
leges outnumber all other women. The United States has “Boys and girls both thrive when the elements of good
only 83 women’s colleges. education are there, elements like smaller classes, focused
academic curriculum and gender-fair instruction.” These
conditions can be present in coeducational schools.
Children in the formative years, between 7 and 15, grav- The formative years of children are the best time to
itate to their own sex. They naturally tend toward behav- expose them to the company of the other gender so that
ior appropriate to their gender. Thus implementing an they learn each other’s behavior and are better prepared
education strategy geared specifically toward one gender for adult life. The number of subjects benefiting from
makes sense. Certain subjects, such as sex education or single-sex discussion is so small that this could easily be
gender issues, are best taught in single-sex classrooms. organized within a coeducational system.
Boys and girls distract each other from their studies, In fact boys and girls are a good influence on each other,
especially in adolescence as sexual and emotional issues engendering good behavior and maturity; particularly as
arise. Too much time can be spent attempting to impress teenage girls usually exhibit greater responsibility than
or even sexually harass each other. Academic competi- boys of the same age. Academic competition between
tion between the sexes is unhealthy and only adds to the sexes is a spur to better performance at school.
unhappiness and anxiety among weaker students.
Single-sex schools (such as the Virginia Military Institute) Single-sex schools for women are a natural extension of
are a throwback to the patriarchal society of the past; the feminist movement; men have had their own schools,
historically in many cultures, only men were allowed an why shouldn’t women? If single-sex schools existed only
education of any sort. Such single-sex institutions both for men, then that would be discriminatory; however,
remind women of past subservience and continue to bar as long as both genders have the choice of attending
them from full social inclusion. a single-sex institution (or a coeducational one), you
cannot call it discrimination.
Teachers themselves are often discriminated against Teachers frequently favor their own gender when teach-
in single-sex schools; a boys’ school will usually have a ing coeducational classes; for example, male teachers can
largely male staff where women may feel uncomfortable undermine the progress and confidence of girl students
or denied opportunity, and vice versa. by refusing to call on them to answer questions.

Sample Motion:
This House believes in single-sex education.
Web Link:
• National Association for Single Sex Public Education <http://www.singlesexschools.org/> Arguments in support of single sex
schools.
Further Reading:
Datnow, Amanda. Gender in Policy and Practice: Perspectives on Single Sex and Coeducational Schooling. RoutledgeFalmer, 2002.
Ruhlman, Michael. Boys Themselves: A Return to Single-Sex Education. Holt, 1997.
Salomone, Rosemary C. Same, Different, Equal: Rethinking Single-Sex Schooling. Yale University Press, 2003.
Streitmatter, Janice. For Girls Only: Making a Case for Single-Sex Schooling. State University of New York Press, 1999.

SMOKING, FURTHER RESTRICTIONS ON

Although most countries put age restrictions on the purchase of tobacco, over a billion adults smoke legally every day. Supplying this
demand is big business. By the 1990s major tobacco companies had been forced to admit that their products were addictive and had serious
health consequences, both for the user and for those subject to second hand smoke. In the developed world, public opinion shifted against
smoking, Many governments substantially increased taxes on tobacco to discourage smoking and to help pay for the costs of smoking-related
illness. Yet, while smoking has declined among some groups, it has increased among the young. Meanwhile tobacco companies look to
developing nations for new markets.
PROS CONS
Smoking is extremely harmful to the smoker’s health. While a government has a responsibility to protect its
The American Cancer Society estimates that tobacco population, it also has a responsibility to defend freedom
causes up to 400,000 deaths each year—more than of choice. The law prevents citizens from harming others.
AIDS, alcohol, drug abuse, car crashes, murders, sui- It should not stop people from behavior that threatens
cides, and fires combined. Worldwide some 3 million only themselves. Dangerous sports such as rock climb-
people die from smoking each year, one every 10 seconds. ing and parachuting are legal. No laws have been passed
Estimates suggest that this figure will rise to 10 million against indulging in other health-threatening activities
by 2020. Smokers are 22 times more likely to develop such as eating fatty foods or drinking too much alcohol.
lung cancer than nonsmokers, and smoking can lead to Banning smoking would be an unmerited intrusion into
a host of other health problems, including emphysema personal freedom.
and heart disease. One of the main responsibilities of any
government is to ensure the safety of its population; that
is why taking hard drugs and breaking the speed limit
are illegal. Putting a ban on smoking would therefore be
reasonable.
Of course, personal freedom is important; we should Cigarettes are very different from dangerous cars or poi-
act against the tobacco companies, not individuals. If a sonous foods. Cigarettes are not dangerous because they
company produces food that is poisonous or a car that are defective; they are only potentially harmful. People
fails safety tests, the product is immediately taken off should still be permitted to smoke them. A better com-
the market. All cigarettes and other tobacco products are parison is to unhealthy foods. Fatty foods can contrib-
potentially lethal and should be taken off the market. In ute to heart disease, obesity, and other conditions, but
short, smoking should be banned. the government does not punish manufacturers of these
products. Both cigarettes and fatty foods are sources
|209

PROS CONS
of pleasure that, while having serious associated health
risks, are fatal only after many decades. They are quite
different from poisonous foods or unsafe cars, which
pose high, immediate risks.
Smoking is not a choice because nicotine is an addictive Comparing tobacco to hard drugs is inaccurate. Tobacco
drug. Evidence suggests that tobacco companies delib- is not debilitating in the same way that many illegal
erately produce the most addictive cigarettes they can. narcotics are, it is not comparable to heroin in terms of
Up to 90% of smokers begin when they are under age addictiveness, and it is not a mind-altering substance
18, often due to peer pressure. Once addicted, continu- that leads to irrational, violent, or criminal behavior. It is
ing to smoke is no longer an issue of free choice, but much less harmful than alcohol. Many other substances
of chemical compulsion. The government should ban and activities can be addictive (e.g., coffee, physical exer-
tobacco just as it does other addictive drugs like heroin cise) but this is no reason to make them illegal. People
and cocaine because it is the only way to force people to are able to abstain—many give up smoking every year—
quit. Most smokers say that they want to kick the habit, if they choose to live a healthier life. Nevertheless, many
so this legislation would be doing them a favor. enjoy smoking as part of their everyday life.
Most smokers are law-abiding citizens who would like to Criminalizing an activity of about one-sixth of the
stop. They would not resort to criminal or black market world’s population would be insane. As America’s pro-
activities if cigarettes were no longer legally available; hibition of alcohol during the 1920s showed, banning
they would just quit. Banning smoking would make a popular recreational drug leads to crime. In addition,
them quit and massively lighten the burden on health governments would lose the tax revenue from tobacco
resources. sales, which they could use to cover the costs of health
care.
The effects of smoking are not restricted to smokers. The evidence that passive smoking causes health problems
Second hand smoke jeopardizes the health of nonsmok- is very slim. At most, those who live with heavy smokers
ers as well. Research suggests that nonsmoking partners for a long time may have a very slightly increased risk of
of smokers have a greater chance of developing lung cancer. Smoke-filled environments can be unpleasant for
cancer than other nonsmokers. Beyond the health risks, nonsmokers, but reasonable and responsible solutions
smoke also can be extremely unpleasant in the workplace can be found. Offices or airports could have designated
or in bars and restaurants. Smoking causes discomfort as smoking areas, and many restaurants offer patrons the
well as harm to others and should be banned. choice of smoking and nonsmoking sections. Allowing
people to make their own decisions is surely always the
best option. Restricting smoking in public places may
sometimes be appropriate; banning it would be lunacy.
At the very least all tobacco advertising should be banned Where is the evidence that either of these measures
and cigarette packs should have even more prominent would affect the rate of tobacco consumption? Cigarette
and graphic health warnings. companies claim that advertisements merely persuade
people to switch brands, not start smoking. People start
smoking because of peer pressure. Indeed, forbidding
cigarettes will make them more attractive to adolescents.
As for health warnings, if the knowledge that cigarettes
have serious health risks deterred people from smoking,
then no one would smoke. People start and continue to
smoke in the full knowledge of the health risks.

Sample Motions:
This House would ban tobacco.
This House would not smoke.
This House would declare war on the tobacco industry.
Web Links:
• Center for Disease Control and Prevention: Tobacco. <http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/index.htm> Research, data, and reports re-
lating to tobacco as well as tobacco industry documents and campaigns for tobacco control.
• Phillip Morris. <http://www.philipmorrisusa.com/> Major tobacco company site offering government reports on tobacco as well
as information on tobacco issues including the marketing of tobacco products.
• Smoking From All Sides. <http://www.cs.brown.edu/~lsh/smoking.html> Links to statistics and hundreds of articles on both
sides of the argument.
• The Tobacco Homepage. <http://www.tobacco.org/> Provides recent information on tobacco-related issues as well as docu-
ments, timelines, and links to all aspects of the tobacco controversy.
• World Health Organization: Tobacco Free Initiative. <http://www.who.int/toh/> Information on WHO’s worldwide program to
stop smoking, as well as background information on the economic, health, and societal impact of tobacco and smoking.
Further Reading:
Warner, Kenneth E., Stephen L. Isaacs, and James R. Knickman, eds. Tobacco Control Policy. Jossey-Bass, 2006.

SPACE EXPLORATION
The space programs of both the US and the USSR were, perhaps, the most important prestige projects of the Cold War. From the launch
of Sputnik—the first artificial satellite—in 1957, through to the first human space flight by Yuri Gagarin in 1961, the first moon land-
ing in 1969, and beyond, both superpowers invested huge amounts of money in outdoing each other in the Space Race. Since the end of
the Cold War, however, the future of space exploration has become less clear. Russia no longer has the resources to invest in a substantial
space program, and the United States has also cut back. At the beginning of the 21st century, American emphasis was on unmanned
missions that are “faster, better, cheaper.” Expensive, complex projects such as the Voyager missions of the late 1970s seem unlikely to be
repeated. In particular, the commitment to manned exploration of space has almost disappeared, although potential missions to Mars are
planned for the middle of the 21st century.
PROS CONS
Humankind always struggles to expand its horizons. The High ideals are all well and good, but not when they
curiosity that constantly pushes at the boundaries of our come at the expense of the present. Our world is marred
understanding is one of our noblest characteristics. The by war, famine, and poverty, with billions of people
exploration of the universe is a high ideal; space truly is struggling simply to live from day to day. Our dreams of
the final frontier. The instinct to explore is fundamen- exploring space are a luxury we cannot afford. Instead of
tally human; already some of our most amazing achieve- wasting our time and effort on prestige projects like the
ments have taken place in space. No one can deny the space program, we must set ourselves new targets. Once
sense of wonder we felt when for the first time a new we have addressed the problems we face on Earth, we will
man-made star rose in the sky, or when Neil Armstrong have time to explore the universe, but not before then.
stepped onto the Moon. Space exploration speaks to that The money spent on probes to distant planets would be
part of us that rises above the everyday. better invested in the people of our own planet. A world
free from disease, a world where no one lives in hunger,
would be a truly great achievement.
The exploration of space has changed our world. Sat- Satellite technology has benefited humankind. However,
ellites allow us to communicate instantaneously with launching satellites into Earth orbit differs significantly
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PROS CONS
people on different continents and to broadcast to people from exploring space. Missions to other planets and into
all over the world. The Global Positioning System allows interstellar space do not contribute to life on our planet.
us to pinpoint locations anywhere in the world. Weather Moreover, most satellites are commercial; they are
satellites save lives by giving advance warning of adverse launched and maintained by private companies. Space
conditions; together with other scientific instruments in exploration requires huge government subsidies and will
orbit they have helped us gain a better understanding of never be commercially viable. For example, the Voyager
our world. Research into climate change, for example, missions alone cost almost $1US billion. This money
would be almost impossible without the data provided could be better spent elsewhere.
by satellites.
Space exploration has had many indirect benefits. The These auxiliary advantages could have come from any
space program has brought about great leaps in tech- project. They are a result of giving people huge amounts
nology. The need to reduce weight on rockets led to of money and manpower to solve problems, not a result
the microchip and the modern computer. The need to of a specific program. For example, many of the advances
produce safe but efficient power sources for the Apollo in miniaturization were the result of trying to build
missions led to the development of practical fuel cells, better nuclear missiles; this is not a good reason to con-
which are now being explored as possible power sources tinue building nuclear weapons. Similar resources would
for cleaner cars. The effects of zero gravity on astronauts be far better devoted to projects with worthier goals,
have substantially added to our knowledge of the work- for example, cancer research or research into renewable
ings of the human body and the aging process. We can energy sources. These, too, could provide many side
never know exactly which benefits will emerge from the benefits, but would tackle real problems.
space program in the future, but we do know that we
will constantly meet new obstacles and in overcoming
them will find new solutions to old problems.
Space exploration is an investment in the future. Our Space exploration is a waste of resources. If we want to
world is rapidly running out of resources. Overpopu- tackle the problems of overpopulation or of the deple-
lation could become a serious worldwide threat. Con- tion of resources, we must address them on Earth instead
sequently, ignoring the vast potential of our own solar of chasing an elusive dream. We can deal with the prob-
system—mining resources on asteroids or other planets, lems of our planet in practical ways, and we must tackle
or even colonizing other worlds—would be foolish. If them with all the resources and all the political will we
we fail to develop the ability to take advantage of these have.
possibilities, we may find it is too late.
Sample Motions:
This House would explore the universe.
This House would explore the Final Frontier.
This House would reach for the stars.
Web Links:
• European Space Agency (ESA). <http://www.esa.int/export/esaCP/index.html> Provides information on the missions of the Eu-
ropean Space Agency and the earthly use of space.
• Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). <http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/> Describes the research conducted by the JPL and provides an ex-
tensive collection of images of Earth, the stars and galaxies, the solar system, and deep space.
• National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). <http://www.nasa.gov/> Vast site describing the US space program
and the other NASA activities.
Further Reading:
Schmitt, Harrison H. Return to the Moon: Exploration, Enterprise, and Energy in the Human Settlement of Space. Springer, 2006.


STEM CELL RESEARCH AND THERAPEUTIC
CLONING
Stem cells are cells that give rise to specialized cells such as heart or brain cells, muscle tissue, or skin in a developing embryo. Researchers
believe that these cells hold the promise of future cures for diseases—such as diabetes, Parkinson’s disease, and Alzheimer’s disease— caused
by the disruption of cellular function. Ethical issues surround stem cell use because such cells are “harvested” from embryos created during
in vitro fertilization. (Stem cells can also be derived from adults, but they may not be as useful as embryonic cells.) Extracting the cells
destroys the embryo and thus ends future human life. In addition, fears have been expressed that humans will clone themselves (therapeu-
tic cloning) to create embryos to mine for stem cells.
PROS CONS
Although therapeutic cloning will involve the creation Merely hoping for a good outcome does not make
and destruction of thousands of embryos, the resulting immoral actions acceptable. Medical research should be
benefits will be so great as to outweigh moral consider- governed by moral and ethical concerns. However much
ations. Once the research goals have been achieved, the sympathy we feel for sufferers of terminal diseases, we
use of embryo treatments can be greatly reduced. The cannot tolerate the use of human embryos as means to
likely result of curing people of fatal diseases is worth an end. Stem cell research is inherently contradictory:
the cost. Lives would be created and then destroyed in order to
save other lives.
We already accept the creation and destruction of “spare” The loss of embryos in IVF is a reason to condemn IVF
embryos for cycles of in vitro fertilization (IVF). IVF treatment. It is not a reason for allowing another proce-
facilitates the creation of human life. Stem cell treat- dure that will sacrifice much more potential life.
ments will save existing human lives. The infertile will
still survive. The sufferers of Huntington’s chorea or
Alzheimer’s will not. If we accept the morality of IVF, we
must accept the morality of stem cell treatment.
The creation, storage, and destruction of embryos can Media fears of mad scientists free to manipulate and
be strictly controlled. There should be no fear of “Fran- destroy human life may be overstated. However, research
kenstein science.” projects carry a significant risk of destroying thousands
of embryos for little or no scientific gain.
The moral status of the embryo is distinct from that of The embryonic human should have the same moral
the fetus. What reason is there to assert that life begins status as the fetus or the child or the adult. At what
at the stage of embryo creation? The accepted test for physiological point do we declare an embryo “human”?
clinical death is an absence of brain stem activity. The Are we to base a declaration of being human on physical
fetus first acquires a functioning brain six weeks after the appearance? That the embryo looks different from the
embryo has been created. We cannot condone the “wast- fetus and from the adult does not prove that the embryo
age” of human embryos. However, we must be wary of is not a human being.
regarding the loss of an embryo as the loss of human
life.
We cannot equate human embryos with human beings The proper test of humanity should be if the embryo
just because they could develop into adults. Between has the potential to organize itself into a “living human
50% and 70% of embryos are lost naturally through whole.” Every embryo has this capacity. The fact that
failure to implant in the wall of the uterus. The poten- embryos are lost naturally does not imply that the
tial of an embryo to develop does not of itself make the destruction of embryos is morally acceptable.
embryo human.
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PROS CONS
Further research requires the use of the stem cells found Researchers have no need to use embryo stem cells.
in embryos. Research done with adult cells has yielded Research has continued for many years into the use of
very little progress because of the difficulty of “repro- adult stem cells. These cells are replaceable and could be
gramming” an adult cell to develop as the particular used for the purposes of treatment and research without
neuron or tissue cell required. The greater understand- the destruction of embryos.
ing of human cells that scientists will gain from research
with embryo stem cells may increase the utility of adult
cells in the future. For the present, resources should be
concentrated on research with stem cells harvested from
embryos.
Sample Motions:
This House would allow stem cell research.
This House supports therapeutic cloning.
Web Links:
• International Society for Stem Cell Research. <http://www.isscr.org/public/index.htm> Basics of stem cell science.
• NOVA Online. <http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/miracle/stemcells.html> Article by a member of the National Institutes of
Health’s Human Embryo Research Panel in support of embryonic stem cell research.
• President’s Council on Bioethics: Monitoring Stem Cell Research. <http://www.bioethics.gov/reports/stemcell/index.html>
Offers introduction and historical background on topic as well an overview of the ethical arguments on both sides of the debate.
• University of Minnesota: Center for Bioethics. <http://www.bioethics.umn.edu/resources/topics/stem_cells.html> Summary of
ethical issues and links to resources.
Further Reading:
Bellomo, Michael. The Stem Cell Divide: The Facts, the Fiction, and the Fear Driving the Greatest Scientific, Political and Religious
Debate of Our Time. AMACOM, 2006.
Caplan, Arthur, and Glenn McGee, eds. The Human Cloning Debate. Berkeley Hills, 2006.
Ruse, Michael, and Christopher A. Pynes, eds. The Stem Cell Controversy: Debating the Issues. Prometheus, 2003
Waters, Brent, and Ronald Cole-Turner, eds. God and the Embryo: Religious Voices on Stem Cells and Cloning. Georgetown Univer-
sity Press, 2003.


SUDAN: INCREASED MILITARY PRESENCE IN
The latest conflict in Sudan began in February 2003 in the Darfur region of the country as the result of an uprising of two rebel groups,
the Sudan Liberation Army (SLA) and the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM). These two groups were rebelling against Khar-
toum’s Arab-dominated government and the Janjaweed militias, which were suspected of being hired and armed by the government. The
stated political aim of the SLA and the JEM has been to compel the Sudanese government to address underdevelopment and the political
marginalization of non-Arabs in Darfur. In the background of this most recent conflict, however, lies a 16-year-old civil war between the
government and different rebel groups, mostly being fought in southern Sudan. The crisis in Darfur became very serious in 2004, with
more then two million people fleeing their homes, nearly 400,000 dead, and thousands more civilians suffering rape, torture, hunger, and
disease.
The international response to the crisis in Darfur has been relatively muted. The UN authorized sanctions in late 2004 and the African
Union (AU) organized peace talks and sent a small peacekeeping force to the region. Although a peace agreement between the two major
rebel groups and the government was signed in March 2005, the cease-fire was never respected. The United States, on behalf of the AU,
orchestrated yet another cease-fire the following year, but it, too, did not hold. In August 2006 the UN Security Council approved a reso-
lution to send a peacekeeping force of 20,000 to the region, but the Sudanese government has refused it entry.
PROS CONS
On September 9, 2004, the US government declared The United States and the international community
the crisis in Darfur a case of genocide. Under the 1948 have already taken action in Sudan, committing money
Genocide Convention, this declaration requires the to humanitarian aid and encouraging a regional solution
United States and the international community to take to the conflict through peace talks and the presence of
action to prevent further bloodshed and to punish those AU troops. Focusing on diplomacy, although more time
responsible. To avoid another Rwanda, the international consuming, promises to provide a long-term solution to
community should send more troops to Sudan. the conflict.
Increasing the current AU military force is not enough The presence of foreign troops in civil wars such as this
for an area the size of France. Even if they were present has often proved inefficient and, in some cases, has com-
in vastly greater numbers, AU soldiers lack the vehicles, plicated the situation by involving more parties in the con-
communications equipment, and experience to deal with flict. The failures of military intervention in Somalia and
the problem. The United States and the rest of the inter- Haiti are only two examples. Western intervention would
national community, while continuing to support peace be seen as taking the side of the rebel groups, removing
talks, should and could commit more military forces to any incentive they have to negotiate. With the West seen
the area to protect civilians and to prevent the destruc- as supporting the rebels, the Sudanese government would
tion of their homes and villages. immediately gain support throughout the Islamic world.
In any case, the United States has also made clear that it
does not want a Western military presence in the region,
thus the likelihood of more Western forces being made
available is very small.
We have a moral imperative to intervene in Sudan, and Unfortunately, in today’s world, moral imperatives are
if military intervention is the only efficient way of ensur- often shaped by domestic security concerns, such as the
ing humanitarian aid and allowing displaced peoples to war on terror in the case of the United States. By host-
return home without fear, the international community ing the Sudanese intelligence chief (a government official
must do it. After the Rwandan genocide, we cannot very likely to have been involved in planning genocide
stand by and risk another such disaster. in Sudan) in Washington, D.C., in June 2005, the US
sent a clear signal that its commitment is to its own inter-
ests (catching suspected terrorists) rather than that of the
Sudanese people.
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PROS CONS
A large-scale military intervention would end the conflict There are no guarantees that a large-scale military inter-
sooner, force both sides to negotiate, save thousands of vention would be successful, particularly given the history
lives, and allow reconstruction efforts to begin. The civil of the conflict. While it might temporarily suspend the
war in southern Sudan lasted on and off for decades; conflict, without efforts at reconciliation, the hatred that
Darfur has the potential to be just as bad if decisive generated the conflict will continue. The West is unlikely
action is not taken quickly. to sustain a large-scale military presence over time because
of lack of funds and commitment. At the worst, Darfur
could become another Iraq, attracting foreign Islamic
fighters in support of the Arab side and against Western
intervention.
Diplomacy has not worked. Despite a series of attempts The success of diplomacy is not easily measured, particu-
to bring the different groups together, peace talks have larly in situations like the one in Darfur. The peace talks
failed. The rebel groups are not consistent in their organized by the African Union have shown that a strong
demands and do not trust any promises of the Sudanese regional commitment to ending the conflict in Sudan
government. A series of cease-fires have not held. exists and that the opposing parties are willing to sit down
at the same table. A conflict that has been building for
more than 16 years will certainly take more than a few
years to settle.
The new conflict developing in eastern Sudan risks turn- If anything, this new conflict points to the risk of sending
ing the entire country into a war zone, thus sentencing more troops into the region and involving them in a war
even more civilians to death. Given the emergence of they are unlikely to win, given the increasing number of
this new conflict, the need to act now is clear. parties and regions involved. Sending more foreign troops
into a region engulfed by war might result into more
blood on our hands.
Sample Motions:
This House would send more troops to Sudan.
This House believes in a moral imperative to intervene militarily to stop genocide.
This House prefers military intervention over diplomacy in cases of genocide.
Web Links:
• Darfur Information Center. <http://www.darfurinfo.org/dic.html> Comprehensive source with links to information on the
conflict in Darfur.
• Human Rights Watch. <http://hrw.org/doc?t=africa&c=darfur> Links to articles and information on the human rights situation
in Darfur.
• United States Holocaust Museum. <http://www.ushmm.org/conscience/alert/darfur/> Links to current and background infor-
mation on the situation in Darfur.
Further Reading:
de Waal, Alex. Famine That Kills: Darfur, Sudan. Oxford University Press, 2005.
Flint, Julie, and Alex de Waal. Darfur: A Short History of a Long War. Zed Books, 2006.
Johnson, Douglas Hamilton. The Root Causes of Sudan’s Civil Wars. Indiana University Press, 2003.
Prunier, Gerard. Darfur: The Ambiguous Genocide. Cornell University Press, 2005.


TORTURE IN INTERROGATION
One of the most heated controversies of the US war on terrorism is the use of torture on suspected terrorists. Many policy makers contend
that torture is, at times, the most effective method for obtaining critical information that might help maintain national security. Noted
jurists like Alan Dershowitz have argued that regulated torture may be a necessary way to protect Americans. Opponents, however, coun-
ter that such interrogation methods violate the basic human rights provisions of the Geneva Conventions and binding UN protocols con-
cerning the laws of waging war (to which the US is a party), as well as the UN Convention Against Torture. Meanwhile, leaks of the
so-called White House torture memos and incidents such as the Abu Ghraib prison scandal have put the media spotlight on US treatment
of detainees.
PROS CONS
Many experienced interrogators have found that aggres- Information obtained by torture is suspect at best. Studies
sive tactics are the best, and sometimes the only, way to have shown that individuals will say anything to stop the
obtain information—information that might lead to the abuse. Moreover, bringing terrorists to justice is important
arrest or conviction of other terrorists or might protect for closure and safety, but evidence obtained from torture
the US against a future attack. Often such information is may be inadmissible in the courtroom.
needed quickly, so that more subtle means of interroga-
tion are untenable. Moreover, the US has a track record
for using aggressive interrogation in a regulated, studied
way that does not constitute torture in the conventional
sense (defined as methods that will cause permanent
damage to vital organs or permanent emotional trauma).
The US government has never sanctioned methods that
would cause such harm.
The US uses aggressive interrogation only against those Every human being has human rights, no matter how hei-
it has strong reason to believe have engaged in terror- nous a crime he or she is suspected of committing. Article
ist activities against Americans. Such extralegal activity 5 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights reads:
requires a strong response. These are bad people, trained “No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhu-
terrorists who will stop at nothing to kill innocent US man, or degrading treatment or punishment.” Moreover,
civilians. Those who would heavily restrict interrogation the US Constitution prohibits torture.
methods would have the US lose the war on terror.
The Geneva Conventions do not apply to the inter- Verbal sleight of hand should not obscure the fact that
rogation of terrorists and suspected terrorists held by individuals captured in the war on terror are prisoners of
the US because they are not prisoners of war. They are war. Moreover, in many cases they are merely suspected
illegal enemy combatants, outside the scope of such of links to criminal activity (and, as past experience has
protection. indicated, often wrongly so). Extralegal military tribunals
conducted behind closed doors without proper due pro-
cess leave the US on shaky moral ground.
The US is hardly alone in its use of such interrogation The United States should set the standard for interna-
practices and has a good record compared with other tional human rights, rather than strive only for the aver-
nations. Moreover, “torture” is a loaded word that does age. Furthermore, permitting low-level and undertrained
not accurately differentiate between the studied inter- US troops to engage in unsupervised interrogation is a
rogation practices of US forces and the human rights recipe for disaster. Incidents like the abuses at Abu Ghraib
abuses prevalent in many developing nations. prison demonstrate how quickly America’s reputation can
suffer from such illicit treatment of prisoners.
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Sample Motions:
This House believes that the US has the right to use torture to protect national security.
This House believes that torture is sometimes necessary in time of war.
This House believes that the US has the right to use torture against suspected terrorists.
Web Links:
• Human Rights Web. <http://www.hrw.org/campaigns/torture.htm> Reports on US torture and abuse of detainees.
• Human Rights Web. <http://www.hrweb.org/legal/cat.html> Copy of the UN Convention Against Torture.
• Society of Professional Journalists. <http://www.genevaconventions.org> Reference guide to the Geneva Conventions.
Further Reading:
Greenberg, Karen J. The Torture Debate in America. Cambridge University Press, 2005.
McCoy, Alfred. A Question of Torture: CIA Interrogation, from the Cold War to the War on Terror. Metropolitan Books, 2006.
Roth, Kenneth, Minky Worden, and Amy D. Bernstein, eds. Torture. New Press, 2005.

TWO-PARTY SYSTEM
Nations such as Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States have two-party political systems. Other countries have de
facto two-party systems: two parties dominate governance, and one or two smaller third parties ensure that one or the other major
party maintains power (Germany is a good example). In contrast, nations with multiparty parliamentary systems, Israel, Japan, some
Eastern European countries, and some of the Latin American democracies, regularly experience shifting alliances and coalitions among
their political parties.
Which system is preferable? Strong voices can be heard on both sides: Advocates of the multiparty system extol its diversity and
the fact that it forces coalition building; advocates of the two-party model argue that such governments are more stable and have a
larger group of members experienced in governing.
PROS CONS
Two-party systems have emerged either as the result or While ideology and the will of the electorate may have
the reflection of the will of the electorate. Often the been a factor at one stage in the development of a two-
two parties represent key ideological divisions in society party democracy, these are factors that limit political
over the direction of policy, e.g., between left and right, progress today. The Cold War with its divisions of left
small government and activist government, liberalism and right is over and ideological labels are increasingly
and authoritarianism. Most voters have little interest meaningless. Such historical precedents make the cre-
in the minutiae of policy, but they can understand the ation of third parties difficult. The dominant parties
broad political choices presented to them by the two tend to shape electoral rules to exclude smaller parties,
distinct parties and make their decisions at election and the more dominant parties tend to be the most suc-
time accordingly. cessful at fund-raising. Thus a two-party system limits
the choice of the electorate.
Governments in two-party systems are more able to drive Multiparty systems tend to produce coalition govern-
their policies through the legislature because they often ments that have to work to balance interests and pro-
have a clear majority of representatives there. Conse- duce a consensus. Thus, the electorate is likely to accept
quently, they can implement important changes quickly important changes these governments make and not
and without compromise. reverse them at the next election.

PROS CONS
Because two-party systems tend to be less volatile, voters Incumbency can mean complacency. The longer people
retain their representatives as incumbents longer. Conse- hold office, the more comfortable they become and the
quently, the legislators are very experienced. This results less likely they are to take risks and make controversial
in better and more consistent policy and more effective decisions. They can be highly influenced by lobbyists
scrutiny of the executive branch. and lose touch with the people they are supposed to
represent. The freer marketplace of ideas in a multiparty
system forces politicians to adapt their message and
become more responsive to minority voices.
Because parliamentary majorities in multiparty systems The threat of a no-confidence vote, a collapsing coalition,
can shift suddenly, these systems are far less stable than or the departure of a coalition partner from a governing
two-party systems. Multiparty systems are also less fair majority forces leaders to make compromises, and com-
to the electorate because policies formed after an elec- promises make for policies that serve the interests of the
tion are often the result of backroom deals that ignore majority of the voters. Moreover, most countries have
campaign promises and voter wishes. constitutional mechanisms to ensure a relatively smooth
transition to a new government.
Two-party systems better reflect mainstream, centrist Moderation is not necessarily in the public’s best inter-
views. To remain competitive, parties will tend to mod- est. A multiparty system helps ensure that the views of
erate their platforms. a variety of different interests are considered in policy
making.
Sample Motions:
This House believes rule by a majority party is superior to coalition government.
This House believes a two-party system is superior to a multiparty system.
This House would amend nations’ constitutions to increase electoral competition.
Web Links:
• Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance. <http://www.idea.int/> Intergovernmental organization that draws on com-
parative experience to develop policy options, tools, and guidelines relating to political participation, electoral systems, and po-
litical parties.
• Toward a More Responsible Two-Party System. <http://www.apsanet.org/~pop/APSA_Report.htm> American Political Science
Association’s critique of the suitability of American political parties to a modern, activist state.
Further Reading:
Laver, Michael, and Norman Schofeld. Multiparty Government: The Politics of Coalition in Europe. University of Michigan Press,
1998.
Lijphart, Arend. Patterns of Democracy: Government Forms and Performance in Thirty-Six Countries. Yale University Press, 1999.
Reynolds, David. Democracy Unbound: Progressive Challenges to the Two-Party System. South End Press, 1997.

|219

UNITED NATIONS: A FAILURE?
Over the past few years, support for the United Nations has eroded among the American public. A poll in September 2006 revealed
that less than one-third of Americans have a favorable view of the international organization; just two years ago the public was evenly
divided. In 1999, 70% had a favorable opinion of the UN. Declining support has raised the question: Is the United Nations a
failure? Debates on the issue tend to degenerate into example swapping. Both sides must avoid this, rather turning their attention to
the aims of the United Nations and to establishing criteria for analyzing whether the institution has met or is working toward meeting
such goals.
PROS CONS
At its founding, the main objective of the United Nations Despite horrific suffering in many countries, the world
was to prevent future wars and mass suffering. Because has avoided another devastating global conflict in which
millions have since died in hundreds of conflicts around tens of millions might die—for this the UN can take
the world, we must condemn the UN as a failure. much credit. It has also resisted aggression in regional
conflicts in Korea and the Middle East, thus helping to
deter future invasions, and has acted as a peacemaker in
many other conflicts, e.g., the Iran-Iraq war. Consider
how much more violent the world might have been
without the United Nations.
Another key objective of the United Nations was Human rights abuses usually take place within states,
advancing human rights. Yet many regimes violate these often in civil wars. Under its charter, the UN cannot
rights, often horrifically, as in the genocidal civil wars interfere in the internal affairs of a member, so it is
in the Balkans and Central Africa in the 1990s. Given unfair to count this a failure. Nonetheless, the UN
that voting rights in the UN General Assembly are not has placed human rights squarely on the international
linked to a regime’s human rights record and that gross agenda, raising awareness of human rights around the
human rights abusers such as China sit on the UN Secu- world and shaming many regimes into improving their
rity Council, it is no surprise that the UN has failed in policies. Even China makes great efforts to defend its
this part of its agenda. human rights record.
The UN suffers from a bloated bureaucracy in which Errors in strategic decision making are not the fault of
responsibility and job title are not linked to ability, the UN Secretariat but of its masters in the Security
resulting in painfully slow decision making and opera- Council. Abuses have occurred in the past, but these
tional failure in such crises as Rwanda and the former are used as a stick to beat the UN with by those, prin-
Yugoslavia. Some UN organizations, such as UNESCO, cipally in the United States, who oppose the UN for
have been viewed as so corrupt that countries, including other reasons. In recent years considerable progress has
the United States and the United Kingdom, have with- been made toward improving efficiency and rewarding
drawn from them; the US Congress has long withheld merit, although these efforts have been hampered by the
part of America’s dues in protest against corruption and failure of the US to pay its dues.
money wasting.
The UN also suffers from institutional problems. A UN decision making has improved since the end of the
single veto from one of the Permanent 5 in the Security Cold War because key votes in the Security Council
Council can stymie General Assembly resolutions that are no longer likely to result in deadlock between East-
have widespread support. The United States and orga- ern and Western blocs. In any case, P5 countries try to
nizations such as NATO have undermined the authority avoid using their veto power if at all possible because of
of the UN and its credibility in addressing long-standing the negative image its use creates at home and abroad.
issues, for example, the conflict between Israel and the Instead, the Security Council acts as a forum in which

PROS CONS
Palestinians, where the United States, among the P5, has nations can explain their positions and hammer out
strong interests. compromises, even if action is not collectively autho-
rized. Clearly the workings of the Security Council
could be changed to diminish the importance of the P5
and to make taking action easier, but this does not in
itself render the unreformed UN a failure.
Much of the international progress made since 1945 While other organizations have been important in bring-
has not involved the UN at all. The Cold War, with its ing greater peace and prosperity to the world, none have
mutually assured destruction, kept the peace between the had the authority of the UN, which derives its author-
great powers, while institutions such as the International ity from the participation of almost every nation in the
Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and the World Trade world. The Security Council is the forum for discus-
Organization have promoted greater prosperity even as sion, deal making, and arbitration in an international
they functioned independently of the UN. crisis. The UN has also made huge contributions to
global progress through its agencies, particularly those
dealing with refugees, the World Health Organization,
and UNICEF. As a result of UN efforts, smallpox has
been eliminated, health care improved, and education
advanced. We don’t often notice these programs, but we
should see the UN’s responsibility for them as a key part
Sample Motions:
This House believes the United Nations has failed.
This House would put the UN out of its misery.
This House has no confidence in the UN.
Web Links:
• The Heritage Foundation. <http://www.heritage.org/Research/InternationalOrganizations/BG-1700.cfm> Background docu-
ment by conservative think tank, with recommendations for reform of the UN.
• St. Thomas University School of Law, Diplomatic Monitor. <http://diplomacymonitor.com/stu/dm.nsf/
issued?openform&cat=UN_Role> Links to sites on the contemporary role of the UN.
• The UK Mission to the UN. <http://diplomacymonitor.com/stu/dm.nsf/dn/dnAEB81070DA4AB96385257205005525F7>
Address by the UK ambassador to the UN assessing the UN’s response to contemporary challenges.
• The Washington Post. <http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A36068-2004Dec4.html> Editorial on the failure of
the UN to reform itself.
Further Reading:
Gold, Dore. Tower of Babble: How the United Nations Has Fueled Global Chaos. Crown Forum, 2004.
Kennedy, Paul. The Parliament of Man: The Past, Present, and Future of the United Nations. Random House, 2006.

|221

VEGETARIANISM
Very few human societies have forsworn eating meat, fowl, and fish, although in some parts of the world grains constitute almost the
whole of the diet, with meat, fowl, or fish rare additions. These diets often have been the result of poverty, not choice. In modern
Western societies, however, voluntary vegetarianism is on the increase. Many believe it is immoral for human beings to eat other
animals. Some take an even more absolute line, refusing to eat dairy products or eggs as well because of the conditions in which the
animals that produce them are raised.
PROS CONS
The main reason to be a vegetarian is to reduce animal Eating meat does not need to mean cruelty to animals.
suffering. Farm animals are sentient, living beings like A growing number of organic and free range farms can
humans, and, like us, they can feel pleasure and pain. provide meat without cruelty. We can extend animal
Farming and killing these animals for food is wrong. The welfare laws to protect farm animals, but that does not
methods of farming and slaughter are often barbaric and mean that it is wrong in principle to eat meat.
cruel, even on “free range” farms. Also, in most coun-
tries, animal welfare laws do not cover animals farmed
for food.
To suggest that farm factories are “natural” is absurd; It is natural for human beings to farm, kill, and eat other
they are unnatural and cruel. To eat meat is to perpetu- species. The wild offers only a brutal struggle for exis-
ate animal suffering on a huge scale, a larger, crueler, tence. That humans have succeeded in that struggle by
and more systematic scale than anything found in the exploiting our natural advantages means that we have
wild. Humanity’s “superiority” over other animals the right to use lower species. In fact, farming animals
means humans have the reasoning power and moral is much less brutal than the pain and hardship animals
instinct to stop exploiting other species. If aliens from inflict on each other in the wild.
another planet, much more intelligent and powerful
than humans, farmed (and force-fed) human beings in
factory farm conditions, we would think it was morally
abhorrent. If this would be wrong, then is it not wrong
for “superior” humans to farm “lower” species simply
because of our ability to do so?
Human beings are omnivores and are rational agents with Human beings have evolved to eat meat. They have
free will, thus they can choose whether to eat meat, veg- sharp canine teeth for tearing animal flesh and digestive
etables, or both. It might be “natural” for humans to be systems adapted to eating meat and fish as well as veg-
violent toward one another but that does not mean that etables. Modern squeamishness about eating animals is
it is right. Some natural traits are immoral and should be an affectation of a decadent society that flies in the face
restrained. In any case, our closest animal cousins, the of our natural instincts and physiology. We were made
apes, eat an all-vegetable diet. to eat both meat and vegetables. Cutting out half of this
diet will inevitably mean we lose this natural balance.
Becoming a vegetarian is an environmentally friendly All of these problems would exist without meat farming
thing to do. Modern farming is one of the main sources and fishing. Deforestation has occurred for centuries as
of pollution. Beef farming is one of the main causes of human civilizations expand, but planting sustainable for-
deforestation, and as long as people continue to buy fast ests can now counteract it. Meat farmers contribute little
food, financial incentives will be in place to continue cut- to pollution, and many worse sources of pollution exist.
ting down trees to make room for cattle. Because of our Vegetable and grain farmers also pollute through use of
desire to eat fish, our rivers and seas are being emptied nitrates, pesticides, and fertilizers. Finally, the energy
and many species face extinction. Meat farmers use up crisis is one of global proportions in which meat farmers

PROS CONS
far more energy resources than those growing vegetables play a minute role. Finding alternative sources of energy,
and grains. Eating meat, fowl, and fish causes not only not limiting meat farming, will solve this problem.
cruelty to animals, but also harm to the environment.
“Going veggie” offers significant health benefits. A veg- The key to good health is a balanced diet, not a meat-
etarian diet contains high quantities of fiber, vitamins, and fish-free diet. Meat and fish are good sources of
and minerals, and is low in fat. A vegan diet (which protein, iron, and other vitamins and minerals. Most
eliminates animal products) is even better because eggs of the health benefits of a vegetarian diet derive from
and dairy products are high in cholesterol. Eating meat its being high in fiber and low in fat and cholesterol.
increases the risk of developing many forms of cancer. In We can achieve these benefits by avoiding fatty and fried
1996 the American Cancer Society recommended that foods, eating only lean grilled meat and fish, and includ-
red meat be excluded from the diet entirely. Eating meat ing a large amount of fruit and vegetables in our diet. A
also increases the risk of heart disease. A vegetarian diet meat- and fish-free diet is unbalanced and can result in
reduces the risk of serious diseases and, because it is low protein and iron deficiencies. Also, in the West a veg-
in fat, also helps to prevent obesity. Plenty of vegetar- etarian diet is a more expensive option, a luxury for the
ian sources of protein, such as beans and bean curd, are middle classes. Fresh fruit and vegetables are extremely
available. expensive compared to processed meats, bacon, burgers,
sausages, etc.
Going vegetarian or vegan reduces the risk of con- Of course we should enforce the highest standards of
tracting food-borne diseases. The inclusion of animal hygiene and food safety. But this does not mean that we
brains in animal feed led to outbreaks of bovine spon- should stop eating meat, which, in itself, is a natural and
giform encephalitis (“mad cow disease”) and its human healthy thing to do.
equivalent, Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease. Meat and poul-
try transmit almost all of the potentially fatal forms of
food poisoning.
Sample Motions:
This House believes that if you love animals you shouldn’t eat them.
This House would go veggie.
Web Links:
• BritishMeat.com. <http://www.britishmeat.com/49.htm> Despite its name, the site offers 49 reasons for becoming a vegetarian
categorized by general area—health, economy, environment, ethics.
• Earthsave.org. <http://www.earthsave.org/index.htm> Provides information in opposition to factory farming and in support of a
grain-based diet.
• People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. <http://www.peta.org> Radical animal rights organization offers arguments in fa-
vor of vegetarianism and information on how to become a vegetarian.
• The VivaVegie Society. <http://www.vivavegie.org/vv101/101reas98.html> Essay offering 101 arguments for vegetarianism.
Further Reading:
Marcus, Erik. Meat Market: Animals, Ethics, and Money. Brio Press, 2005.
———. Vegan: The New Ethics of Eating. Rev. ed. McBooks, 2001.
Walters, Kerry, and Lisa Portmess, eds. Ethical Vegetarianism: From Pythagoras to Peter Singer. State University of New York Press,
1999.

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WAR CRIMES TRIBUNALS
Always controversial and shrouded in the solemn aftermath of terrible crimes, war crimes tribunals are the international community’s
response to national wrongdoings. They raise serious questions about sovereignty and international law. Whether held after World
War II, Rwanda, Bosnia, or Kosovo, they never fail to provoke outrage from one corner and vindictiveness from the other. Would
such matters be better left alone? The trial of Slobodan Milosevic in The Hague in the opening years of this century was an example
of how complicated issues of international justice and power come to the fore in such tribunals.
PROS CONS
Wrongdoing and wrongdoers must be punished. When Of course wrongdoing should be punished. But the trial
a crime has consumed an entire nation, only a foreign should be held in the country where the crime was com-
trial can supply disinterested due process. mitted. Any outside intervention in matters of sovereign
states is high-handed and imperialistic.
Countries can explicitly cede jurisdiction for such crimes Closure is the last thing tribunals bring. These trials alien-
to international tribunals. These bodies are trying to ate large portions of the nation and turn people against
achieve justice and closure that will benefit the entire the new government, which is seen as collaborating with
nation. foreign imperialists. Such trials increase tension.
The world community must send a clear message that it No one can dispute the enormity of such crimes. But
will act against appalling war crimes. This must be done these trials damage a nation by reopening old wounds.
on an international stage through international courts. Spain, for example, did not embark on witch-hunts fol-
lowing the bloody and repressive regime of Francisco
Franco. Instead, it turned the page on those years and
moved on collectively with no recrimination. Between
justice and security there is always a trade-off. Where
possible, peace should be secured by reconciliation rather
than recrimination.
The issue of sovereignty is increasingly less important in Whatever the truth about globalization and sovereignty,
a globalizing world. The pooling of sovereignty occurs war crimes tribunals do not standardize justice. They are
with increasing frequency, and any step toward an inter- nothing more than victors’ arbitrary justice. This type of
nationalization of legal systems, such as the use of inter- justice undermines international law.
national tribunals, is welcome.
We have to uphold the principle that if you commit The threat of possible legal action has not stopped
serious crimes, you will be punished. If we do not take countless heinous crimes in the past, so why should it
action against war criminals, we will encourage future now? These people are not rational and have no respect
crimes. for international law.
Sample Motions:
This House would have war crimes tribunals.
This House believes war crimes must be punished.
Web Links:
• American University: Research Office for War Crimes Tribunals for the Former Yugoslavia and Rwanda. <http://www.wcl.
american.edu/pub/humright/wcrimes/research.html> Detailed site on actual tribunals.
• Special International Criminal Tribunals. <http://www.globalpolicy.org/intljustice/tribindx.htm> Provides information on UN war
crimes tribunals in Rwanda and Yugoslavia as well as efforts to establish tribunals in East Timor, Cambodia, and Sierra Leone.

Further Reading:
Bass, Gary Jonathan. Stay the Hand of Vengeance: The Politics of War Crimes Tribunals. Princeton University Press, 2000.
Minow, Martha. Between Vengeance and Forgiveness: Facing History After Genocide and Mass Violence. Beacon Press, 1999.
Sands, Philippe, ed. From Nuremberg to The Hague: The Future of International Criminal Justice. Cambridge University Press, 2003.

WARRANTLESS WIRETAPPING
In December 2005 President George W. Bush acknowledged that he had signed a secret order permitting the National Security
Agency (NSA) to wiretap communications between American citizens and terrorists overseas. Several months later, the press revealed
that the NSA had amassed the domestic call records of millions of Americans as part of its antiterrorism campaign. Critics say that
NSA’s eavesdropping violated the 1978 Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA), which makes conducting domestic surveillance
without a warrant a crime. Asserting an expansive concept of presidential power that many experts reject, the president contended that
he had the right to approve the program.
PROS CONS
Both the Constitution (Article II) and the 2001 law Conducting surveillance without FISA authorization is a
authorizing the use of “all necessary and appropriate felony. The Constitution clearly states that the president
force” against those responsible for the September 11 “shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed”
attacks give the president the legal authority for the no- and gives Congress the sole right enact or modify laws.
warrant surveillance. Under the Constitution, the presi- Claiming expansive constitutional powers in an effort
dent is commander in chief, and as such he is responsible to justify violating laws is unacceptable—the president
for defending the nation and should have the right to cannot choose which laws he will obey. Furthermore,
determine how best to do so. the law that the proposition cites authorized military
force against Afghanistan. It was never meant to justify
domestic surveillance.
Communications have changed since the passage of The United States has faced many threats in its history
FISA, as has the nature of our enemy. In 1978 the and has often reacted with policies it later regrets. Con-
Soviet Union was our foe, and the NSA could easily sider the mass internment of Japanese Americans during
retrieve telephone satellite communications. Today our World War II. We have often been tempted to abridge
enemy is not a superpower but terrorist organizations our liberties in times of stress, but this is precisely when
that can move easily and change cell phones and e-mail we must defend them most vigorously. The United
addresses at will. To fight terror, US intelligence opera- States was founded on certain values—if we ignore or
tives need to act quickly, with a minimum of red tape, reject these values, we may win the war on terrorism but
and must gather information in new ways. Also, most lose the freedoms that define us.
of the world’s broadband communications pass through
the US, making monitoring of potential enemies easy
for NSA; however, distinguishing between “foreign” and
“domestic” is difficult.
As proved by the attacks on September 11, terrorists can The ends do not justify the means. The right to privacy
do tremendous damage. If we are to protect ourselves in is crucial in a democracy and should not be abridged,
the future, we may have to abridge the privacy of many particularly as no evidence has been offered that war-
individuals, however innocent they may ultimately prove rantless surveillance is effective in fighting terrorism.
to be. Simply put, you can never know who is a terror- Finally, as our own history has shown, we have no guar-
ist until after his or her privacy has been violated or an antee that the government will not violate privacy for
attack has occurred; in addition, why should the inno- its own, less-than-just ends. Look at what happened in
cent be afraid if they have nothing to hide? the McCarthy era or during Watergate. To date, the gov-
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PROS CONS
ernment has not articulated the specific criteria it uses
to determine which conversations to monitor—itself a
reason for worry.
Sample Motions:
This House would impeach the president for violating FISA.
This House believes that in a democracy, the right to privacy should be valued over the need for security.
This House believes that Americans should not give up freedom for security.
Web Links:
• Fox News. <http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,179323,00.html> Summary of arguments on both sides of the issue.
• Newsweek. <http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/12762065/site/newsweek/> Privacy advocate explains why Americans should be
concerned about the NSA data-mining program.
• The Washington Post. <http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/linkset/2006/02/03/LI2006020301869.html> Sum-
mary of events surrounding the controversy, with link to sites for more in-depth information.
Further Reading:
Darmer, M. Katherine, Robert M. Baird, and Stuart E. Rosenbaum, eds. Civil Liberties vs. National Security in a Post 9/11 World.
Prometheus, 2004.
Keefe, Patrick Radden. Chatter: Dispatches from the Secret World of Global Eavesdropping. Random House, 2005.
Leone, Richard. The War on Our Freedoms: Civil Liberties in an Age of Terrorism. PublicAffairs, 2003.

WATER PRIVATIZATION
Water is the most common substance on Earth, but 97% of the world’s water is in the oceans, and most of what is left is locked in ice
caps and glaciers. Only 1% of the world’s water is available for human consumption. This water must not only meet household needs,
but also those of industry and agriculture.
Because it is vital—and scarce—water has become an issue in both developing and developed nations. Developing countries
struggle to find the best way to supply clean water to their populations, while developed countries wrestle with question of how best to
allocate water and maintain their water systems. During the 1980s, when countries such as the United States and the United King-
dom moved to limit government, many water systems were privatized and aid to developing countries tied to privatization. The trend
continued into the 21st century. This has engendered a firestorm of controversy not only about the economic and political impact of
privatization but also on the question of whether water is a right or a commodity.
PROS CONS
Water is a resource subject to the principle of supply and Water, essential for all life, is a natural God-given resource
demand, and so should be treated as an economic good. that falls freely from the sky. Therefore, access to clean
It may fall freely from the skies, but it must be collected, water is a human right, not something to be traded away
managed, processed, and supplied through an expen- or withheld on grounds of cost.
sive system of reservoirs, channels, processing plants,
and pipes. Dirty water and human waste also must be
removed and treated in sanitation systems.

PROS CONS
Society wastes water when it is not treated as a commod- Demand for water increases with population growth, so
ity. On the personal level, people do not conserve water it does not respond to market forces as do other resources.
unless they have to pay for it. At a national level, subsi- Rich consumers in the developed world also waste water
dized water for agriculture encourages wasteful practices through extravagant use of luxuries such as garden sprin-
and the growth of crops in inappropriate regions, often klers, swimming pools, lush golf courses, etc. We must
with a damaging impact on the environment. Pricing manage demand to ensure access for all, including the
water according to its true cost would promote more poor. Letting the market set prices will not achieve this.
efficient and environmentally friendly practices, e.g., the This is a job for governments, which are accountable to
use of drip-irrigation or dry farming in agriculture. their people, not for private companies.
Addressing the problems of water supply requires huge The private sector will provide investment only in return
investments, particularly in the developing world where for a profit. Because government does not require a profit,
many people have no access to clean fresh water. Even in the cost of publicly funded development is always lower.
the developed world, much water (up to 50% in Canada) Public-sector development also is preferable to privatiza-
is wasted through leaks in pipes and aging infrastruc- tion because governments can target investment to the
ture. The public sector has failed to provide the money most needy, rather than focusing on the most profit-
for addressing these problems, so private involvement is able opportunities. Most private companies insist on a
essential. To encourage private-sector involvement, we monopoly of water sources, so they have no competitive
must permit water companies to make a profit through pressures to improve quality and drive down prices.
charges that reflect the costs of supply. Effective regula- Even in the developed world, the experience of water
tion can handle issues of quality, equity, and environ- privatization is not encouraging: in England, privati-
mental standards. zation resulted in both higher prices and water ration-
ing. The 2000–2001 power crisis in California has
also shown how regulation of private utilities can fail.
Australia, however, has successfully improved its water
supply system while keeping it in public hands.
Treating water as a commodity is better for the poor. Treating water as a commodity is bad for the poor. Some
Governments in developing countries often provide rich may take advantage of badly targeted subsidies, but
water to middle-class areas and wealthy farmers at a frac- these subsidies are essential to the poor. How would farm-
tion of its true cost, while the poor have no supply. Argu- ers in much of India cope without state-funded irriga-
ing that privatization is bad because it will force the poor tion water? In South Africa, women chose to fetch dirty
to pay for water is misleading. The poor already pay for river water from a long distance rather than pay even
water, either directly to entrepreneurs who supply it in a small amount for clean water. When Cochabamba,
tubs and cans, or indirectly through the family’s labor Bolivia, contracted with a private company to manage
fetching water of questionable quality from miles away. its water supply, the firm doubled water tariffs so that
The poor also pay through ill health caused by unsafe some families paid a third of their income in water bills.
water. Mass protests finally forced the government to cancel the
contract.
Charging for water can help the environment. Proper Private companies are unlikely to care for the environ-
pricing of water would reflect all the costs of providing ment. Their duties are to their shareholders, not to
it, including the costs of environmental protection. Pric- society at large and nature in general. They will seek
ing water based on consumption, e.g., through domestic to reduce costs and maximize profits, most likely at the
metering, also discourages wasteful use and so reduces expense of high environmental standards.
the demands on natural water systems such as rivers and
underground aquifers.
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Sample Motions:
This House would privatize the water supply.
This House believes water should be treated as a commodity.
This House would put a price on water.
This House would make the price of water reflect the cost of supply.
Web Links:
• BBC News. <http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/talking_point/2957550.stm> Q & A on water privatization.
• cbc.ca. <http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/> Report on global water privatization.
• Economist.com. <http://www.economist.com/surveys/displayStory.cfm?story_id=1906846> The Economist survey of global
water issues, with links to a range of useful Web sites.
Further Reading:
Fishbone, Aaron, ed. The Struggle for Water: Increasing Demands on a Vital Resource. IDEBATE Press, 2007.
Peter H. Gleick, Gary Wolff, Elizabeth L. Chalecki, and Rachel Reyes, The New Economy of Water: The Risks and Benefits of Global-
ization and Privatization of Fresh Water. Pacific Institute, 2002.
Shiva, Vandana. Water Wars: Privatization, Pollution, and Profit. South End Press, 2002.
Ward, Diane Raines. Water Wars. Riverhead Trade, 2003.

WATER RESOURCES: A COMMODITY?

With increasing population and growing water usage, water shortages have become a source of potential and ongoing conflicts. One
of the main issues is the competing claims of upstream and downstream nations. As downstream nations attempt to win more water
rights, upstream nations try to keep control of the water resources in their territories. While current resources are insufficient in many
regions, water will become even scarcer in the future, producing tension among nations sharing rivers.
PROS CONS
Water occurs randomly, just like oil and gas, which are Water is the most vital of Earth’s randomly occurring
treated as commodities that can be bought and sold. If resources; it is essential for survival. Consequently, water-
countries can take advantage of their geographic loca- rich countries have no moral right to profit from this
tion to sell oil and gas, they are justified in using water resource. Every inhabitant of the planet has an equal right
resources to support their economies. Failure to view to water, and flowing water has no political boundaries.
water as a precious, marketable commodity makes it far
less valued and leads to unrestricted water use by envi-
ronmentally unconscious societies.
Control and management of water—the maintenance of It is immoral to charge for water beyond the cost of
dams, reservoirs, and irrigation systems—costs millions water systems’ maintenance. Water is a commodity only
of dollars and is a burden on upstream states’ budgets. up to a certain point. Once water exceeds a reservoir’s
All of these expenses, including the opportunity cost of capacity, it is not a commodity because it will flow free
fertile lands allocated for reservoirs and dams, should be over the dam. Dams may also create dangerous condi-
covered by downstream states, which are the primary tions because downstream states may be flooded if a dam
consumers of water. For example, that an upstream state breaks.
cannot use the water flowing through it to produce elec-
tricity to offset the costs of water management is unfair.

PROS CONS
Water resources are distributed unequally. Uneven distri- Faced with scarcity and drought, states may resort
bution and wasteful consumption warrant the introduc- to force to gain control of water resources. Therefore,
tion of the “pay-for-water” approach. Is it fair to prefer making water a commodity is a potential cause of many
to use water to irrigate infertile semi-deserts downstream conflicts and should be avoided.
rather than using water more efficiently upstream?
Sample Motions:
This House agrees that water flows can be an article of trade.
This House should endorse international commerce in water resources.
This House does not support legislation for trading of water resources.
Web Links:
• The Transboundary Freshwater Dispute Database. <http://www.transboundarywaters.orst.edu> A comprehensive resource on
water treaties.
• Water Conflicts. <www.waterconflicts.com> A site promoting understanding of water rights and water conflicts.
• World Water Council. <www.worldwatercouncil.org> Site maintained by an international organization dedicated to improving
world management of water; offers articles and resources on water issues.
• The World’s Water. <www.worldwater.org> Up-to-date information on global freshwater resources.
Further Reading:
de Villiers, Marq. Water: The Fate of Our Most Precious Resource. Mariner, 2001.
Postel, Sandra, and Brian Richter. Rivers for Life: Managing Water for People and Nature. Island Press, 2003.
Ward, Diane Raines. Water Wars. Riverhead Trade, 2003.

WHALING, LIFTING THE BAN ON

Whaling became an important industry in the 19th century because of the increased demand for whale oil used in the lamps of the
time. The industry declined in the late 19th century when petroleum began to replace whale oil. Nevertheless whales were still
hunted for meat and other products, and modern technology made hunters more efficient. The increasing scarcity of many whale spe-
cies, together with growing recognition of the intelligence and social nature of whales, led to the creation of the International Whaling
Commission (IWC), which instituted a ban on whale hunting effective in 1986. In years since, whale stocks appear to have recov-
ered, although the extent of the recovery is a matter of debate. Some whaling continues for research purposes, mostly by Japan, which
has been widely criticized for taking hundreds more whales than can be justified by the needs of scientific inquiry. In 2005 the IWC
voted down Japan’s bid to lift restrictions on commercial whaling. Pro-whaling countries such as Japan and Norway indicated that they
would circumvent the ban by increasing the numbers of whales killed for scientific research programs.
PROS CONS
Whales should be treated in the same way as other ani- Killing whales for human use is morally wrong. Many
mals, as a resource to be used for food and other prod- people believe that no animal should suffer and die for
ucts. Whales should not be hunted to extinction, but the benefit of humans, but even if you do not hold such
if their numbers are healthy, then hunting them should views, whales should be treated as a special case. Whales
be permitted. Scientists have conducted studies of intel- are exceptionally intelligent and social beings, able to
ligence on dolphins, not whales; these studies, however, communicate fluently with each other. The hunting and
cannot measure intelligence in any useful way. Although the killing of animals that appear to share many social
people in some Western nations view whales as special and intellectual abilities with humans are immoral.
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PROS CONS
and in need of protection, this view is not widely shared
by other countries. To impose it upon others is a form of
cultural imperialism.
Whale populations are healthy, particularly those of We should adhere to a precautionary principle. Actual
minke whales, which now number over a million. A whale populations are not truly known, but they appear
resumption of hunting under regulation will not adversely to be nowhere near as great as pro-whalers suggest. Until
affect their survival. The IWC did not impose the ban the international ban several species were close to extinc-
on whaling for moral reasons but to prevent extinction. tion. This could easily happen again if the ban were
Numbers have now greatly increased. The ban has served lifted, especially because regulation is difficult. Even if
its original purpose, and it is time to lift it. hunting were restricted to the more numerous species
of whales, other, less common species may be killed by
mistake.
Whale hunting is an important aspect of some cultures. Traditional hunting methods are often cruel; they involve
For some groups the hunting of a small number of whales driving whales to beach themselves and then killing them
is an important feature in the local subsistence economy, slowly with long knives, or singling out vulnerable nurs-
a way of reconnecting themselves with the traditions of ing mothers with calves. Because only small numbers are
their ancestors and affirming their group identity against taken with relatively primitive equipment, the hunters
the onslaught of globalization. do not develop enough skill or possess the technology
to achieve the clean and quick kills necessary to prevent
suffering. Also, what if the whales these groups wish
to hunt are from the most endangered species? Should
these groups be permitted to kill them because of their
“cultural heritage”? In any case, many traditional prac-
tices (e.g., slavery, female genital mutilation) have been
outlawed as abhorrent in modern society.
Economic factors argue for a resumption of whaling. Whale watching now generates a billion dollars a year,
In both Japan and Norway remote coastal communities more income worldwide than the whaling industry
depend on whaling for their livelihood. Both countries brought in prior to the hunting ban. This industry and
have an investment in ships, research, processing centers, the jobs it creates in remote coastal areas would be jeop-
etc., that would be wasted if the temporary whaling ban ardized if whale numbers fell or if these intelligent ani-
were extended indefinitely. mals became much more wary around human activity.
Modern whaling is humane, especially compared to the Whaling is inherently cruel. Before the whale is har-
factory farming of chickens, cows, and pigs. Most whales pooned, it is usually exhausted by a long and stressful
die instantly or very quickly, and Japanese researchers chase. Because whales are moving targets, a marksman
have developed new, more powerful harpoons that will can achieve a direct hit only with great difficulty. The
make kills even more certain. explosive-tipped harpoon wounds many whales, who
often survive for some time before finally being killed
by rifle shots or by additional harpoons. Even when a
direct hit is scored, the explosive often fails to detonate.
Japanese whaling ships report that only 70% of whales
are killed instantly.
Whales damage the fish stocks on which many people The decline in fish stocks is caused by overfishing, not
depend for their food and livelihood. Culling whales will whale predation. Many whales eat only plankton. The
reduce the decline in fish stocks. oceans had plenty of fish before large-scale whaling
began. Indeed some whales eat the larger fish that prey
on commercially important species. A whale cull might

PROS CONS
have the perverse effect of further reducing valuable fish
stocks.
A policy of limited hunting could prevent the potential Any system that allows whaling will be open to cheat-
collapse of the International Whaling Commission. The ing, given the demand for whale meat in Japan. DNA
IWC ban was intended to allow numbers to recover; this tests reveal that Japan’s “scientific whaling” has resulted
temporary measure has served its purpose. If prohibition in scarce species being taken and consumed. Japan and
continues and the IWC becomes more concerned with Norway could leave the IWC but this would provoke an
moral positions than whaling management, Japan and international outcry and possibly sanctions, so it is not
Norway may leave the organization. Nothing in interna- in their best interests to do so.
tional law prevents them from resuming whaling outside
the IWC. Thus, whaling will again be unregulated, with
more whales dying and perhaps greater cruelty.
Sample Motions:
This House would allow whaling to resume.
This House would harvest the bounty of the sea.
This House would save the whale.
Web Links:
• The International Whaling Commission. <http://www.iwcoffice.org> Links to information on the organization as well as to
information on conservation efforts and scientific research on whales, dolphins, and porpoises.
• ODIN. <http://odin.dep.no/odin/engelsk/norway/environment/032001-990108/> Norwegian Foreign Ministry site with infor-
mation on that country’s decision to resume some whaling.
• Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society. <http://www.wdcs.org/> Provides information on the status of whales, dolphins, and
porpoises as well as efforts to protect them.
Further Reading:
Friedheim, Robert L., ed. Toward a Sustainable Whaling Regime. University of Washington Press, 2001.
Gillespie, Alexander. Whaling Diplomacy: Defining Issues in International Environmental Law. Edward Elgar, 2005.
Heazle, Michael. Scientific Uncertainty and the Politics of Whaling. University of Washington Press, 2006.

|231

WOMEN IN COMBAT
While the roles of woman in the military have expanded, the United States still bars female personnel from ground combat. Feminists
have long fought this policy, considering it to be discriminatory, but the Defense Department has refused to lift its ban on women in
combat units or in support units that co-locate with combat units. The war in Iraq has raised the issue again. Internal army memos
have recommended permitting women in support units in light of troop shortages that make sustaining all-male units difficult. Never-
theless, President Bush has said that he has no intention of sending women into ground combat.
PROS CONS
This position upholds equality between the sexes. As Women are equal to men in the armed forces, but they
long as an applicant is qualified for a position, gender are not the same as men. While the vast proportion of
should not matter. Critics often mention that women jobs in the military is open to both men and women,
cannot meet the performance targets set for their posi- some are just not physically suitable for women. Some
tions. This is rank hypocrisy. The US army regularly women are able to meet the physical requirements for
calibrates performance targets for age and position. A front-line combat, such as carrying a wounded soldier,
40-year-old senior noncommissioned officer faces a throwing grenades, or digging a trench in hard terrain,
much easier set of targets than his 20-year-old subordi- but most are not. One expert estimate put the number
nate, yet both are deployed in active combat. The 20- of physically qualified female candidates at 200 a year.
year-old woman will outperform her NCO in physi- These could be integrated into combat units, but their
cal tests. Recruiting and deploying women who are in small number does not make the additional logistical,
better shape than many men we send into combat is regulatory, and disciplinary costs associated with integra-
easy. In any case, in modern high-technology battle- tion worthwhile.
fields, technical expertise and decision-making skills
are more valuable than simple brute strength.
Allowing a mixed gender force keeps the military Men, especially those likely to enlist, maintain tradi-
strong. The all-volunteer force is severely troubled tional gender roles. On the one hand, they will prob-
by falling retention and recruitment rates. Widening ably resent the introduction of women into a heavily
the applicant pool for all jobs guarantees more will- masculine military subculture. (As we have seen, as more
ing recruits. Not only does it help military readiness, it women enter the armed services, abuse incidents rise.
forestalls the calamity of a military draft. Without the At the three US service academies, one in seven women
possibility of serving in combat, many patriotic women reports being sexually assaulted, and fully half have
will not want to enlist because they know they will be been sexually harassed.) On the other, men are likely to
regarded as second-class soldiers. Because combat duty act foolishly to protect women in their combat units.
is usually required for promotion to the most senior Both attitudes create tensions and affect morale, and so
ranks, denying female personnel the possibility of such weaken the military in combat situations.
duty ensures that very few will ever reach the highest
ranks and so further entrenches sexism.
Some studies have shown that women can perform as Much has been made of integration’s effect on morale
well as, if not better, than men in combat. The Israe- and readiness. Having women in combat units weak-
lis make frequent use of women as snipers. The Rand ens the will to fight. Combat is a team activity. Soldiers
Corporation studied increased deployment of women under fire must have confidence in their comrades’
in all three branches of the US military throughout the abilities, and women don’t have the mental and physical
1990s. It wholeheartedly endorsed further integration, toughness to perform combat duties. They cannot con-
having found no ill effects from expanding the roles of tribute equally to the team. Their presence undermines
women in the different services over that period. the team’s effectiveness.
Of the more than 20 nations that permit women in The threat of abuse of women prisoners is also a seri-
positions where they might see combat, none has ous one. Male prisoners also contend with the threat of
reversed that decision. Regardless of whether women torture and rape, but misogynistic societies will be more

PROS CONS
are as well suited to combat as men, they are clearly willing to abuse woman prisoners. The threat of female
good enough for many countries to rely on them. prisoners of war being abused may adversely affect the
way in which their captured male comrades react to
interrogation. And in a media age, the use of captured
female soldiers in propaganda broadcasts may weaken
the nation’s determination and commitment to the war
effort.
This debate is becoming purely academic. We are The fact that the character of war is changing is irrel-
now fighting in what the military calls “Low Intensity evant. We should not purposely put women in combat
Conflicts (LICs)” in which there is no front line, so situations. Moreover, the public’s support for women in
the distinction between combat and noncombat posi- combat is not clear. Another poll taken during the same
tions and units is increasingly moot. Americans have period as the one the proposition has cited indicates that
shown broad support for women serving in the armed while American’s favor having women serve in support
forces—a 2005 poll revealed that more than 60% favor jobs that often put them in or near combat, a majority
allowing women to participate in combat. oppose women serving as ground troops.
Women are vitally needed for Low-Intensity Conflicts. Women can perform the tasks the proposition describes
LICs require tasks to “win hearts and minds” such as without going into combat. As we have seen in Iraq, the
intelligence gathering, medical assistance, policing, and army does not teach combat troops the skills needed to
mediation, as well as the ability to kill an opponent in win hearts and minds. Obviously, we need more soldiers
close combat. Cultural differences and demographics who can win hearts and minds, but these troops do not
enable woman to be vastly more effective in some cir- need combat skills. And the suggestion that conservative
cumstances than men. For example, conservative pop- societies may be more willing to accept female soldiers in
ulations would be outraged if male soldiers searched certain situations is absurd. Conservative Muslim societ-
women; they would be more accepting of female sol- ies do not believe that women should have roles beyond
diers performing this task. Allowing women to serve the home, so they are not going to be comfortable with
also doubles the talent pool for delicate and sensitive female soldiers under any circumstances
jobs that require interpersonal skills not every soldier
has. Having a wider personnel base allows militaries to
have the best and most diplomatic soldiers working to
end conflict quickly.
Sample Motions:
This House believes that women should be allowed to serve in ground combat units.
This House would allow women to serve on the front line.
This House calls for equality in the military.
This House believes female soldiers should not receive special treatment.
Web Links:
• Center for Defense Information. <http://www.cdi.org/issues/women/combat.html> Article summarizing the pros and cons of
women in combat.
• Center for Military Readiness. <http://www.cmrlink.org/womenincombat.asp> Links to articles and resources on women in
combat.
• LewRockwell.com. <http://www.lewrockwell.com/orig3/kirkwood3.html> Article opposing women in combat written by a for-
mer member of the Presidential Commission on the Assignment of Women in the Armed Forces.
Further Reading:
Fenner, Lorry, and Marie deYoung. Women in Combat: Civic Duty or Military Liability? Georgetown University Press, 2006.
Gutmann, Stephanie. The Kinder, Gentler Military: How Political Correctness Affects Our Ability to Win Wars. Encounter Books, 2001.
Worth, Richard. Women in Combat: The Battle for Equality. Enslow, 1999.
|233

ZERO TOLERANCE POLICING
Zero tolerance policing aims at stopping serious crime by clamping down on all types of disorder, including minor misdemeanors such
as spray painting graffiti. It mandates set responses by the police to particular crimes, although the courts still maintain discretion in
sentencing criminals. Adherents of this policy believe in the “broken windows” theory, which postulates that quality-of-life crimes, like
littering or graffiti writing, prompt “respectable” citizens to leave communities, which then fall into decline. They also emphasize that
most serious criminals begin their careers with minor crimes. By punishing minor crimes, zero tolerance policing prevents future crimes
and, in the process, stops neighborhood decline.
PROS CONS
Zero tolerance policing provides a powerful deterrent Minor offenders, gang members, and the poor are very
to criminals for three reasons. First, it is accompanied unlikely to be aware of the punishments for their crimes,
by a greater police presence. Research shows a direct so the threat of punishment has little effect on them.
link between the perceived chance of detection and Many crimes are a result of poverty and drugs and can
crime rates. Second, strict and certain punishment be reduced only by structural changes to the society, not
deters criminals. Third, it provides the “short, sharp by threatening punishment. The idea of a “short, sharp
shock” that stops petty criminals from escalating their shock” is unconvincing. Labeling people criminals at an
criminal behavior. It gives a clear message that crime is early age causes them to perceive themselves as such. This
not tolerated. leads petty criminals to commit more serious offenses.
Zero tolerance policing is extremely effective against Arresting small-scale pushers and users targets the vic-
small-scale drug pushers whose presence in a neighbor- tims to stop the crime. As well as being unfair, it is inef-
hood creates an atmosphere in which crime flourishes. fective. As long as there is a demand for drugs, there
Drug use is a major cause of crime because addicts usu- will be drug dealing. Demand can be stopped only by
ally steal to support their habit. rehabilitation.
Zero tolerance also allows for rehabilitation. A prison Prison sentences contribute to repeat offenses. Prisons
sentence, particularly for juveniles, takes them away from should have a rehabilitative role, but they don’t. Juveniles
the environment that encouraged criminality. Rehabili- with criminal records have difficulty finding jobs, and so
tation is a central tenet of most penal codes. The large are likely to resort to crime. In prison they meet estab-
number of police on the streets also increases the super- lished criminals who both encourage the lifestyle and
vision of released prisoners, preventing repeat offenses. teach the skills needed to be a successful criminal. Prison
often fosters resentment of the police. The harassment
that juveniles associate with zero tolerance also creates an
extremely antagonistic relationship with the police.
Zero tolerance improves the standard of policing. It Zero tolerance gives the police almost limitless power in
reduces corruption and racist treatment because individ- poor communities. They are able to stop and search and
ual officers are not given the scope to decide their actions harass individuals constantly. Usually ethnic minorities
on a case-by-case basis. Their response is set. In addition, are targeted. New York City saw a tremendous growth
zero tolerance policing takes officers out of their cars and in complaints about police racism and harassment after
puts them into the community where they have contact zero tolerance was instituted.
with individuals. Chases and shootouts actually are less
common under zero tolerance.
Zero tolerance is vital for rebuilding inner cities. Zero Rebuilding inner city neighborhoods is one of the most
tolerance reduces the amount of dead ground used for powerful ways of targeting crime, and it occurs inde-
drug dealing and so returns parks and open spaces to the pendent of zero tolerance. For every city where urban
community. By offering protection against petty crime, renewal and zero tolerance have together been associ-

PROS CONS
it encourages small businesses (vital for neighborhood ated with a falling crime rate (New York City), there
rehabilitation) to return to an area. is an area where renewal has worked on its own (Hong
Kong). Most important for urban renewal is individu-
als taking pride in their area. This is far more likely to
happen when people don’t feel persecuted by the police.
No police presence is sufficient to defend a business that
has not cultivated good relations with the community.
We can afford zero tolerance. Protecting businesses and The enormous expense of zero tolerance in money, man-
developing a reputation for low crime attracts both power, and prisons limits policing. It leaves little money
people and investment. Deterrence reduces crime and for addressing serious crime. So, although total crime
thus the cost of policing; although prisons are expensive, rates may drop, serious crimes may still be a problem.
the reduction in recidivism should empty them in time.
The most important question is whether we believe
spending our tax dollars to guarantee our safety is a good
use of that revenue. Most voters say yes.
Sample Motions:
This House believes in zero tolerance policing.
This House would clamp down.
This House believes in strict punishment.
Web Links:
• What Is Zero Tolerance? < http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/182553.stm> BBC site offering general information on the subject.
Further Reading:
Ayers, Rick, et al., eds. Zero Tolerance, Resisting the Drive for Punishment. New Press, 2001.
Dennis, Norman, and Norman Davis, eds. Zero Tolerance, Policing a Free Society. Coronet, 1998.
Downes, David M., and Paul E. Rock. Understanding Deviance: A Guide to the Sociology of Crime and Rule Breaking. Clarendon,
1988.

|235

• Topical Index
ARTS AND CULTURE
American Culture: Should it Be Feared? 36
Art Subsidies, Abolition of 41
Cultural Treasures, Return of 76
CHILDREN AND YOUTH

Advertising, Targeting of Children 28
Child Labor 57
Child Offenders, Stricter Punishment for 58
Curfew Laws 78
Gay Adoption 106
School Vouchers 202
CRIME AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE

Corporal Punishment: Adults 67
Curfew Laws 78
DNA Database for Criminals 84
Mandatory Sentencing: Three Strikes 160
Sex Offenders: Publicly Naming 206
Zero Tolerance Policing 234
DEVELOPING WORLD
Child Labor 57
Failed States, Intervention to Prevent 99
Ivory Trading 155
Sudan: Increased Military Presence in 215

ECOLOGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Animal Rights 37
Biodiversity and Endangered Species 47
Drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge 86
Global Warming 118
Greenhouse Gases: Trading Quotas 122
Ivory Trading 155
Whaling, Lifting the Ban on 229
ECONOMICS
Free Trade and Development 105
EDUCATION
Creationism in Public Schools 72
Home Schooling 129
School Uniforms 201
School Vouchers 202
EUROPE AND THE EUROPEAN UNION

Russia: Strong Leadership vs. Democracy 198
FAMILY
Gay Adoption 106
Gay Marriage 109
Home Schooling 129
Human Cloning 131
Polygamy 184
|237

GAY ISSUES
Gay Adoption 106
Gay Clergy 107
Gay Marriage 109
HEALTH AND MEDICINE

Assisted Suicide 45
Gene Patenting 112
Genetically Modified Food 113
Health Care, Universal 126
Human Cloning 131
Vegetarianism 222
INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
China, Fear of 62
Failed States, US Intervention to Prevent Collapse of 99
Iran’s Right to Possess Nuclear Weapons 145
Just War 156
Preventive War 187
Sudan, Increased Military Presence in 215
MILITARY
Preventive War 187
Women in Combat 232
POLITICS AND POLITICAL THEORY

Assassination of a Dictator 43
Campaign Finance Reform 50
Civil Disobedience 64
Conscription and National Service 66
Electoral College, Abolition of 94

Foreign-Born Presidents 102
Just War 156
Pacifism 178
Politicians and Special Interests 183
Preventive War 187
Two-Party System 218
RELIGION AND MORALITY

Assisted Suicide 45
Gay Clergy 107
Gay Marriage 109
God, Existence of 121
Human Cloning 131
Just War 156
Priestly Celibacy, Abolition of 189
Religion: Source of Conflict or Peace? 195
Religious Belief: Rational or Irrational? 197
Vegetarianism 222
RIGHTS AND LIBERTIES

Animal Rights 37
Free Speech, Restrictions on 103
Privacy vs. Security 190
Warrantless Wiretapping 225
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

Gene Patenting 112
Human Cloning 131
Space Exploration 211
SOCIAL ISSUES
Affirmative Action 30
Alcohol, Banning of 34
Topical index |239

Assisted Suicide 45
Cell Phones, Banning of Use in Cars 53
Gay Adoption 106
Gay Marriage 109
Gun Control 124
Marijuana: Legalization of 162
Prostitution, Legalization of 192
Rebuilding After Disasters, Government Role in 194
SPORTS
Boxing, Abolition of 49
Drug in Sports 88
UNITED NATIONS
United Nations: A Failure? 220
UNITED STATES IN THE WORLD

Just War 156
Preventive War 187
Torture in Interrogation 217
WOMEN
Advertising, Image of Women in 27
Women in Combat 232

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THE DEBATABASE BOOK

A Must-Have Guide for Successful Debate

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THE EDITORS OF IDEA

International Debate Education Association

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international debate education association

Copyright © 2007 by international D ebate Education Association

The topics and arguments included in The Debatabase Book rep-

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The debatabase book : a must-have guide for successful

Design by Hernán Bonomo

IDEA Press Books

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Topical Index 236

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Structure of an Argument Convergent Arguments

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ADVERTISING, TARGETING OF CHILDREN

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